USA Folder, US Capital, Washington, D.C., America.kmz

USA Folder, US Capital, Washington, D.C., America

Potomac River Source (Fairfax Stone, North Branch Source)
Fairfax Stone

United States of America (USA)
United States; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII, (28 NOV 1864) ; Glorification of St Tikhon, the Apostle to America; FRANCIS ASBURY, Evangelist, 1816; William Lloyd Garrison of WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON AND MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESSES, 1879, Commemorated December 17 ; RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, Commemorated January 16 ; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1947, Commemorated March 12 ; John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 ; Appearance of the Tikhvin Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on June 26; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; INDEPENDENCE DAY, (United States of America) (4 JULY 1776);

Washington, DC, US Capital
US Capital, Washington, DC; THE RIGHTEOUS GENTILES, Raoul Wallenberg and Carl Lutz, Commemorated July 16 ; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898); SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Maria Steward of WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON AND MARIA STEWART PROPHETIC WITESSES, 1879 Commemorated December 17 ; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893) ; ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER, Educator (1964), Commemorated Febraury 28 ; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911), Commemorated November 8 ; CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 18; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13 ; Saint John [Maximovitch], Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, Commemorated on July 2;

US, 1732-1778, Rousseau, modern thought, Facist, Nazi, Marxist, progressive
Switzerland, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive; Rousseau; 28 June 1712 - 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the development of modern political, economic and educational thought.[1] Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. Rousseau's sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise (1761) was important to the development of preromanticism and romanticism in fiction.[2][3] His Emile, or On Education (1762) is an educational treatise on the place of the individual in society. Rousseau's autobiographical writings—the posthumously published Confessions (composed in 1769), which initiated the modern autobiography, and the unfinished Reveries of the Solitary Walker (composed 1776–1778)—exemplified the late-18th-century "Age of Sensibility", and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern writing. befriended fellow philosopher Denis Diderot in 1742, and would later write about Diderot's romantic troubles in his Confessions. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophers among members of the Jacobin Club. He was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, 16 years after his death. Absolved From Being Good-Mannered: The Romantic Totalitarianism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, May 20, 2021 ;

America (United States)
America (United States); Repose of St Nikolai of Zhicha, Commemorated on March 18;

US History, Before the Presidents

United States - 13 Colonies North America area, New England

US, 1611-1643, ANNE HUTCHINSON, fBoston, pioneer 3 states, unauthorized minister, theology offended leaders, banished
US, 1611-1643, ANNE HUTCHINSON, fBoston, MA (Boston Harbor, Charles River Mouth), pioneer settler in 3 states, MA, RI, NY (then called New Netherlands), unauthorized minister, Bible meetings for men and women, her own theological interpretations of sermons, some offended leaders, major controversy, trial, banished from colony, predetermined trial, defended self skillfully, cornered, she judged the court, no power, for this verdict God will ruine you and your posterity, and this whole state; Roger Williams of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; Hutchinson (baptized July 20, 1591 – August 20, 1643) a pioneer settler in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New Netherlands, the unauthorized minister of a dissident church discussion group. held Bible meetings for women that soon had great appeal to men as well. she went beyond Bible study to proclaim her own theological interpretations of sermons, of which offended the colony leadership. major controversy ensued, after a trial before a jury of officials and clergy in 1638, she was banished from her colony. the trial, Hutchinson skillfully defended herself until it was clear that there was no escape from the court’s predetermined judgment. she addressed the court with her own judgment: “...you have no power over my body, neither can you do me any harme, for I am in the hands of the eternall Jehovah my Saviour, I am at his appointment, the bounds of my habitation are cast in heaven, no further doe I esteeme of any mortal man than creatures in his hand, feare none but the great Jehovah, which hath foretold me of these things, and I doe verily beleeve that he will deliver me out of our hands, take heed how you proceed against me; for I know that for this you goe about to doe to me, God will ruine you and your posterity, and this whole state.” is a key figure in the study of the development of religious freedom in England's American colonies and the history of women in ministry. state of Massachusetts honors her with a State House monument calling her a "courageous exponent of civil liberty and religious toleration." — more from Wikipedia

US, 1611-1643, ANNE HUTCHINSON, Massachusetts Bay, Puritan spiritual advisor, banished to Rhode Island & Bronx, New Netherlands
US, 1611-1643, ANNE HUTCHINSON, fBoston, MA (Boston Harbor, Charles River Mouth), pioneer settler in 3 states, MA, RI, NY (then called New Netherlands), unauthorized minister, Bible meetings for men and women, her own theological interpretations of sermons, some offended leaders, major controversy, trial, banished from colony, predetermined trial, defended self skillfully, cornered, she judged the court, no power, for this verdict God will ruine you and your posterity, and this whole state; Roger Williams of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; Hutchinson (baptized July 20, 1591 – August 20, 1643) a pioneer settler in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New Netherlands, the unauthorized minister of a dissident church discussion group. held Bible meetings for women that soon had great appeal to men as well. she went beyond Bible study to proclaim her own theological interpretations of sermons, of which offended the colony leadership. major controversy ensued, after a trial before a jury of officials and clergy in 1638, she was banished from her colony. the trial, Hutchinson skillfully defended herself until it was clear that there was no escape from the court’s predetermined judgment. she addressed the court with her own judgment: “...you have no power over my body, neither can you do me any harme, for I am in the hands of the eternall Jehovah my Saviour, I am at his appointment, the bounds of my habitation are cast in heaven, no further doe I esteeme of any mortal man than creatures in his hand, feare none but the great Jehovah, which hath foretold me of these things, and I doe verily beleeve that he will deliver me out of our hands, take heed how you proceed against me; for I know that for this you goe about to doe to me, God will ruine you and your posterity, and this whole state.” is a key figure in the study of the development of religious freedom in England's American colonies and the history of women in ministry. state of Massachusetts honors her with a State House monument calling her a "courageous exponent of civil liberty and religious toleration." — more from Wikipedia

US, 1623-1683, ROGER WILLIAMS, Rhode Island, religious toleration, separation oChurch&State, fair with Native Americans
US, 1623-1683, ROGER WILLIAMS, Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, English theologian, religious toleration proponent, including separation of Church and State, and fair dealings with Native Americans, 1644 received Charter creating Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, named for principal Island in Narrgansett Bay and Providence Plantation (a refuge for religious minorities), first table commandments not punished by magistrate (idolitry, sabbath breaking, false worship, blasphemy), and freedom of religion, first idea- magistrate not punish religious infractions, so, civil authority not same as religious authority, second idea- freedom of religious opinion (First Amendment US Constitution), first use of term "Wall of Separation", wrote study of American Native Language, wrote defending absolute liberty of conscience "The Bloody Tenent of Persecution, for Cause of Conscience"; Narragansett Bay; Roger Williams of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; Williams (December 21, 1603 – April 18, 1683) an English theologian, a notable proponent of religious toleration and the separation of church and state and an advocate for fair dealings with Native Americans. 1644, he received a charter creating the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, for the principal island in Narragansett Bay and the Providence settlement which provided a refuge for religious minorities. is credited for originating either the first or second Baptist church established in America, he is known to have left soon afterwards, exclaiming, "God is too large to be housed under one roof." asserted that the magistrate may not punish any sort of "breach of the first table [of the Ten Commandments]," such as idolatry, Sabbath-breaking, false worship, and blasphemy, that every individual should be free to follow his own convictions in religious matters. first idea—that the magistrate should not punish religious infractions—meant that the civil authority should not be the same as the ecclesiastical authority. second idea—that people should have freedom of opinion on religious matters—he called "soul-liberty." It is one of the foundations for the religion clauses of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. use of the phrase "wall of separation" in describing his preferred relationship between religion and other matters is credited as the first use of that phrase, and Thomas Jefferson's source in later writing of the wall of separation between church and state in a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association in 1802. career as an author began with A Key into the Language of America (London, 1643), written during his first voyage to England. It is the first study of an Indian language in English. Bloody Tenent of Persecution, for Cause of Conscience soon followed (London, 1644). is his most famous work, and was the ablest statement and defense of the principle of absolute liberty of conscience that had appeared in any language. It is in the form of a dialogue between Truth and Peace, and well illustrates the vigor of his style. — more from Wikipedia

US, 1682-1742, Elie Neau, French Huguenot, Anglican, and American Catechist school for slaves and indians in New York
France, 1682-1742, Elie Neau, French Huguenot, Anglican, and American Catechist school for slaves and indians in New York ; ELIE NAUD, (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722; most effective work of the Society [for the Propogation of the Gospel] among Negroes of the Northern colonies was accomplished in New York. that colony, the instruction of the Negro and Indian slaves to prepare them for conversion, baptism, and communion was a primary charge oft repeated to every missionary and schoolmaster of the Society. addition to the general efforts put forth in the colonies, there was in New York a special provision for the employment of sixteen clergymen and thirteen lay teachers mainly for the evangelization of the slaves and the free Indians. the Negro slaves a catechizing school was opened in New York City in 1704 under the charge of Elias Neau. benevolent man, after several years’ imprisonment because of his Protestant faith, had come to New York to try his fortunes as a trader. early as 1703 he called the attention of the Society to the great number, of slaves in New York “who were without God in the world, and of whose souls there was no manner of care taken” and proposed the appointment of a catechist to undertake their instruction. himself finally being prevailed upon to accept this position, obtained a license from the Governor, resigned his position as elder in the French church [Église du Saint Esprit] and conformed to the Established Church of England, “not upon any worldly account but through a principle of conscience and hearty approbation of the English liturgy.” He was later licensed by the Bishop of London. ’s task was not an easy one. At first he went from house to house, but afterwards arranged for some of the slaves to attend him. succeeded, however, in obtaining gratifying results. He was commended to the Society by Rev. Mr. Vesey in 1706 as a “constant communicant of our church, and a most zealous and prudent servant of Christ, in proselyting the miserable Negroes and Indians among them to the Christian Religion, whereby he does great service to God and his church.” confidence in him was attested by an act of the Society in preparing at his request “a Bill to be offered to Parliament for the more effectual Conversion of the Negro and other Servants in the Plantations, to compell Owners of Slaves to cause children to be baptized within 3 months after their birth and to permit them when come to years of discretion to be instructed in the Christian Religion on our Lord’s day by the Missionaries under whose ministry they live.” ’s school suffered greatly in 1712 because of the prejudice engendered by the declaration that instruction was the main cause of the Negro riot in that city. some days Neau dared not show himself, so bitter was the feeling of the masters. Upon being assured, however, that only one Negro connected with the school had participated in the affair and that the most criminal belonged to the masters who were openly opposed to educating them, the institution was permitted to continue its endeavors, and the Governor extended to it his protection and recommended that masters have their slaves instructed. Neau had still to complain thereafter of the struggle and opposition of the generality of the inhabitants, who were strongly prejudiced with a horrid motive thinking that Christian knowledge “would be a means to make the slave more cunning and apter to wickedness.” so long thereafter, however, the support of the best people and officials of the community made his task easier. Neau could say in 1714 that “if the slaves and domestics in New York were not instructed it was not his fault.” Governor, the Council, Mayor, the Recorder and the Chief Justice informed the Society that Neau had performed his work “to the great advancement of religion in general and the particular benefit of the free Indians, Negro slaves, and other Heathens in those parts, with indefatigable zeal and application.” Elias Neau signature Neau died in 1722. His work was carried on by Mr. Huddlestone, Rev. Mr. Whitmore, Rev. Mr. Colgan, Rev. R. Charlton, and Rev. S. Auchmutty. See also his biography from Holy Women, Holy Men. Elias Neau; Neau (1662 – 7 September 1722), born Élie Neau, in Moëze, Saintonge, was a French Huguenot. the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, he fled first to the French colony of Saint-Domingue, to Boston, where he became a prosperous merchant. 1692, he was captured by a French privateer near Jamaica, and for being a fugitive Protestant, was first sentenced to a life sentence as a galley slave, then imprisoned in Marseille.[1 He was released in 1697, following the intercession of King William III, whose ministers argued that Neau was an English subject.[1] [2] back in North America, Neau's story made him "probably the most famous refugee in British America at the time" because his refusal to gain his freedom by converting to Catholicism attracted "a wide Protestant readership in both French and English."[3][4] 1704, Neau cut his ties with the French Protestant church in New York and converted to Anglicanism. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel then appointed him as minister to black slaves in North America, and he established the first school open to African-Americans in New York City.[5][6] 1706, he secured passage of a bill in New York allowing slaves to be catechized.[7][8] Episcopal Church commemorates him as a "witness to the faith" on September 7.

US, 1696, THOMAS BRAY tMaryland in 1696, only 10 weeks, education, exams, slave&indian rights, prison reforms, debtors colony
US, 1696, THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY, tMaryland in 1696, only 10 weeks, radically renewed Church there, child instruction, systematic pastoral examination, 39 lending libraries in Maryland and England, wrote preached slaves rights and Indian land rights, English prison reforms, prison preaching missions, persuaded Gen Oglethorpe found Georgia Colony for debtors, founded both Society fPropogation otGospel (SPG) and educational publishing society, and SPCK (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge), both still active; Maryland; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); in 1696 Thomas Bray, an English country parson, was commissioned to report on the condition of the Church in the colony of Maryland. spent only ten weeks in the colony, he radically re-organized and renewed the Church there, for the instruction of children the systematic examination of candidates for pastoral positions. founded thirty-nine lending libraries and numerous schools. in Maryland and upon his return to England, wrote and preached in defense of the rights of enslaved Africans, of Indians deprived of their land. in England, he worked for the reform of prison conditions, for the establishment of preaching missions to prisoners. persuaded General Oglethorpe to found a American colony (Georgia) for the settlement of debtors as an alternative to debtors' prison. founded a missionary society, the SPG (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel) an educational and publishing society, SPCK (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge), of which are still active today. by James Kiefer

Mississippi River Folder, 1673

Mississippi River

Mississippi River Route

Mississippi River Source (Lake Itaska, MN)

Mississippi River 1 (Crow Wing and Fort Ripley, MN)

Mississippi River 2 (Minneapolis and Saint Paul, MN)

Mississippi River 3 (La Crosse, WI)

Mississippi River 4 (Dubuque, IA)

Mississippi River 5 (Quad Cities, IA & IL)

Mississippi River 6 (Des Moines, IA and Hannibal, MO)

Mississippi River 7 (St. Louis, MO)

Mississippi River 8 (Cape Girardeau, MO)

Mississippi River 9 (Memphis, TN)

Mississippi River 10 (Little Rock, AR)

Mississippi River 11 (Jackson, MS)

Mississippi River 12 (Natches, MS)

Mississippi River 13 (Baton Rouge, LA)

Mississippi River 14 (New Orleans, LA)

Mississippi River Mouth (M. Delta, Gulf of Mexico)

US, 1712, New York Slave Riot, 1712, Maiden Lane and Broadway
New York Slave Riot, 1712, Maiden Lane and Broadway; New York Slave Revolt of 1712 was an uprising in New York City, in the Province of New York, of 23 enslaved Africans. They killed nine whites and injured another six before they were stopped. More than three times that number of black people, 70, were arrested and jailed. Of these, 27 were put on trial, and 21 convicted and executed. the early 18th century, New York City had one of the largest enslaved populations of any of the settlements in the Thirteen Colonies. Slavery in the city differed from some of the other colonies because there were no plantations producing cash crops. Slaves worked as domestic servants, artisans, dock workers, and various skilled laborers.[1] Enslaved Africans lived near each other, making communication easy. They also often worked among free black people, a situation that did not exist on most Southern plantations. Slaves in the city could communicate and plan a conspiracy more easily than among those on plantations.[2] the seizure of New Netherland in 1667 and it's incorporation into the Province of New York, the rights of the Free Negro social group were gradually eroded. In 1702, the first of the New York slave codes were passed, which further limited the rights enjoyed by the African community in New York; many of these legal rights, such as the right to own land and marry, were granted during the Dutch colonial period.[3] On December 13, 1711, the New York City Common Council established the city's first slave market near Wall Street for the sale and rental of enslaved Africans and Native Americans.[4][5] the early 1700s, about 20 percent of the population were enslaved black people. The colonial government in New York restricted this group through several measures: requiring slaves to carry a pass if traveling more than a mile (1.6 km) from home; discouraging marriage among them; prohibiting gatherings in groups of more than three persons; and requiring them to sit in separate galleries at church services.[6] group of more than twenty black slaves gathered on the night of April 6, 1712, and set fire to a building on Maiden Lane near Broadway.[2] While the white colonists tried to put out the fire, the enslaved blacks, armed with guns, hatchets, and swords, attacked the whites then ran off. Almost immediately all runaway slaves were captured and returned to their owners.[7] forces arrested seventy blacks and jailed them. Six are reported to have committed suicide. Twenty-seven were put on trial, 21 of whom were convicted and sentenced to death, including one woman with child.[7] Twenty were burned to death and one was executed on a breaking wheel.[8][citation needed] the revolt, the city and colony passed more restrictive laws governing black and Indian slaves. Slaves were not permitted to gather in groups of more than three, they were not permitted to carry firearms, and gambling was outlawed. Crimes of property damage, rape, and conspiracy to kill qualified for the death penalty. Free blacks were still allowed to own land, however. Anthony Portuguese (alternately spelled Portugies),[3] owned land that makes up a portion of present-day Washington Square Park; this continued to be owned by his daughter and grandchildren.[9] colony required slave owners who wanted to free their slaves to pay a tax of £200 per person, then an amount much higher than the cost of a slave. In 1715 Governor Robert Hunter argued in London before the Lords of Trade that manumission and the chance for a slave to inherit part of a master's wealth was important to maintain in New York. He said that this was a proper reward for a slave who had helped a master earn a lifetime's fortune, and that it could keep the slave from descending into despair.[7] ELIE NAUD, (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722, Commemoratedd 7 September; most effective work of the Society [for the Propogation of the Gospel] among Negroes of the Northern colonies was accomplished in New York. In that colony, the instruction of the Negro and Indian slaves to prepare them for conversion, baptism, and communion was a primary charge oft repeated to every missionary and schoolmaster of the Society. In addition to the general efforts put forth in the colonies, there was in New York a special provision for the employment of sixteen clergymen and thirteen lay teachers mainly for the evangelization of the slaves and the free Indians. For the Negro slaves a catechizing school was opened in New York City in 1704 under the charge of Elias Neau. This benevolent man, after several years’ imprisonment because of his Protestant faith, had come to New York to try his fortunes as a trader. As early as 1703 he called the attention of the Society to the great number, of slaves in New York “who were without God in the world, and of whose souls there was no manner of care taken” and proposed the appointment of a catechist to undertake their instruction. He himself finally being prevailed upon to accept this position, obtained a license from the Governor, resigned his position as elder in the French church [Église du Saint Esprit] and conformed to the Established Church of England, “not upon any worldly account but through a principle of conscience and hearty approbation of the English liturgy.” He was later licensed by the Bishop of London. Neau’s task was not an easy one. At first he went from house to house, but afterwards arranged for some of the slaves to attend him. He succeeded, however, in obtaining gratifying results. He was commended to the Society by Rev. Mr. Vesey in 1706 as a “constant communicant of our church, and a most zealous and prudent servant of Christ, in proselyting the miserable Negroes and Indians among them to the Christian Religion, whereby he does great service to God and his church.” Further confidence in him was attested by an act of the Society in preparing at his request “a Bill to be offered to Parliament for the more effectual Conversion of the Negro and other Servants in the Plantations, to compell Owners of Slaves to cause children to be baptized within 3 months after their birth and to permit them when come to years of discretion to be instructed in the Christian Religion on our Lord’s day by the Missionaries under whose ministry they live.” Neau’s school suffered greatly in 1712 because of the prejudice engendered by the declaration that instruction was the main cause of the Negro riot in that city. For some days Neau dared not show himself, so bitter was the feeling of the masters. Upon being assured, however, that only one Negro connected with the school had participated in the affair and that the most criminal belonged to the masters who were openly opposed to educating them, the institution was permitted to continue its endeavors, and the Governor extended to it his protection and recommended that masters have their slaves instructed. Yet Neau had still to complain thereafter of the struggle and opposition of the generality of the inhabitants, who were strongly prejudiced with a horrid motive thinking that Christian knowledge “would be a means to make the slave more cunning and apter to wickedness.” Not so long thereafter, however, the support of the best people and officials of the community made his task easier. Neau could say in 1714 that “if the slaves and domestics in New York were not instructed it was not his fault.” The Governor, the Council, Mayor, the Recorder and the Chief Justice informed the Society that Neau had performed his work “to the great advancement of religion in general and the particular benefit of the free Indians, Negro slaves, and other Heathens in those parts, with indefatigable zeal and application.” Elias Neau signature Neau died in 1722. His work was carried on by Mr. Huddlestone, Rev. Mr. Whitmore, Rev. Mr. Colgan, Rev. R. Charlton, and Rev. S. Auchmutty.

US, 1716-1760, CONRAD WEISER, German PA pioneer, interpreter and Native American diplomat, lived w Iroquois at 16
Affstatt Village, Wurttemberg; CONRAD WEISER, WITNESS TO PEACE and RECONCILIATION, 1760, Commemorated July 13 ; Weiser (November 2, 1696 – July 13, 1760), born Johann Conrad Weiser, Jr., a German Pennsylvanian pioneer, interpreter and effective diplomat between the Pennsylvania Colony and Native Americans. was a farmer, soldier, monk, tanner, and judge as well. He contributed as an emissary in councils between Native Americans and the colonies, especially Pennsylvania, during the French and Indian War. Weiser was born in 1696 in the small village of Affstätt in the Duchy of Württemberg (now part of Germany). Conrad Weiser and his family were among thousands of refugees who left German lands in 1709, many of them from the Palatine area. Weiser family eventually ended up in the Schoharie Valley of New York. age 16, Conrad's father agreed to a chief's proposal for the youth to live with the Mohawks in the upper Schoharie Valley. his stay in the winter and spring of 1712-1713, Weiser learned much about the Mohawk language and the customs of the Iroquois, while enduring hardships of cold, hunger, and homesickness. Conrad Weiser returned to his own people towards the end of July 1713. November 22, 1720, at the age of 24, Weiser married the young German girl Anna Eve Feck (Faeg). 1723 the couple followed the Susquehanna River south out of New York and settled their young family on a farm in Tulpehocken near present-day Reading, Pennsylvania. couple had fourteen children, but only seven reached adulthood. colonial service began in 1731. Iroquois sent Shikellamy, an Oneida chief and friend of Weiser, as an emissary to other tribes and the British. Iroquois trusted him and considered him an adopted son of the Mohawks. impressed the Pennsylvania governor and council, which thereafter relied heavily on his services. signature the winter of 1737, Weiser attempted to broker a peace between southern tribes and the Iroquois. had to survive high snow, freezing temperatures and starvation rations just to make the six-week journey to the Iroquois capital of Onondaga (near persent-day Syracuse, NY). with his fortitude, the Iroquois named Weiser Tarachiawagon (Holder of the Heavens). violence from a war between the Iroquois and southern tribes such as the Catawba would have drawn first Virginia, and then Pennsylvania, into conflict with the Iroquois. this peace-brokering had a profound effect on Native American/colonial relations. his decades-long career, Weiser built on his knowledge of Native American languages and culture. was a key player in treaty negotiations, land purchases, and the formulation of Pennsylvania's policies towards Native Americans. of his early experiences with the Iroquois, Weiser was inclined to be sympathetic to their interpretation of events, as opposed to the Lenape or the Shawnees. may have exacerbated Pennsylvanian-Lenape/Shawnee relations, with bloody consequences in the French and Indian Wars. for many years, Weiser helped to keep the powerful Iroquois allied with the British as opposed to the French. important service contributed to the continued survival of the British colonies and the eventual victory of the British over the French in the French and Indian Wars. 1734 and 1741, Weiser became a follower of Conrad Beissel, a German Seventh Day Baptist preacher. six years, he lived at the monastic settlement, Ephrata Cloister, in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. was also teacher and a lay minister of the Lutheran Church; he was one of the founders of Trinity Church in Reading. died on his farm on July 13, 1760. his death, one Iroquois Indian noted to a group of colonists, "We are at a great loss and sit in darkness ... as since his death we cannot so well understand one another." shortly after Conrad Weiser's death, relations between the colonists and the Native Americans began a rapid decline. — more at Wikipedia and the Conrad Weiser Homestead State Park

US, 1731-1787, HENRY MUHLENBERG, organizer American Lutheranism, factionalism d, Free Church model from govt control m
Germany, 1731-1787, HENRY MUHLENBERG, Einbeck, Germany (Weser River 4), organizer of American Lutheranism, danger of factionalism, asking for pastor to take charge, transition to Free Church model from govt control model, famous sons ; Einbeck, Germany HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 178; Melchior Muhlenberg is the principal organizer of American Lutheranism. He was born in Einbeck, Germany, in 1711, studied at Goettingen and at Halle. in America at that time were found in a few scattered communities, of various national backgrounds, with no central organization, with a grave danger of factionalism. congregations wrote to Halle University, asking for a pastor to take charge. Francke, a Lutheran leader of the Pietist movement at Halle, chose Muhlenberg and sent him to America. arrived in Charleston on 23 September 1742. He was soon accorded widespread recognition by Lutheran churches, Swedish, and others, the senior Lutheran pastor in America. set the tone for the Lutheran community in what was to be the United States, almost all Lutheran Churches in America today use liturgies which are developed from the one that he proposed for American use. plans for local church government, to congregations that had been accustomed to a great deal of government control, the transition to the "free church" model, and form the basis for plans of local church government in American Lutheran churches today. of his sons, John Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg, served as a general under George Washington in the War of Independence. Another, Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenberg, became a member of the Continental Congress, and first speaker of the House of Representatives. A great-grandson, William Augustus Muhlenberg, became an eminent Anglican priest (see 8 April). Melchior Muhlenberg died 7 October 1787, is buried at Trappe, Pennsylvania. epitaph (in Latin) reads: "Who and what he was, future ages will know without a stone." by James Kiefer

US, 1734-1770, George Whitefield, Gloucester, England, US Methodist Episcopal Evangelist, Great Awakening & Slavery
US, 1734-1770, George Whitefield, Gloucester, England, US Methodist Episcopal Evangelist, fGloucester (Old Bell Inn), Pembrose College at Oxford, joined Holy Club there, wWesley brothers, then itinerant preacher&evangelist, 1740 tNorth America, series oGreat Awakening revivals, controversial methods, debates disputes wClergymen, preached 18,000 times, 10M listeners, drama, rhetoric, patriotism, theater actor, for re-enactments Bible Stories, Holy Club leader, cross-eyed vision, first sermon at home, 1738 tSavanah Georgia, Christ Church Parish Priest, Orphan House life's work, tEngland for funds&priest's orders, preached large congregations, Miners of Kingswood Bristol in open air, asked J Wesley take over Bristol, Kingswood&Blackheath, London, for Predestination, against Westley's Arminian Atonement, formed first Methodist conference, relinquished for evangelism, 3 Whitefield's Tabernacle churches wCountess Selina in Bristol, and London's Moorfields and Tottenham Court Rd, 1740 Bethesda Orphanage, Academy, Georgia, oldest charity in North America, , Gospel influence, wholesome, strong discipline, Trustees objected wrong method child discipline, praying crying all night, 1740 First Great Awakening revivals, Moravian Brethern fGeorgia to build Lehigh Valley Penn Orphanage for negro children, he dismissed them, they finished it, now Whitefield House, throughout colonies preaching every day large crowds for months, mostly New England, longest ride, like Johnathan Edwards preached moderate Calvinist theology, used print media, advancemen, audobiographical journals while away in England, William Seward wealthy publicist, large crowds in England 20-30K, plantation&slave owner, for funding orphanage, Westley's against slavery, God's providence a defense of slavery, Early Georgia slavery and Black people prohibited, Whitefield campaigned Black emigration, for their eternal salvation, Black slaves permitted 1751, his personal victory, Ben Franklin lifelong relationship, Whitfield Meeting House became UoPenn, statue removed in 2020, first to preach to slaves, visited America 7 times for 13 crossingst; England, , George Whitefield, Gloucester, England, US Methodist Episcopal Evangelist; Gloucester, England (on Wales border); George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15 ; Whitefield, also known as George Whitfield, (December 16, 1714 - September 30, 1770), an Anglican itinerant minister who helped spread the Great Awakening in Great Britain especially, in the British North American colonies. ministry had tremendous impact on American ideology. was a very influential figure in the establishment of Methodism. was famous for his preaching in America which was a significant part of an 18th century movement of Christian revivals, sometimes called "The Great Awakening." from Wikipedia. Whitefield (27 December [O.S. 16 December] 1714 - 30 September 1770), also known as George Whitfield, was an Anglican cleric and evangelist who was one of the founders of Methodism and the evangelical movement.[1][2] in Gloucester, he matriculated at Pembroke College at the University of Oxford in 1732. he joined the "Holy Club" and was introduced to the Wesley brothers, John and Charles, with whom he would work closely in his later ministry. was ordained after receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree. immediately began preaching, but he did not settle as the minister of any parish. Rather he became an itinerant preacher and evangelist. 1740, Whitefield traveled to North America, where he preached a series of revivals that became part of the "Great Awakening". His methods were controversial and he engaged in numerous debates and disputes with other clergymen. received widespread recognition during his ministry; he preached at least 18,000 times to perhaps 10 million listeners in Great Britain and her American colonies. could enthrall large audiences through a potent combination of drama, religious rhetoric, and patriotism.[3] life[edit] The Old Bell Inn, Southgate Street, Gloucester was born on 27 December [O.S. 16 December] 1714 at the Bell Inn, Southgate Street, Gloucester in England. was the fifth son (seventh and last child) of Thomas Whitefield and Elizabeth Edwards, who kept an inn at Gloucester.[4] an early age, he found that he had a passion and talent for acting in the theatre, passion that he would carry on with the very theatrical re-enactments of Bible stories he told during his sermons. was educated at The Crypt School, Gloucester,[5] and Pembroke College, Oxford.[6][7] father died when he was still young and he help his mother with the inn. business at the inn had diminished, Whitefield did not have the means to pay for his tuition.[8] therefore came up to the University of Oxford as a servitor, the lowest rank of undergraduates. free tuition, he acted as a servant to Fellows and Fellow-commoners; including teaching them in the morning, helping them bathe, cleaning their rooms, carrying their books, and assisting them with work.[8] was a part of the "Holy Club" at the University with the Wesley brothers, John and Charles. illness, as well as Henry Scougal's The Life of God in the Soul of Man, influenced him to turn to the Church. a religious conversion, he became passionate for preaching his new-found faith. The Bishop of Gloucester ordained him a deacon.[1] preached his first sermon at St Mary de Crypt Church[2] in his home town of Gloucester, a week after his ordination. He had earlier become the leader of the Holy Club at Oxford when the Wesley brothers departed for Georgia.[9] had cross-eyed (strabismus) vision. 1738 he went to Savannah, Georgia, in the American colonies, as parish priest of Christ Church. While there he decided that one of the great needs of the area was an orphan house. He decided this would be his life's work. returned to England to raise funds, as well as to receive priest's orders. preparing for his return, he preached to large congregations. the suggestion of friends he preached to the miners of Kingswood, outside Bristol, in the open air. Because he was returning to Georgia he invited John Wesley to take over his Bristol congregations, and to preach in the open air for the first time at Kingswood and then at Blackheath, London.[10] accepted the Church of England's doctrine of predestination and disagreed with the Wesley brothers' Arminian views on the doctrine of the atonement.[11] However, Whitefield finally did what his friends hoped he would not do—hand over the entire ministry to John Wesley.[12] Whitefield formed and was the president of the first Methodist conference, but he soon relinquished the position to concentrate on evangelical work.[13] churches were established in England in his name—one in Penn Street, Bristol, and two in London, in Moorfields and in Tottenham Court Road—all three of which became known by the name of "Whitefield's Tabernacle". society meeting at the second Kingswood School at Kingswood, a town on the eastern edge of Bristol, was eventually also named Whitefield's Tabernacle. acted as chaplain to Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, and some of his followers joined the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, whose chapels were built by Selina, where a form of Calvinistic Methodism similar to Whitefield's was taught. Many of Selina's chapels were built in the English and Welsh counties.[14] One was erected in London—Spa Fields Chapel.[15][16] 1739, Whitefield returned to England to raise funds to establish the Bethesda Orphanage, now the Bethesda Academy. It is the oldest extant charity in North America.[17] Orphanage[edit]T endeavor to build an orphanage in Georgia was central to his preaching.[4] The Bethesda Orphanage and his preaching comprised the "two-fold task" that occupied the rest of his life.[18] On 25 March 1740, construction began. wanted the orphanage to be a place of strong Gospel influence, with a wholesome atmosphere and strong discipline.[19] raised the money by his preaching, Whitefield "insisted on sole control of the orphanage". refused to give the Trustees a financial accounting. Trustees also objected to Whitefield's using "a wrong Method" to control the children, who "are often kept praying and crying all the Night".[4] returning to North America in 1740, he preached a series of revivals that came to be known as the First Great Awakening. 1740 he engaged Moravian Brethren from Georgia to build an orphanage for negro children on land he had bought in the Lehigh Valley of Pennsylvania. a theological disagreement, he dismissed them and was unable to complete the building, which the Moravians subsequently bought and completed. This now is the Whitefield House in the center of the Moravian settlement of Nazareth, Pennsylvania. The Whitefield House is owned by the Moravian Historical Society, and operates as the Society's museum and administrative offices.[20][21] preached nearly every day for months to large crowds of sometimes several thousand people as he traveled throughout the colonies, especially New England. journey on horseback from New York City to Charleston, South Carolina, was at that time the longest in North America by a white man.[22] his contemporary and acquaintance, Jonathan Edwards, Whitefield preached staunchly Calvinist theology that was in line with the "moderate Calvinism" of the Thirty-nine Articles.[23] explicitly affirming God's sole agency in salvation, Whitefield freely offered the Gospel, saying at the end of his sermons: "Come poor, lost, undone sinner, come just as you are to Christ."[24] meetings[edit] Whitefield preaching. 1857 engraving Church of England did not assign him a pulpit, so he began preaching in parks and fields in England on his own, reaching out to people who normally did not attend church. Jonathan Edwards, he developed a style of preaching that elicited emotional responses from his audiences. Whitefield had charisma, and his loud voice, his small stature, and even his cross-eyed appearance (which some people took as a mark of divine favour) all served to help make him one of the first celebrities in the American colonies.[25] included slaves in his revivals and their response was positive. Historians see this as "the genesis of African-American Christianity."[26] Whitefield "the gospel message was so critically important that he felt compelled to use all earthly means to get the word out."[27] to widespread dissemination of print media, perhaps half of all colonists eventually heard about, read about, or read something written by Whitefield. employed print systematically, sending advance men to put up broadsides and distribute handbills announcing his sermons. He also arranged to have his sermons published.[28] sought to influence the colonies after he returned to England from his 1740 tour in America. contracted to have his autobiographical Journals published throughout America. These Journals have been characterized as "the ideal vehicle for crafting a public image that could work in his absence." depicted Whitefield in the "best possible light". When he returned to America for his third tour in 1745, he was better known than when he had left.[29] of Whitefield's publicity was the work of William Seward, a wealthy layman who accompanied Whitefield. Seward acted as Whitefield's "fund-raiser, business co-ordinator, and publicist". He furnished newspapers and booksellers with material, including copies of Whitefield's writings.[4] Whitefield returned to England in 1742, a crowd Whitefield estimated at 20,000 and William M'Culloch, the local minister, at 30,000, met him.[30] One such open-air congregation took place on Minchinhampton common. Whitefield preached to the "Rodborough congregation" - a gathering of 10,000 people - at a place now known as "Whitefield's tump." and advocate of slavery[edit] Staffordshire figure painted earthenware bust modelled and made by Enoch Wood, c. 1790 was a plantation owner and slaveholder, and viewed the work of slaves as essential for funding his orphanage's operations.[31][32] contemporary, John Wesley denounced slavery as "the sum of all villainies," and detailed its abuses.[33][34] defenses of slavery were common among 18th-century Protestants, especially missionaries who used the institution to emphasize God's providence.[35] was at first conflicted about slaves. He believed that they were human, and was angered that they were treated as "subordinate Creatures".[36] George whitefield and his friend, James Habersham, played an important role in the reintroduction of slavery to Georgia.[37] had been outlawed in the young colony of Georgia in 1735. 1747, Whitefield attributed the financial woes of his Bethesda Orphanage to Georgia's prohibition of black people in the colony.[35] argued that "the constitution of that colony [Georgia] is very bad, and it is impossible for the inhabitants to subsist" while blacks were banned.[31] 1748 and 1750, Whitefield campaigned for the legalisation of African-American emigration into the colony because the trustees of Georgia had banned slavery. Whitefield argued that the colony would never be prosperous unless slaves were allowed to farm the land.[38] Whitefield wanted slavery legalized not only for the prosperity of the colony, but also for the financial viability of the Bethesda Orphanage. "Had Negroes been allowed" to live in Georgia, he said, "I should now have had a sufficiency to support a great many orphans without expending above half the sum that has been laid out."[31] push for the legalization of slave emigration in to Georgia "cannot be explained solely on the basics of economics." It was also his hope for their adoption and for their eternal salvation.[39] slaves were permitted to live in Georgia in 1751.[38] saw the "legalization of (black residency) as part personal victory and part divine will."[40] Whitefield now argued a scriptural justification for black residency as slaves. He increased the number of the black children at his orphanage, using his preaching to raise money to house them. became "perhaps the most energetic, and conspicuous, evangelical defender and practitioner of the rights of black people.[4] By propagating such "a theological defense for" black residency Whitefield helped slaveholders prosper.[39] his death, Whitefield left everything in the orphanage to the Countess of Huntingdon. This included 4,000 acres of land and 50 black slaves.[4] against cruel treatment of slaves[edit] 1740, during his second visit to America, Whitefield published "an open letter to the planters of South Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland" chastising them for their cruelty to their slaves. wrote, "I think God has a Quarrel with you for your Abuse of and Cruelty to the poor Negroes."[41] Furthermore, Whitefield wrote: "Your dogs are caressed and fondled at your tables; but your slaves who are frequently styled dogs or beasts, have not an equal privilege."[31] Whitefield "stopped short of rendering a moral judgment on slavery itself as an institution."[39] have claimed that the Bethesda Orphanage "set an example of humane treatment" of black people.[42] Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784), who was a slave, wrote a poem On the Death of the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield in 1770. The first line calls Whitefield a "happy saint".[43] Franklin and Whitefield[edit] Franklin attended a revival meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and was greatly impressed with Whitefield's ability to deliver a message to such a large group. Franklin had previously dismissed as exaggeration reports of Whitefield preaching to crowds of the order of tens of thousands in England. listening to Whitefield preaching from the Philadelphia court house, Franklin walked away towards his shop in Market Street until he could no longer hear Whitefield distinctly—Whitefield could be heard over 500 feet. He then estimated his distance from Whitefield and calculated the area of a semicircle centred on Whitefield. Allowing two square feet per person he computed that Whitefield could be heard by over 30,000 people in the open air.[44][45] admired Whitefield as a fellow intellectual but thought Whitefield's plan to run an orphanage in Georgia would lose money. published several of Whitefield's tracts and was impressed by Whitefield's ability to preach and speak with clarity and enthusiasm to crowds. Franklin was an ecumenist and approved of Whitefield's appeal to members of many denominations, but, unlike Whitefield, was not an evangelical. After one of Whitefield's sermons, Franklin noted the: ... change soon made in the manners of our inhabitants. From being thoughtless or indifferent about religion, it seem'd as if all the world were growing religious, so that one could not walk thro' the town in an evening without hearing psalms sung in different families of every street. — Franklin 1888, p. 135 lifelong close friendship developed between the revivalist preacher and the worldly Franklin.[46] beyond their public images, one finds a common charity, humility, and ethical sense embedded in the character of each man. True loyalty based on genuine affection, coupled with a high value placed on friendship, helped their association grow stronger over time.[47] exchanged between Franklin and Whitefield can be found at the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.[48] These letters document the creation of an orphanage for boys named the Charity School. in 1749, Franklin chose the Whitefield meeting house, with its Charity School, to be purchased as the site of the newly-formed Academy of Philadelphia which opened in 1751, followed in 1755 with the College of Philadelphia, both the predecessors of the University of Pennsylvania. statue of George Whitefield is located in the Dormitory Quadrangle, standing in front of the Morris and Bodine sections of the present Ware College House on the University of Pennsylvania campus.[49] 2 July 2020, the University of Pennsylvania announced they would be removing the statue due to Whitefield's connection to slavery. [50] Timeline of Whitefield's travel to America[51] 1738 First voyage to America, Spent three months in Georgia. 1740–1741 Second voyage to America. Established Bethesda Orphan House. Preached in New England. 1745–1748 Third voyage to America. In poor health. 1751–1752 Fourth voyage to America. 1754 Fifth voyage to America. 1763–1765 Sixth voyage to America. Traveled east coast. 1770 Seventh voyage to America. Wintered in Georgia, then traveled to New England where he died. is remembered as one of the first to preach to slaves.[32] Phillis Wheatley wrote a poem in his memory after he died, while she was still a slave.[52] an age when crossing the Atlantic Ocean was a long and hazardous adventure, he visited America seven times, making 13 ocean crossings in total. is estimated that throughout his life, he preached more than 18,000 formal sermons, of which 78 have been published.[53] addition to his work in North America and England, he made 15 journeys to Scotland—most famously to the "Preaching Braes" of Cambuslang in 1742—two journeys to Ireland, and one each to Bermuda, Gibraltar, and the Netherlands.[54] In England and Wales, Whitefield's itinerary included every county.[55] went to the Georgia Colony in 1738 following John Wesley's departure, to serve as a colonial chaplain at Savannah.[56] While in Georgia, Whitefield served as minister for an orphanage and traveled extensively throughout both North America and Britain in an effort to raise money for the organization. He would often preach and attend public events during his travels, which served to further spread his message.[57] believe it is God's will that I should marry", George Whitefield wrote to a friend in 1740.[58] But he was concerned: "I pray God that I may not have a wife till I can live as though I had none." That ambivalence—believing God willed a wife, yet wanting to live as if without one—brought Whitefield a disappointing love life and a largely unhappy marriage.[58] wife Elizabeth, a widow previously Elizabeth James, née Gwynne, married Whitefield on 14 November 1741,[59] After their 1744–48 stay in America, she never accompanied him on his travels. Whitefield reflected that "none in America could bear her". His wife believed that she had been "but a load and burden" to him. Cornelius Winter, who for a time lived with the Whitefields, observed that Whitefield "was not happy in his wife". Thus, "her death set his mind much at liberty". died of a fever on 9 August 1768. She was buried in a vault at the Tottenham Court Road Chapel. At the end of the 19th century the Chapel needed restoration and all those interred there, except Augustus Toplady, were moved to Chingford Mount cemetery in north London.[4] [60] 1743 after four miscarriages, Elizabeth had bore the couple's only child, a son. The baby died at four months old.[58] 1770, the 55-year-old Whitefield continued preaching in spite of poor health. He said, "I would rather wear out than rust out." His last sermon was preached in a field "atop a large barrel".[61] The next morning Whitefield died in the parsonage of Old South Presbyterian Church,[62] Newburyport, Massachusetts, on 30 September 1770, and was buried, according to his wishes, in a crypt under the pulpit of this church.[4] A bust of Whitefield is in the collection of the Gloucester City Museum & Art Gallery. George Whitefield's grave in the crypt of Old South Presbyterian Church, Newburyport, Massachusetts between Jonathan Parsons and Joseph Prince It was John Wesley who preached his funeral sermon in London, at Whitefield's request.[63] left almost £1,500 (equivalent to £209,000 in 2019) to friends and family. Furthermore, he had deposited £1,000 (equivalent to £140,000 in 2019) for his wife if he predeceased her and had contributed £3,300 (equivalent to £461,000 in 2019) to the Bethesda Orphanage. "Questions concerning the source of his personal wealth dogged his memory. His will stated that all this money had lately been left him 'in a most unexpected way and unthought of means.'"[4] to other Methodist leaders[edit] terms of theology, Whitefield, unlike John Wesley, was a supporter of Calvinism.[64] The two differed on eternal election, final perseverance, and sanctification, but were reconciled as friends and co-workers, each going his own way. is a prevailing misconception that Whitefield was not primarily an organizer like Wesley. However, as Wesleyan historian Luke Tyerman states, "It is notable that the first Calvinistic Methodist Association was held eighteen months before Wesley held his first Methodist Conference."[65] He was a man of profound experience, which he communicated to audiences with clarity and passion. His patronization by the Countess of Huntingdon reflected this emphasis on practice. and controversy[edit] welcomed opposition because as he said, "the more I am opposed, the more joy I feel".[66] He proved himself adept at creating controversy. In his 1740 visit to Charles Town, it "took Whitefield only four days to plunge Charles Town into religious and social controversy."[67] thought he might be martyred for his views. After he attacked the established church he predicted that he would "be set at nought by the Rabbies of our Church, and perhaps at last be killed by them".[4] versus other clergy[edit] Whitefield had a strained relationship with John Wesley (depicted in an engraving). chastised other clergy for teaching only "the shell and shadow of religion" because they did not hold the necessity of a new birth, without which a person would be "thrust down into Hell".[4] his 1740–1741 visit to America (as he had done in England), he attacked other clergy (mostly Anglican) calling them "God's persecutors". He said that Edmund Gibson, Bishop of London with supervision over Anglican clergy in America,[68] knew no "more of Christianity, than Mahaomet, or an Infidel".[4] Whitefield preached at St. Philip's, Charleston, the Commissary, Alexander Garden, suspended him as a "vagabond clergyman." After being suspended, Whitefield attacked all South Carolina's Anglican clergy in print.[4] Furthermore, Whitefield issued a blanket indictment of New England's Congregational ministers for their "lack of zeal".[4] 1740, Whitefield published attacks on "the works of two of Anglicanism's revered seventeenth-century authors". Whitefield wrote that John Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury (1691–1694), had "no more been a true Christian than had Muhammad". He also attacked Richard Allestree's The Whole Duty of Man, one of Anglicanism's most popular spiritual tracts. At least once Whitefield had his followers burn the tract "with great Detestation".[4] England and Scotland (1741–1744), Whitefield bitterly accused John Wesley of undermining his work. He preached against Wesley, arguing that Wesley's attacks on predestination had alienated "very many of my spiritual children". Wesley replied that Whitefield's attacks were "treacherous" and that Whitefield had made himself "odious and contemptible".[4] However, the two reconciled in later life. with Wesley, Whitefield had been influenced by the Moravian Church, but in 1753 he condemned them and attacked their leader, Count Nicolaus Zinzendorf, and their practices.[4] Joseph Trapp criticized Whitefield's Journals, Whitefield retorted that Trapp was "no Christian but a servant of Satan".[4] versus Whitefield[edit] Mezzotint of Whitefield after James Moore, after 1751 Scottish, and American clergy attacked Whitefield, often in response to his attacks on them and Anglicanism, as documented in this section. Early in his career, Whitefield criticized the Church of England. In response, clergy called Whitefield one of "the young quacks in divinity" who are "breaking the peace and unity" of the church. 1738 to 1741, Whitefield issued seven Journals.[69] A sermon in St Paul's Cathedral depicted them as "a medley of vanity, and nonsense, and blasphemy jumbled together". Joseph Trapp called the Journals "blasphemous" and accused Whitefield of being "besotted either with pride or madness".[4] England, by 1738 when he was ordained priest, Whitefield wrote that "the spirit of the clergy began to be much embittered" and that "churches were gradually denied me".[70] In response to Whitefield's Journals, the bishop of London, Edmund Gibson, published a 1739 pastoral letter criticizing Whitefield.[71][72] Whitefield responded by labeling Anglican clerics as "lazy, non-spiritual, and pleasure seeking". He rejected ecclesiastical authority claiming that 'the whole world is now my parish'.[4] 1740, Whitefield had attacked John Tillotson and Richard Allestree's The Whole Duty of Man. These attacks resulted in hostile responses and reduced attendance at his London open-air preaching.[4] 1741, Whitefield made his first visit to Scotland at the invitation of "Ralph and Ebenezer Erskine, leaders of the breakaway Associate Presbytery. When they demanded and Whitefield refused that he preach only in their churches, they attacked him as a "sorcerer" and a "vain-glorious, self-seeking, puffed-up creature". In addition, Whitefield's collecting money for his Bethesda orphanage, combined with the hysteria evoked by his open-air sermons, resulted in bitter attacks in Edinburgh and Glasgow."[4] itinerant preaching throughout the colonies was opposed by Bishop Benson who had ordained him for a settled ministry in Georgia. Whitefield replied that if bishops did not authorize his itinerant preaching, God would give him the authority.[4] 1740, Jonathan Edwards invited Whitefield to preach in his church in Northampton. Edwards was "deeply disturbed by his unqualified appeals to emotion, his openly judging those he considered unconverted, and his demand for instant conversions". Whitefield refused to discuss Edwards' misgivings with him. Later, Edwards delivered a series of sermons containing but "thinly veiled critiques" of Whitefield's preaching, "warning against over-dependence upon a preacher's eloquence and fervency".[4] Whitefield's 1744–1748 visit to America, ten critical pamphlets were published, two by officials of Harvard and Yale. This criticism was in part evoked by Whitefield's criticism of "their education and Christian commitment" in his Journal of 1741. Whitefield saw this opposition as "a conspiracy" against him.[4] versus laity[edit] Whitefield preached in a dissenting church and "the congregation's response was dismal," he ascribed the response to "the people's being hardened" as were "Pharaoh and the Egyptians" in the Bible.[73] versus Whitefield[edit] New Englanders claimed that Whitefield destroyed "New England's orderly parish system, communities, and even families". The "Declaration of the Association of the County of New Haven, 1745" stated that after Whitefield's preaching "religion is now in a far worse state than it was".[4] After Whitefield preached in Charlestown, a local newspaper article attacked him as "blasphemous, uncharitable, and unreasonable."[74] Whitefield condemned Moravians and their practices, his former London printer (a Moravian), called Whitefield "a Mahomet, a Caesar, an imposter, a Don Quixote, a devil, the beast, the man of sin, the Antichrist".[4] the open air in Dublin, Ireland (1757), Whitefield condemned Roman Catholicism, inciting an attack by "hundreds and hundreds of papists" who cursed and wounded him severely and smashed his portable pulpit.[4] various occasions, a woman assaulted Whitefield with "scissors and a pistol, and her teeth". "Stones and dead cats" were thrown at him. A man almost killed him with a brass-headed cane. "Another climbed a tree to urinate on him."[75] In 1760, Whitefield was burlesqued by Samuel Foote in The Minor.[76] changes[edit] Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon made Whitefield her personal chaplain. In her chapel, it was noted that his preaching was "more Considered among persons of a Superior Rank" who attended the Countess's services. Whitefield was humble before the Countess saying that he cried when he was "thinking of your Ladyship's condescending to patronize such a dead dog as I am". He now said that he "highly esteemed bishops of the Church of England because of their sacred character". He confessed that in "many things" he had "judged and acted wrong" and had "been too bitter in my zeal". In 1763, in a defense of Methodism, Whitefield "repeated contrition for much contained in his Journals".[4] the nobility who heard Whitefield in the Countess of Huntingdon's home was Lady Townshend.[77] Regarding the changes in Whitefield, someone asked Lady Townshend, "Pray, madam, is it true that Whitefield has recanted?" She replied, "No, sir, he has only canted."[78] One meaning of cant is "to affect religious or pietistic phraseology, esp. as a matter of fashion or profession; to talk unreally or hypocritically with an affectation of goodness or piety.".[79] innovation[edit] the First Great Awakening, rather than listening demurely to preachers, people groaned and roared in enthusiastic emotion. Whitefield was a "passionate preacher" who often "shed tears". Underlying this was his conviction that genuine religion "engaged the heart, not just the head".[80] his preaching, Whitefield used a number of rhetorical ploys that were characteristic of theater, an artistic medium largely unknown in colonial America. Stout 1991 refers to him as a "divine dramatist" and ascribes his success to the theatrical sermons which laid foundations to a new form of pulpit oratory. Whitefield's "Abraham Offering His Son Isaac" is an example of a sermon whose whole structure resembles a theatrical play.[81] divinity schools opened to challenge the hegemony of Yale and Harvard; personal experience became more important than formal education for preachers. Such concepts and habits formed a necessary foundation for the American Revolution.[82] Whitefield's preaching bolstered "the evolving republican ideology that sought local democratic control of civil affairs and freedom from monarchial and parliamentary intrusion."[83] sermons were widely reputed to inspire his audience's enthusiasm. Many of them as well as his letters and journals were published during his lifetime. He was an excellent orator as well, strong in voice and adept at extemporaneity.[84] His voice was so expressive that people are said to have wept just hearing him allude to "Mesopotamia". His journals, originally intended only for private circulation, were first published by Thomas Cooper.[85][86] James Hutton then published a version with Whitefield's approval. His exuberant and "too apostolical" language were criticised; his journals were no longer published after 1741.[87] prepared a new installment in 1744–45, but it was not published until 1938. 19th-century biographies generally refer to his earlier work, A Short Account of God's Dealings with the Reverend George Whitefield (1740), which covered his life up to his ordination. In 1747 he published A Further Account of God's Dealings with the Reverend George Whitefield, covering the period from his ordination to his first voyage to Georgia. In 1756, a vigorously edited version of his journals and autobiographical accounts was published.[88][89] Whitefield was "profoundly image-conscious". His writings were "intended to convey Whitefield and his life as a model for biblical ethics ... , as humble and pious".[90] Whitefield's death, John Gillies, a Glasgow friend, published a memoir and six volumes of works, comprising three volumes of letters, a volume of tracts, and two volumes of sermons. Another collection of sermons was published just before he left London for the last time in 1769. These were disowned by Whitefield and Gillies, who tried to buy all copies and pulp them. They had been taken down in shorthand, but Whitefield said that they made him say nonsense on occasion. These sermons were included in a 19th-century volume, Sermons on Important Subjects, along with the "approved" sermons from the Works. An edition of the journals, in one volume, was edited by William Wale in 1905. This was reprinted with additional material in 1960 by the Banner of Truth Trust. It lacks the Bermuda journal entries found in Gillies' biography and the quotes from manuscript journals found in 19th-century biographies. A comparison of this edition with the original 18th-century publications shows numerous omissions—some minor and a few major.[91] also wrote several hymns. Charles Wesley composed a hymn in 1739, "Hark, how all the welkin rings". Whitefield revised the opening couplet in 1758 for "Hark, the Herald Angels Sing".[92]

US, 1735, JOHN & CHARLES WESLEY, both of Oxford University, preacher John, Georgia Secretary Charles, both saved by Moravians
England, 1723-1791, JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, both of Oxford University, John the preacher, Charles the hymn writer, both renewers of the Church, Book of Common Prayer Methodists, both to Georgia 1n 1735, both saved there by Moravians, John's influence of Classical Education; Oxford University; JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); Wesley died 29 March 1788. John Wesley died 2 March 1791. Because Chad is remembered on 2 March, the Wesleys are remembered on 3 March.) Wesley Wesley brothers, John born in 1703 and Charles in 1707, were leaders of the evangelical revival in the Church of England in the eighteenth century. both attended Oxford University, and there they gathered a few friends with whom they undertook a strict adherence to the worship and discipline of the Book of Common Prayer, from which strict observance they received the nickname, "Methodists." been ordained, they went to the American colony of Georgia in 1735, John as a missionary and Charles as secretary to Governor Oglethorpe. They found the experience disheartening, and returned home in a few years. There, three days apart, they underwent a conversion experience. John, present with a group of Moravians who were reading Martin Luther's Preface to the Epistle to the Romans, received a strong emotional awareness of the love of Christ displayed in freely forgiving his sins and granting him eternal life. this experience, John and Charles, with others, set about to stir up in others a like awareness of and response to the saving love of God. Of the two, John was the more powerful preacher, and averaged 8000 miles of travel a year, mostly on horseback. At the time of his death he was probably the best known and best loved man in England. (Albert C. Outler, John Wesley's Sermons: An Introduction, p 79f) biblical world was, however, no enclave. Sola Scriptura was never a displacement of, or substitute for, classical learning: and this was natural enough in view of the fact that he had mastered the baseline curriculum of his Oxford education and had come to cherish the classical tradition as the font of Western civilization. In the sermons (and elsewhere, too) Wesley's favourite classical source was Horace; there are twenty-seven quotations from him in the sermons alone, some repeated in different contexts. One senses that he read Virgil with more personal pleasure, but he quotes from him only twenty-one times. Ovid follows with ten, Circero with nine, Juvenal with seven. Thirteen others are quoted at least once: Aristophanes, Hadrian, Homer, Lucan, Lucretius, Persius, Pindar, Sophocles, Suetonius, Symmachus, Terence, Velleius Paterculus. display was more than mere ornamentation; (My comment: this would have violated Wesley's doctrine of 'plain preaching'.) within these borrowings we find the germs of some of Wesley's most distinctive general ideas (e.g. his participation theme, his mind-body dualism, and his ideas about psycho-physical parallelism). These are major sources for his ideas about human nature, human volition, and the human passions. Out of this heritage had come his predilection for form over raw feelings, his concept of conscience as a universal moral sense. had bolstered his convictions about the ontological primacy of good over evil. The whole of the Greco-Roman tradition had stressed coherence as a criterion of rationality. Besides, these ancient authors were shrewd critics of human folly; thus Wesley found in them discerning witnesses to the flaws in contemporary proposals about 'natural' theology and ethics. It was in this sense that his long dialogue with the ancients was a genuine preparatio evangelica; one might even suppose that he might still commend it as such. Wesley although Wesley found it natural to approach the Gospel with habits of thought formed by a classical education, he was quick to recognize the value of other approaches. early Methodist meetings were often led by lay preachers with very limited education. On one occasion, such a preacher took as his text Luke 19:21, "Lord, I feared thee, because thou art an austere man." Not knowing the word "austere," he thought that the text spoke of "an oyster man." He spoke about the work of those who retrieve oysters from the sea-bed. The diver plunges down from the surface, cut off from his natural environment, into bone-chilling water. He gropes in the dark, cutting his hands on the sharp edges of the shells. Now he has the oyster, and kicks back up to the surface, up to the warmth and light and air, clutching in his torn and bleeding hands the object of his search. So Christ descended from the glory of heaven into the squalor of earth, into sinful human society, in order to retrieve humans and bring them back up with Him to the glory of heaven, His torn and bleeding hands a sign of the value He has placed on the object of His quest. Twelve men were converted that evening. Afterwards, someone complained to Wesley about the inappropriateness of allowing preachers who were too ignorant to know the meaning of the texts they were preaching on. Wesley, simply said, "Never mind, the Lord got a dozen oysters tonight." was the better hymn-writer of the two. He wrote over 6000 hymns, including about 600 for the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Some of the better known are the following: A charge to keep I have And can it be that I should gain Author of life divine Christ the Lord is risen today Christ, whose glory fills the skies Come, Holy Ghost, our hearts inspire Come, O Thou Traveller unknown Come, thou long expected Jesus Forth in Thy name, O Lord, I go Gentle Jesus, meek and mild Hail the day that sees Him rise Hark, the herald angels sing, Jesus, Lover of my soul Let saints on earth in concert sing Lo, He comes with clouds descending Love Divine, all loves excelling O Jesus, full of pardoning grace O Love Divine, how sweet Thou art! O Thou who camest from above. Oh for a heart to praise my God Oh for a thousand tongues to sing Our Lord is risen from the dead Rejoice! the Lord is King Soldiers of Christ, arise! Ye servants of God, your Master proclaim Here are two of his hymns printed out at length: Oh for a thousand tongues to sing my great Redeemer's praise, the glories of my God and King, the triumphs of his grace! My gracious Master and my God, assist me to proclaim, to spread through all the earth abroad the honors of thy name. Jesus! the name that charms our fears, that bids our sorrows cease; 'tis music in the sinner's ears, 'tis life, and health, and peace. He breaks the power of canceled sin, he sets the prisoner free; his blood can make the foulest clean; his blood availed for me. He speaks, and listening to his voice, new life the dead receive; the mournful, broken hearts rejoice, the humble poor believe. In Christ, your head, you then shall know, shall feel your sins forgiven, anticipate your heaven below, and own that love in heaven. [Note that in the second line of this next hymn, the word "interest" is used in the older sense of "benefit" or "advantage." (Thus, in some contest, an uninterested person is one who is bored by the proceedings, but a disinterested person is one who has nothing to gain or lose personally by the outcome. We want a referee or judge to be disinterested, but not to be uninterested. The word "interested" is ambiguous, being the opposite of both.) Instead of "an interest in" in the second line, an editor seeking to modernize the language of this hymn might write "my healing from" or "redemption from" or "salvation from" or "a cleansing from" or the like.] And can it be that I should gain an interest in the Savior's blood? Died He for me, who caused His pain-- for me, who Him to death pursued? Amazing love! how can it be that Thou, my God, shouldst die for me? 'Tis mystery all! Th' Immortal dies: Who can explore His strange design? In vain the first-born seraph tries to sound the depths of love divine. 'Tis mercy all! let earth adore, let angel minds inquire no more. He left His Father's throne above,-- so free, so infinite His grace-- emptied Himself of all but love, and bled for Adam's helpless race: 'Tis mercy all, immense and free; for, O my God, it found out me! Long my imprisoned spirit lay Fast bound in sin and nature's night; Thine eye diffused a quickening ray,-- I woke, the dungeon flamed with light; my chains fell off, my heart was free, I rose, went forth, and followed Thee. No condemnation now I dread; Jesus, and all in Him, is mine! Alive in Him, my living Head, and clothed in righteousness divine, Bold I approach the eternal throne, and claim the crown, thorugh Christ my own. was the intention of the Wesleys and their colleagues that their "Methodist Societies" should be a group within the existing structure of the Anglican Church, but after their deaths the Societies in America, and to a lesser extent in England, developed a separate status. by James Kiefer

US, 1740-1755, Great Awakening of 1740, First Great Awakening
Great Awakening of 1740, First Great Awakening; George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15 ;

US, 1742-1787, Henry Muhlenberg, Patriarch of American Lutherans, from Einbeck and Halle Germany
Einbeck, Germany HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 178; Melchior Muhlenberg is the principal organizer of American Lutheranism. was born in Einbeck, Germany, in 1711, and studied at Goettingen and at Halle. Lutherans in America at that time were found in a few scattered communities, of various national backgrounds, with no central organization, and with a grave danger of factionalism. congregations wrote to Halle University, asking for a pastor to take charge. Hermann Francke, a Lutheran leader of the Pietist movement at Halle, chose Muhlenberg and sent him to America. arrived in Charleston on 23 September 1742. He was soon accorded widespread recognition by Lutheran churches, German, Swedish, and others, as the senior Lutheran pastor in America. He set the tone for the Lutheran community in what was to be the United States, and almost all Lutheran Churches in America today use liturgies which are developed from the one that he proposed for American use. plans for local church government, presented to congregations that had been accustomed to a great deal of government control, eased the transition to the "free church" model, and form the basis for plans of local church government in American Lutheran churches today. of his sons, John Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg, served as a general under George Washington in the War of Independence. Another, Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenberg, became a member of the Continental Congress, and first speaker of the House of Representatives. A great-grandson, William Augustus Muhlenberg, became an eminent Anglican priest (see 8 April). Melchior Muhlenberg died 7 October 1787, and is buried at Trappe, Pennsylvania. His epitaph (in Latin) reads: "Who and what he was, future ages will know without a stone." by James Kiefer

US, 1775, Wilderness Road Folder (Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, to Ohio)

Wilderness Road 1 (Kingsport, Tennessee)

Wilderness Road 2 (Moccasin Gap of Cinch Mt, VA)

Wilderness Road 3 (Kanes Gap, VA)
Wilderness Road 3 (Kanes Gap - 36.7326ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â‚ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â°N 82.8241ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â‚ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â°W)

Wilderness Road 4 (Cumberland Gap, TN)
Cumberland Gap of Wilderness Road;

Wilderness Road South Fork 6 (Nashville, TN)

Wilderness Road South to Nashville from Cumberland Gap

Wilderness Road North Fork 5 - Boonesborough (Boones' Lick for salt)

Wilderness Road North Fork to Boonesborough (for salt) from Cumberland Gap

Wilderness Road West Fork 5 (Falls of the Ohio, Louisville)
Falls of the Ohio;

Wilderness Road West Fork to Louisville, Falls of the Ohio from Cumberland Gap

Wilderness Road (Knoxville, Tennessee)

Wilderness Road - Gaps of the Allegheny Folder - only 5 ways west

1 of the 5 ways west, Around the top, Level Water Route to the Great lakes from Hudson River

2 of the 5 ways west - Gaps of the Allegheny Front Folder, Pennsylvania RWY

1 of the 3 Allegheny Front Gaps, Blair Gap, Gallitzin, PA
1 of the 3 Allegheny Front Gaps, Blair Gap, Gallitzin, PA;

2 of the 3 Allegheny Front Gaps, Kittanning Gap

3 of the 3 Allegheny Front Gaps, Kittanning Run Gap
3 of the 3 Allegheny Front Gaps, Kittanning Run Gap;

3 of the 5 ways west, Cumberland Narrows (National Road Route)
3 of the 5 ways west, Cumberland Narrows;

4 of the 5 ways West, Cumberland Gap (Wilderness Road Route)
4 of the 5 ways West, Cumberland Gap;

5 of 5 ways west, Around the bottom (plains or Piedmont area) in Georgia
5 of 5 ways west, Around the bottom (plains or Piedmont area) in Georgia;

US, 1765-1816, Francis Asbury, Hamstead Bridge, West Midlands, US Methodist Episcopal bishop
England, 1765-1816, Francis Asbury, Hamstead Bridge, West Midlands, US Methodist Episcopal bishop; Hamstead Bridge, West Midlands ; Francis Asbury of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15; Asbury (August 20, 1745 – March 31, 1816) was one of the first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. In 1784 John Wesley named Asbury and Thomas Coke as co-superintendents of the work in America. This marks the beginning of the "Methodist Episcopal Church of the USA". For the next thirty-two years, Asbury led all the Methodists in America. Wesley, Asbury preached in all sorts of places: courthouses, public houses, tobacco houses, fields, public squares, wherever a crowd assembled to hear him. For the remainder of his life he rode an average of 6000 miles each year, preaching virtually every day and conducting meetings and conferences. Under his direction, the church grew from 1,200 to 214,000 members and 700 ordained preachers. from Wikipedia Asbury (August 20 or 21, 1745 – March 31, 1816) was one of the first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. his 45 years in the colonies and the newly independent United States, he devoted his life to ministry, traveling on horseback and by carriage thousands of miles to those living on the frontier. spread Methodism in British colonial America as part of the Second Great Awakening. He also founded several schools during his lifetime, although his own formal education was limited. His journal is valuable to scholars for its account of frontier society, with references to many towns and villages in Colonial America.[1] and adolescence Bishop Asbury Cottage, Asbury's boyhood home at Great Barr Asbury was born at Hamstead Bridge, Staffordshire, England on August 20 or 21, 1745, to Elizabeth and Joseph Asbury. The family moved to a cottage at Great Barr, Sandwell, the next year.[2] His boyhood home still stands and is open as Bishop Asbury Cottage museum.[3] after the family moved to Great Barr, in May 1748, Asbury's older sister, Sarah, died; he was less than three years old. Asbury wrote later that his mother Eliza was "very much a woman of the world"; with his sister's death, she "sank into deep distress....from which she was not relieved for many years," and was living "in a very, dark, dark, dark, day and place".[4] A few years later she found a renewed Christian faith as itinerant preachers, either Baptist or Methodists, visited Barr on a revival circuit. From then on she began to read the Bible every day and encouraged her son to do so as well.[4] deep faith may not have been shared by her husband, who seemed to have problems, possibly drink or gambling. Francis Asbury described his father as "industrious." The husband supported his wife in her faith and witness: he allowed Methodist meetings to be held each Sunday in the cottage.[5] Asbury's childhood the West Midlands was undergoing massive changes as the industrial revolution swept through the area. Waves of workers migrated into the area, attracted by jobs in the growing factories and workshops in Birmingham and the Black Country of the mines. Asburys lived in a cottage tied to a public house, on a main route between the mines and the factories. They would have been aware of the drinking, gambling, poverty and poor behaviour prevalent in the area.[6] Asbury attended a local endowed school in Snail's Green, a nearby hamlet. He did not get on well with his fellow pupils who ridiculed him because of his mother's religious beliefs. the 1740s there had been widespread anti-Methodist rioting in Wednesbury and the surrounding area, and into the 1750s a great deal of persecution. Nor did he like his teacher and left school at the first opportunity.[7] took a keen interest in religion, having "felt something of God as early as the age of seven".[8] He lived not far from All Saint's Church, Bromwich, which under the patronage of the Methodist Earl of Dartmouth, provided a living for Evangelical minister Edward Stillinghurst. Well connected, Stillinghurst invited as visiting preachers some of the foremost preachers and theologians of the day. These included John Fletcher, John Ryland, Henry Venn, John Cennick and Benjamin Ingham. His mother encouraged Francis to meet with the Methodists in Wednesbury, eventually joining a "band" with four other young men who would meet and pray together. For them a typical Sunday would be a preaching meeting at 5.00 am, communion at the parish church mid morning, and attending a preaching meeting again at 5.00 pm.[9] had his first formal job at age thirteen; he went "into service" for local gentry, whom he later described as "one of the most unGodly families in the parish". But he soon left them and is believed to have eventually worked for Thomas Foxall, at the Old Forge Farm,[10] where he made metal goods. He became great friends with Foxall's son, Henry.[11] They developed a friendship, which continued after Henry Foxall's emigration to Colonial America. There he continued working with metal and established the Foundry Church in Georgetown, now part of Washington, D.C. began to preach locally, and eventually became an itinerant preacher on behalf of the Methodist cause.[12] Asbury's preaching ministry in England is detailed in the section below: "Asbury's circuits in England". work in America the age of 22, Asbury's selection by John Wesley as a traveling lay preacher became official. Typically such positions were held by young, unmarried men, known as exhorters. In 1771 Asbury volunteered to travel to British North America. His first sermon in the Colonies took place with the Methodist congregation in Woodrow, Staten Island.[13] Within the first 17 days of being in the colonies, Asbury preached in both Philadelphia and New York. During the first year, he served as Wesley's assistant and preached in 25 different settlements. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, he and James Dempster were the only British Methodist lay ministers to remain in America.[14] "During his early years in North America, Asbury devoted his attention mainly to followers living on the eastern shore between the Delaware River and the Chesapeake Bay. Bishop Asbury was a good friend of the Melsons and was their guest many times on his rounds. When the American revolution severed the traditional ties between the American Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain, Bishop Asbury, in the interest of his religious tenets and principles and in an attempt to remain aloof from the political and military fervor that swept the country, announced he would, to keep the embryonic Methodist congregations neutral, refrain from endorsing either Great Britain or the newly formed United States of America government and urged all his followers to do the same. This request placed almost all of his followers, especially those living in Maryland, in an untenable position. The State of Maryland had enacted a law requiring all citizens to take an Oath of Allegiance to the newly formed American Congress. In addition to this, it stipulated all non-residents within its boundaries also had to take and sign an Oath of Allegiance. Those refusing were summarily incarcerated for treason. Asbury, after proclaiming his neutrality, fled to Delaware, where taking an oath of allegiance was not a requirement. His adherents in Maryland suffered the rancor of the proponents of the Oath."[15] remained hidden during the war and ventured occasionally back into Maryland. Sometimes this had the effect of compromising his parishioners. Asbury did not become ordained or a bishop until December 1784. 1780, Asbury met the freedman Henry "Black Harry" Hosier, a meeting the minister believed "providentially arranged".[16] Hosier served as his driver and guide and, though illiterate, memorized long passages of the Bible as Asbury read them aloud during their travels. Hosier eventually became a famous preacher in his own right, the first African American to preach directly to a white congregation in the United States.[16] Camp Meeting the fall of 1800, Asbury attended one of the events of the Revival of 1800 as he travelled from Kentucky into Tennessee. The combined Presbyterian and Methodist communion observance made a deep impression on Asbury; it was as an early experience for him of multi-day meetings, which included attendees camping on the grounds or sleeping in their wagons around the meeting house. He recorded the events in his journal: it showed the relation between religious revivalism and camp meetings, later a staple of nineteenth-century frontier Methodism.[17] and Consecrated a bishop The Ordination of Bishop Asbury, an engraving of an 1882 painting of the scene 1784, John Wesley named Asbury and Thomas Coke as co-superintendents of the work in the United States. The Christmas Conference that year marked the beginning of the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States. It was during this Conference that Asbury was ordained by Coke.[18] the next 32 years, Asbury led all the Methodists in America. However, his leadership did not go unchallenged. His idea for a ruling council was opposed by such notables as William McKendree, Jesse Lee, and James O'Kelly. Eventually, based on advice by Coke, he established in 1792 a General Conference, to which delegates could be sent, as a way of building broader support. journeys Wesley, Asbury preached in myriad of places: courthouses, public houses, tobacco houses, fields, public squares, wherever a crowd assembled to hear him. For the remainder of his life, he rode an average of 6,000 miles each year, preaching virtually every day and conducting meetings and conferences. Under his direction, the church grew from 1,200 to 214,000 members and 700 ordained preachers. Among the men he ordained was Richard Allen in Philadelphia, the first black Methodist minister in the United States who later founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the first independent black denomination in the country. Another African American was Daniel Coker, who emigrated to Sierra Leone in 1820 and became the first Methodist minister there from the West. Bishop Asbury also ordained Peter Cartwright in the fall of 1806.[19] health and death 1813, Asbury wrote his will. This was a time when "the greatest membership gain in the history of the church" was achieved.[20] In 1814 his health started to fail and he became ill. In 1816 he started to regain strength and continued his preaching journey. He "preached his last Sermon in Richmond, Virginia" on March 24, "and died at the home of George Arnold near Fredericksburg" on March 31.[21] Asbury died in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. He was buried at Mount Olivet Cemetery, in Baltimore, near the graves of Bishops John Emory and Beverly Waugh. as a preacher an exciting time in American history, Asbury was reported to be an extraordinary preacher. Biographer Ezra Squier Tipple wrote: "If to speak with authority as the accredited messenger of God; to have credentials which bear the seal of heaven ... if when he lifted the trumpet to his lips the Almighty blew the blast; if to be conscious of an ever-present sense of God, God the Summoner, God the Anointing One, God the Judge, and to project it into speech which would make his hearers tremble, melt them with terror, and cause them to fall as dead men; if to be and do all this would entitle a man to be called a great preacher, then Asbury was a great preacher." habits Asbury had a great distrust of personal popularity, and equally marked distaste of personal publicity".[22] Not being a vain person, he did not care to have his image preserved. He had been in America for 23 years, and a bishop for 10 years before he had let a portrait be made of him. His friend James McCannon persuaded him to have it done. Asbury had had a portrait painted of him for his mother in 1797. His last portrait was made in 1813 by an unknown artist in Strasburgh, Pennsylvania. had times when he tended to have gloomy thoughts and opinions. He believed himself to be "a true prophet of evil tidings, as it suits my cast of mind".[23] Although he was pessimistic, those who knew him considered him an extremely sensitive person. In his journal he recorded more failures and misgivings than success in his ministry. He loved simplicity and had "frequent spells of morbid depression".[23] He tended to use cynical sarcasm in his preachings. One of the typical prayers he would say, even on his way to America, was "Lord, we are in thy hands and in thy work. Thou knowest what is best of us and for thy work; whether plenty or poverty. The hearts of all men are in thy hands. If it is best for us and for thy church that we should be cramped and straitened, let the people's hands and hearts be closed: If it is better for us; for the church,—and more to thy glory that we should abound in the comforts of life; do thou dispose the hearts of those we serve to give accordingly: and may we learn to be content whether we abound, or suffer need".[24] rose at 5 every morning to read the Bible. He was impatient with those who did not do the tasks assigned to them as soon as the task was assigned. He was "one of the wisest and most farseeing men of his day".[25] journal September 4, 1771, at the age of 26, Francis Asbury began his journey to Philadelphia from Pill near Bristol, England. "It cost him much to leave home and kindred, as is witnessed by his affectionate letters and sacrificial remittances home: but the call of God was not to be denied".[26] Before he left, he wrote a letter to his family. "I wonder sometimes how anyone will sit to hear me, but the Lord covers my weakness with his power…. I trust you will be easy and more quiet. As for me, I know what I am called to. It is to give up all, and to have my hands and heart in the work, yea, the nearest and dearest friends…. Let others condemn me as being without natural affection, disobedient to parents, or say what they please…. I love my parents and friends, but I love my God better and his service…. And tho' I have given up all, I do not repent, for I have found all".[27] On this voyage he began a journal. "In his journal he pours out the feelings and impulses of the moment, but often without giving a clue to either the offender or the offense".[28] He became seasick for the first week but had recovered. He was "poor in material things, but rich in the spiritual atmosphere created and maintained by his mother".[29] He also spent a lot of time studying and reading the Bible and books written by Wesley. On September 22, September 29, and October 6, he preached to the ship's company. Finally, on October 27, he landed at his destination in Philadelphia. His journal also contains some references to opinions of ministers who disagreed with the Methodist leadership, such as Rev. Charles Hopkins of Powhatan County, Virginia who had rejected the Methodist ideals several years before. journal also frequently mentioned Thomas S. Hinde who was the son of Dr. Thomas Hinde and founder of the city of Mount Carmel, Illinois.[30] circuits in England article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Francis Asbury" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) travels in America are amply noted in his three-volume journal, The Journal and Letters of Francis Asbury. However, his travels in England are much harder to piece together as very little information exists.[31] John Wigger provide some details in American Saint, his biography on Asbury.[32] 1763, Asbury began leading the class of about two dozen faithful at the West Bromwich Wesleyan society. In March 1765, his mentor, Wesleyan Alexander Mather asked Asbury to assist him. For the next 11 months, the twenty-year-old Asbury taught and preached around the Staffordshire circuit. The circuit consisted of small Wesleyan societies in West Bromwich, Wednesbury, Walsall, Wolverhampton, and Billbrook. These areas were the foundation of Methodism in the Black Country. During this initial phase of his circuits around England, two Wesleyan preachers offered the majority of the young preachers mentoring. The first was the already mentioned Scottish itinerant, Mather. The second was an English preacher from Bedfordshire, James Glasbrook. These two taught Asbury, John Wesley's basic requirements for a Wesleyan itinerant preacher. January 1766, Mather offered him the opportunity to quit the forge and join the Wesleyan movement as a full-time itinerant on a trial basis. The twenty-one-year-old Asbury accepted.[citation needed] Part of his training as a full-time traveling preacher required that he read extensively from books suggested by Wesley, who made them available in London, Bristol and Newcastle. The list included several Divinity Books: the Bible, Wesley's tracts, the works of Boehm and Francke. There were also books on Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, History, Poetry and Latin Prose. There were also books on Latin Verse, Greek Prose, including the Greek New Testament, Greek Verse - including Homer's Iliad, and the Hebrew Bible. the next five months, during his circuits in England Asbury teamed with William Orpe, a young preacher who was the Hebrew teacher at Wesley's Kingswood School in Bristol. They covered the large Staffordshire circuit that encompassed not only Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Willenhall, Walsall, Wednesbury, Darlaston and Billbrook, but also an extended portion to the south in Worcestershire, Tewkesbury and Gloucestershire. Despite his happiness with his new career, Asbury struggled with a sense that his efforts were somewhat limited. He was still living with his parents, he was preaching in places that had heard him preach for the last five years. He looked for more travel and more responsibility. pressed Mather to assign Asbury to the low round of the Staffordshire circuit, and found it more grueling than he had anticipated. After twelve months Mather sent him home for a short break. Asbury then received instructions to head for London. The London conference of 1767 assigned Asbury to the Bedfordshire circuit. London, it is likely that Asbury met George Whitefield when he attended worship at Whitefield's Tabernacle. At the time of Asbury's arrival in London, Benjamin Franklin was staying in London and a guest of his friend Whitefield, whom he had met years earlier during one of Whitefield's trips to America. Along with Franklin at Whitefield's home were Connecticut colonial leaders including a Mohegan Indian named Samson Occum and his traveling companion, Princeton College Presbyterian minister, Nathaniel Whitaker, Lord Dartmouth, and the merchant Dennis De Bert. Occum and Whitaker were in England to raise money for their Indian Charity School in Lebanon, Connecticut. Spending a couple months in London before the August conference, it is likely that Asbury not only heard Samson Occum speak at The Tabernacle, but also had opportunity to meet this unique group. 18, 1767 the conference in London began at John and Charles Wesley's Foundry Church. At this conference, Wesley assigned Asbury to the sprawling Bedfordshire circuit. In addition to Bedfordshire, Asbury was officially admitted on trial and teamed with Bedfordshire native, James Glasbrook. The main locations were Hertford, Luton, Sundon, Millbrook, Bedford, Clifton and Northampton. It was a rural circuit made up of small societies whose total membership was just 208 people.[33] lieu of attending the 1768 conference in Bristol, Asbury is given instructions to wait in London to await his next assignment. Asbury's short stopover in London occurs at the same time that Benjamin Rush is staying with George Whitefield, having completed his medical studies in Edinburgh. After the Bristol conference in August 1768, Wesley assigns Asbury to the only circuit more difficult than the Staffordshire low Round, Colchester. Asbury will preach along the southern coastline of the River Stour, from Manningtree to Harwich. As beautiful as the scenery is, the area sours with rampant smuggling. Asbury is to preach against smuggling. out of worry for the young itinerant and the dangerous territory he travels, after two months on the Colchester circuit, Asbury receives word to relocate to the Wiltshire circuit. The three main cities of the Wiltshire circuit are Salisbury, Winchester and Portsmouth. In Portsmouth, it is likely that Asbury began his study of Hebrew through the large Jewish settlement that coexisted with the Portsmouth Methodists. In Portsmouth, the majority of the Jewish settlers reside in Portsea, also known as Portsmouth Common, the same area as the Methodists. For the next ten months, he remains on the Wiltshire circuit. 10, 1769, word from the Leeds Conference arrives for Asbury in Salisbury. Word from Wesley is that the next circuit is Oxfordshire. There he teams up with his friend from Staffordshire, Richard Whatcoat. In Oxford, Asbury and Whatcoat occasionally preach from St Giles Church. Asbury and Whatcoat remain in Oxford until Christmas. They are both assigned to preach the Bedfordshire circuit in the new year. In addition to returning to Northampton, Asbury will travel to the smaller Wesleyan societies in Towcester and Whittlebury. He also spends time in Weedon. For the next eight months, Asbury will preach on the western portion of the Bedfordshire circuit. March 1770, Wesley preached at West Bromwich. The news of Wesley draws Asbury to return home after nearly three years away. After his visit home, Asbury returns to the western portion of the Bedfordshire circuit. After the 1770 conference Wesley once again assigns Asbury to Wiltshire. It is during this assignment Asbury is abandoned by his assigned helper, John Catermole, who leaves the Wiltshire circuit after his dealing with a disorderly lay leader who threatens violence to Catermole and Asbury. A visit by Wesley to the struggling Wiltshire circuit results in Wesley asking Asbury to visit the Isle of Wight. It is at the August 1771 conference in Bristol where Asbury volunteers for the circuit simply called, America.

US, 1776-1837, Herman, Wonderworker, N Valaam Spruce Is Alaska, what do you love, 40 years & can't completely
Russia, St Petersburg, 1776-1837, Herman, Serpukhov merchants, Trinity-Sergius St Petersburg, Sarov, Nazarius, Sanaxar, Sergius Hermitage, Valaam on Lake Ladoga, Innocent, Serdobol marble q, Herman's wilderness, Aleutian Is, chain Kamchatka to N America, natives, 10 men selected, holy zeal several thousand accepted, school, church, Phoenix, The New Valaam — Spruce Island, his home, clothes, bed, blanket, pillow, food, fertilizer, visits, reestablish understandng in families, children, Epedemic, admonished fear, spiritual teacher, school, chapel near cell, powerful sermons w students singing, Sophia Vlasova lived there, Yanovsky, naval captain and educated men lost for an answer before him, one general question, what do you love above all, certainly we love god, but I have been trying 40 yrs, and can't love him completely, always remember him, try to please him, he talked of eternity, salvation, our destinies under God, lives of Saints, Prologue, nothing frivolous, description- short, pale, sparkly grey-blue eyes, few grey hairs, pleasant voice, Peter's martyrdom, Spanish Jesuit torture, saved by Monterey order, Supernatural gifts, icon stopping flood, moss fire break, epedemic unites the aleuts, I will not be forgotten, 30 yrs from now you will be old when I will be remembered, death prophecies; Valaam Monastery ; Repose of the Venerable Herman of Alaska, Wonderworker of All America, Commemorated December 13 ; Herman of Alaska, Wonderworker of All America. A spiritual mission was organized in 1793 with volunteers from the monks of the Valaam Monastery. were sent to preach the Word of God to the native inhabitants of northwestern America, who had come under the sovereignty of Russia only ten years before. Saint Herman was one of the members of this mission. Herman came from a family of merchants of Serpukhov, a city of the Moscow diocese. name before he was tonsured, and his family name are not known. There is a possibility, however, that his baptismal name was Gerasimus. had a great zeal for piety from his youth, and he entered monastic life at sixteen. (This was in 1772, if we assume that Herman was born in 1756, although sometimes 1760 is given as the date of his birth.) he entered the Trinity-Sergius Hermitage which was located near the Gulf of Finland on the Peterhof Road, about 15 versts (about 10 miles) from Saint Petersburg. also spent time at at Sarov, where he first met Father Nazarius, who became his Elder at Valaam. Later, Saint Herman followed him to Sanaxar where Saint Theodore (February 19) was their igumen. Healing the Saint Sergius Hermitage there occurred the following incident to Father Herman. On the right side of his throat under his chin there appeared an abscess. The swelling grew rapidly, disfiguring his face. It became difficult for him to swallow, and the odor was unbearable. In this critical condition Father Herman awaited death. He did not appeal to a physician of this world, but locking his cell he fell before an icon of the Mother of God. With fervent tears he prayed, asking of Her that he might be healed. He prayed the whole night. Then he took a wet towel and with it wiped the face of the Most Holy Mother, and with this towel he covered the swelling. He continued to pray with tears until he fell asleep from sheer exhaustion on the floor. In a dream he saw the Virgin Mary healing him. Herman awoke in the morning, he found to his great surprise that he was fully healed. The swelling had disappeared, even though the abscess had not broken through, leaving behind but a small mark as though a reminder of the miracle. to whom this healing was described did not believe it, arguing that it was necessary for the abscess to have either broken through of its own accord or to have been cut open. But the words of the physicians were the words of human experience, for where the grace of God operates there the order of nature is overcome. Such occurrences humble human reason under the strong hand of God’s Mercy. at Valaam five or six years Father Herman continued to live in the Saint Sergius Hermitage, and then he transferred to the Valaam Monastery, which was widely scattered on the large islands in the waters of the great Lake Ladoga. came to love the Valaam haven with all his soul, as he came to love its unforgettable Superior, the pious Elder Nazarius, and all the brethren. wrote to Father Nazarius later from America, “Your fatherly goodness to me, humble one, will be erased out of my heart neither by the terrible, unpassable Siberian lands, nor by the dark forests. Nor will it be wiped out by the swift flow of the great rivers; nor will the awful ocean quench these feelings. In my mind I imagine my beloved Valaam, looking to it beyond the great ocean.” praised the Elder Nazarius in his letters as, “the most reverend, and my beloved father,” and the brethren of Valaam he called, “my beloved and dearest.” The place where he lived in America, deserted Spruce Island, he called “New Valaam.” And as we can see, he always remained in spiritual contact with his spiritual homeland, for as late as 1823, that is after thirty years of his life within the borders of America, he wrote letters to the successor of Father Nazarius, the lgumen Innocent. Barlaam, later lgumen of Valaam, and a contemporary of Father Herman, who accepted his tonsure from Father Nazarius, wrote thus of the life of Father Herman. “Father Herman went through the various obediences here, and being ‘well disposed toward everything’ was in the course of events sent to Serdobol to oversee there the work of quarrying marble. Brothers loved Father Herman, and awaited impatiently his return to the cloisters from Serdobol. Recognizing the zeal of the young hermit the wise elder, Father Nazarius, released him to take abode in the wilderness. wilderness was in the deep forest about a mile from the cloister: to this day this place has retained the name ‘Herman’s.’ On holy days, Father Herman returned to the monastery from the wilderness. Then it was that at Little Vespers he would stand in the choir and sing in his pleasant tenor the responses with the brethren from the Canon, ‘O Sweetest Jesus, save us sinners. Most Holy Theotokos, Save us,’ and tears would fall like hail from his eyes.” First Mission to America the second half of the 18th century the borders of Holy Russia expanded to the north. In those years Russian merchants discovered the Aleutian Islands which formed in the Pacific Ocean a chain from the eastern shores of Kamchatka to the western shores of North America. the opening of these islands there was revealed the sacred necessity to illumine with the light of the Gospel the native inhabitants. the blessing of the Holy Synod, Metropolitan Gabriel gave to the Elder Nazarius the task of selecting capable persons from the brethern of Valaam for this holy endeavor. Ten men were selected, and among them was Father Herman. chosen men left Valaam for the place of their great appointment in 1793. (The members of this historical mission were: Archimandrite Joseph (Bolotoff), the Hieromonks, Juvenal, Macarius, Athanasius, Stephan and Nectarius, Hierodeacons, Nectarius and Stephen, and the monks Joasaph, and Herman.) a result of the holy zeal of the preachers the light of the evangelic sermon quickly poured out among the sons of Russia, and several thousand pagans accepted Christianity. school for the education of newly-baptized children was organized, and a church was built at the place where the missionaries lived. by the inscrutable providence of God the general progress of the mission was unsatisfactory. After five years of very productive labor, Archimandrite Joasaph, who had just been elevated to the rank of bishop, was drowned with his party. (This occurred on the Pacific Ocean between Kamchatka and the Aleutian Islands. The ship, Phoenix, one of the first sea-going ships built in Alaska, sailed from Okhotsk carrying the first Bishop for the American Mission and his party. The Phoenix was caught in one of the many storms which periodically sweep the northern Pacific, and the ship and all hands perished together with Bishop Joasaph and his party.) this the zealous Hieromonk Juvenal was granted the martyr’s crown. The others died one after another until in the end only Father Herman remained. The Lord permitted him to labor longer than any of his brethren in the apostolic task of enlightening the Aleutians. New Valaam — Spruce Island America, Father Herman chose as his place of habitation Spruce Island, which he called New Valaam. This island is separated by a strait about a mile and a quarter wide from Kodiak Island on which had been built a wooden monastery for the residence of the members of the mission, and a wooden church dedicated to the Resurrection of the Savior. (New Valaam was named for Valaam on Lake Ladoga, the monastery from which Father Herman came to America. It is interesting to note that Valaam is also located on an island, although, this island is in a fresh water lake, whereas, Spruce Island is on the Pacific Ocean, although near other islands and the Alaskan mainland.) Island is not large, and is almost completely covered by a forest. Almost through its middle a small brook flows to the sea. Herman selected this picturesque island for the location of his hermitage. He dug a cave out of the ground with his own hands, and in it he lived his first full summer. winter there was built for him a cell near the cave, in which he lived until his death. The cave was converted by him into a place for his burial. A wooden chapel, and a wooden house to be used as a schoolhouse and a guest house were built not too distant from his cell. A garden was laid out in front of his cell. For more than forty years Father Herman lived here. Herman’s Way of Life Herman himself spaded the garden, planted potatoes and cabbage and various vegetables in it. For winter, he preserved mushrooms, salting or drying them. The salt was obtained by him from ocean water. It is said that a wicker basket in which the Elder carried seaweed from the shore, was so large that it was difficult for one person to carry. The seaweed was used for fertilizing the soil. But to the astonishment of all, Father Herman carried a basket filled with seaweed for a long distance without any help at all. By chance his disciple, Gerasim, saw him one winter night carrying a large log which normally would be carried by four men; and he was bare footed. Thus worked the Elder, and everything that he acquired as a result of his immeasurable labors was used for the feeding and clothing of orphans and also for books for his students. clothes were the same for winter as for summer. He did not wear a shirt; instead he wore a smock of deer skin, which he did not take off for several years at a time, nor did he change it, so that the fur in it was completely worn away, and the leather became glossy. Then there were his boots or shoes, cassock (podrasnik), an ancient and faded out cassock (riasa) full of patchwork, and his headdress (klobuk). He went everywhere in these clothes, and at all times; in the rain, in snowstorms, and during the coldest freezing weather. this, Father Herman followed the example of many Eastern Ascetic Fathers and Monks who showed the greatest concern for the welfare and needs of others. Yet, they themselves wore the oldest possible clothes to show their great humility before God, and their detachment from worldly things. small bench covered with a time-worn deerskin served as Father Herman’s bed. He used two bricks for a pillow; these were hidden from visitors by a skin or a shirt. There was no blanket. Instead, he covered himself with a wooden board which lay on the stove. This board Father Herman, himself called his blanket, and he willed that it be used to cover his remains; it was as long as he was tall. “During my stay in the cell of Father Herman,” writes the creole Constantine Larionov, “I, a sinner, sat on his ‘blanket’-and I consider this the acme of my fortune!” (‘creole’ is the name by which the Russians referred to the children of mixed marriages of native Indians of Alaska, Eskimo and Aleuts with Russians.) the occasions when Father Herman was the guest of administrators of the American Company and in the course of their soul-saving talks he sat up with them until midnight. He never spent the night with them, but regardless of the weather he always returned to his hermitage. for some extraordinary reason it was necessary for him to spend the night away from his cell, then in the morning the bed which had been prepared for him would be found untouched; the Elder not having slept at all. The same was true in his hermitage where having spent the night in talks, he never rested. Elder ate very little. As a guest, he scarcely tasted the food, and remained without dinner. In his cell his dinner consisted of a very small portion of a small fish or some vegetables. His body, emaciated as a result of his labors, his vigils, and fasting, was crushed by chains which weighed about sixteen pounds. These chains are kept to this day in the chapel. Telling of these deeds of Father Herman, his disciple, the Aleut Ignaty Aligyaga, added, “Yes, Apa led a very hard life, and no one can imitate his life!” (The Aleutian word “Apa” means Elder or grandfather, and it is a name indicative of the great affection in which he was held). writing of the incidents in the life of the Elder deal, so to speak, with the external aspects of his labor. “His most important works,” says the Bishop Peter, “were his exercises in spiritual endeavor in his isolated cell where no one saw him, but outside the cell they heard him singing and celebrating services to God according to the monastic rule.” This witness of the Bishop is supported by the following answers of Father Herman, himself, “How do you manage to live alone in the forest, Father Herman? Don’t you ever become lonesome?” He answered, “No I am not there alone! God is here, as God is everywhere. The Holy Angels are there. With whom is it better to talk, with people, or with Angels? Most certainly with Angels.” Herman and the Native Alaskans way in which Father Herman looked upon the natives of America, how he understood his own relations with them, and how he was concerned for their needs he expressed himself in one of his letters to the former administrator of the colony, Simeon Yanovsky. wrote, “Our Creator granted to our beloved homeland this land which like a newly-born babe does not yet have the strength for knowledge or understanding. It requires not only protection, because of its infantile weakness and impotence, but also his sustenance. Even for this it does not yet have the ability to make an appeal on its own behalf. And since the welfare of this nation by the Providence of God, it is not known for how long, is dependent on and has been entrusted into the hands of the Russian government which has now been given into your own power, therefore I, the most humble servant of these people, and their nurse (nyanka) stand before you in their behalf, write this petition with tears of blood. Be our Father and our Protector. Certainly we do not know how to be eloquent, so with an inarticulate infant’s tongue we say: Wipe away the tears of the defenseless orphans, cool the hearts melting away in the fire of sorrow. Help us to know what consolation means.” Elder acted the way he felt. He always interceded before the governors in behalf of those who had transgressed. He defended those who had been offended. He helped those who were in need with whatever means he had available. Aleuts, men, women and children, often visited him. Some asked for advice, others complained of oppression, others sought out defense, and still others desired help. Each one received the greatest possible satisfaction from the Elder. discussed their mutual difficulties, and he tried to settle these peacefully. He was especially concerned about reestablishing understanding in families. If he did not succeed in reconciling a husband and wife, the Elder prevailed upon them to separate temporarily. The need for such a procedure he explained thus, “it is better to let them live apart, or believe me, it can be terrible if they are not separated. There have been incidents when a husband killed his wife, or when a wife destroyed her husband.” Herman especially loved children. He made large quantities of biscuits for them, and he baked cookies (krendelki) for them; and the children were fond of the Elder. Father Herman’s love for the Aleuts reached the point of self-denial. Epidemic Strikes ship from the United States brought to Sitka Island, and from there to Kodiak Island, a contagious disease, a fatal illness. began with a fever, a heavy cold, and difficult respiration, and it ended with chills; in three days the victim died. On the island there was neither a doctor nor medicine. The illness spread rapidly through the village, and then throughout the nearby areas. The disease affected all, even infants. The fatalities were so great that for three days there was no one to dig graves, and the bodies remained unburied. An eyewitness said, “I cannot imagine anything more tragic and horrible than the sight which struck me when I visited an Aleutian ‘Kazhim’. This was a large building, or barracks, with dividing sections, in which the Aleuts lived with their families; it contained about 100 people. Here some had died, their cold bodies lay near the living; others were dying; there were groans and weeping which tore at one’s soul.” “I saw mothers over whose bodies cold in death crawled a hungry child, crying and searching in vain for its food...My heart was bursting with compassion! It seemed that if anyone could paint with a worthy brush the full horror of this tragic scene, that he would have successfully aroused fear of death in the most embittered heart.” Herman, during this terrible sickness which lasted a whole month, gradually dying out towards the end, visited the sick, never tiring. He admonished them in their fear, prayed, brought them to penance, or prepared them for death. He never spared himself. Herman as a Spiritual Teacher Elder was concerned in particular for the moral growth of the Aleuts. With this end in mind a school was built for children-the orphans of the Aleuts. himself taught them the Law of God and church music. For this same purpose he gathered the Aleuts on Sunday and Holy Days for prayer in the chapel near his cell. Here his disciple read the Hours and the various prayers while the Elder himself read the Epistle and Gospel. also preached to them. His students sang, and they sang very well. The Aleuts loved to hear his sermons, gathering around him in large numbers. The Elder’s talks were captivating, and his listeners were moved by their wonderous power. He himself writes of one example of the beneficial results of his words. “Glory to the holy destinies of the Merciful God! He has shown me now through his unfathomable Providence a new occurrence which I, who have lived here for twenty years had never seen before on Kodiak,” he wrote. “Recently after Easter, a young girl about twenty years of age who knows Russian well, came to me. heard of the Incarnation of the Son of God and of Eternal Life, she became so inflamed with love for Jesus Christ that she does not wish to leave me. She pleaded eloquently with me. Contrary to my personal inclination and love for solitude, and despite all the hindrances and difficulties which I put forward before accepting her, she has now been living near the school for a month and is not lonesome. looking on this with great wonder, remembered the words of the Savior: ‘that which is hidden from the wise and learned is revealed to babes’” (Matthew 11:25). woman lived at the school until the death of the Elder. She watched for the good conduct of the children who studied in his school. Father Herman willed that after his death she was to continue to live on Spruce Island. Her name was Sophia Vlasova. writes about the character and the eloquence of the talks of the Elder thus: “When I met Father Herman I was thirty years old. I must say that I was educated in the naval corps school; that I knew many sciences having read extensively. But to my regret, the Science of sciences, that is the Law of God, I barely remembered the externals—and these only theoretically, not applying them to life. I was a Christian in name only, but in my soul and in reality, I was a freethinker. I did not admit the divinity and holiness of our religion, for I had read through many atheistic works. Father Herman recognized this immediately and he desired to reconvert me. To my great surprise he spoke so convincingly, wisely—and he argued with such conviction—that it seemed to me that no learning or worldly wisdom could stand one’s ground before his words. conversed with him daily until midnight, and even later, of God’s love, of eternity, of the salvation of souls, and of Christian living. his lips flowed a ceaseless stream of sweet words! By these continual talks and by the prayers of the holy Elder the Lord returned me completely to the way of Truth, and I became a real Christian. I am indebted for all this to Father Herman he is my true benefactor. “Several years ago,” continues Yanovsky, “Father Herman converted a certain naval captain G. to Orthodoxy from the Lutheran Faith. This captain was well educated. Besides many sciences, he was well versed in languages. He knew Russian, English, German, French, Italian and also some Spanish. for all this he could not resist the convictions and proofs of Father Herman. He changed his faith and was united to the Orthodox Church through Chrismation. When he was leaving America, the Elder said to him while they were parting, “Be on guard, if the Lord should take your wife from you then do not marry a German woman under any circumstance. If you do marry a German woman, undoubtedly she will damage your Orthodoxy.” Captain gave his word, but he failed to keep it. The warning of the Elder was prophetic. Indeed, after several years the Captain’s wife did die, and he married a German woman. There is no doubt that his faith weakened or that he left it; for he died suddenly without penance.” on Yanovsky writes, “Once the Elder was invited aboard a frigate which came from Saint Petersburg. The Captain of the frigate was a highly educated man, who had been sent to America by order of the Emperor to make an inspection of all the colonies. There were more than twenty-five officers with the Captain, and they also were educated men. In the company of this group sat a monk of a hermitage, small in stature and wearing very old clothes. All these educated conversationalists were placed in such a position by his wise talks that they did not know how to answer him. The Captain himself used to say, ‘We were lost for an answer before him.’ “Father Herman gave them all one general question: ‘Gentlemen, What do you love above all, and what will each of you wish for your happiness?’ answers were offered ... Some desired wealth, others glory, some a beautiful wife, and still others a beautiful ship he would captain; and so forth in the same vein. ‘It is not true,’ Father Herman said to them concerning this, ‘that all your various wishes can bring us to one conclusion—that each of you desires that which in his own understanding he considers the best, and which is most worthy of his love?’ They all answered, ‘Yes, that is so!’ He then continued, ‘Would you not say, Is not that which is best, above all, and surpassing all, and that which by preference is most worthy of love, the Very Lord, our Jesus Christ, who created us, adorned us with such ideals, gave life to all, sustains everything, nurtures and loves all, who is Himself Love and most beautiful of all men? Should we not then love God above every thing, desire Him more than anything, and search Him out?’ “All said, ‘Why, yes! That’s self-evident!’ Then the Elder asked, ‘But do you love God?’ They all answered, ‘Certainly, we love God. How can we not love God?’ ‘And I a sinner have been trying for more than forty years to love God, I cannot say that I love Him completely,’ Father Herman protested to them. then began to demonstrate to them the way in which we should love God. ‘If we love someone,’ he said, ‘we always remember them; we try to please them. Day and night our heart is concerned with the subject. that the way you gentlemen love God? Do you turn to Him often? Do you always remember Him? Do you always pray to Him and fulfill His holy commandments?’ had to admit that they had not! ‘For our own good, and for our own fortune,’ concluded the Elder, ‘let us at least promise ourselves that from this very minute we will try to love God more than anything and to fulfill His Holy Will!’ Without any doubt this conversation was imprinted in the hearts of the listeners for the rest of their lives.’ “In general, Father Herman liked to talk of eternity, of salvation of the future life, of our destinies under God. He often talked on the lives of the Saints, on the Prologue, but he never spoke about anything frivolous. was so pleasant to hear him that those who conversed with him, the Aleuts and their wives, were so captivated by his talks that often they did not leave him until dawn, and then they left him with reluctance;” thus witnesses the Creole, Constantine Larionov. Description of Father Herman writes a detailed description of Father Herman. “I have a vivid memory,” he said, “Of all the features of the Elder’s face reflecting goodness; his pleasant smile, his meek and attractive mien, his humble and quiet behavior, and his gracious word. He was short of stature. face was pale and covered with wrinkles. eyes were greyish-blue, full of sparkle, on his head there were a few gray hairs. voice was not powerful, but it was very pleasant.” relates two incidents from his conversations with the Elder. “Once,” he writes, “I read to Father Herman the ode, ‘God,’ by Derzhavin. The Elder was surprised, and entranced. He asked me to read it again. I read it once more, “Is it possible that a simple, educated man wrote this?” he asked. “Yes, a learned poet,” I answered. “This has been written under God’s inspiration,” said the Elder. Martyrdom of Peter “On another occasion I was relating to him how the Spanish in California had imprisoned fourteen Aleuts, and how the Jesuits were forcing all of them to accept the Catholic Faith. this Aleut would not agree under any circumstances, saying, ‘We are Christians.’ The Jesuits protested, ‘That’s not true; you are heretics and schismatics. If you do not agree to accept our faith then we will torture all of you.’ Then the Aleuts were placed in cells until evening; two to a cell. At night the Jesuits came to the prison with lanterns and lighted candles. They began to persuade the Aleuts in the cell once again to accept the Catholic Faith. ‘We are Christians,’ was the answer of the Aleuts, ‘and we will not change our Faith.’ Then the Jesuits began to torture them, at first the one while his companion was the witness. cut the toes off his feet, first one joint and then the other joint. And then they cut the first joint on the fingers of the hands, and then the other joint. Afterwards they cut off his feet, and his hands; the blood flowed. The martyr endured all and steadfastly insisted on one thing: ’I am a Christian.’ In such suffering, he bled to death. Jesuit promised to torture to death his comrades also on the next day.... that night an order was received from Monterey stating that the imprisoned Aleuts were to be released immediately, and sent there under escort. Therefore, in the morning all were dispatched to Monterey with the exception of the martyred Aleut. was related to me by a witness, the same Aleut who was the comrade of the tortured Aleut. Afterwards he escaped from imprisonment, and I reported this incident to the supreme authorities in Saint Petersburg. I finished my story, Father Herman asked, ‘And how did they call the martyred Aleut?’ I answered, ‘Peter; I do not remember his family name.’ The Elder stood up before an icon reverently, made the sign of the Cross and pronounced, ’Holy newly-martyred Peter, pray to God for us!’” Spirit of Father Herman’s Teaching order to express the spirit of Father Herman’s teaching, we present here a quotation from a letter that was written by his own hand. “The empty years of these desires separate us from our heavenly homeland, and our Love for these desires and our habits clothe us, as it were, in an odious dress; it is called by the Apostle ‘the external (earthy) man’ (1 Corinthians 15:47). who are wanderers in the journey of this life call to God for aid. We must divest ourselves of this repulsiveness, and put on new desires, and a new love for the coming age. Thus, through this we will know either an attraction or a repulsion for the heavenly homeland. It is possible to do this quickly, but we must follow the example of the sick, who wishing for desired health, do not stop searching for means of curing themselves. But I am not speaking clearly.” desiring anything for himself in life, when he first came to America, he refused in his humility the dignity of hieromonk and archimandrite, deciding to remain forever a common monk, Father Herman, without the least fear before the powerful, strove with all sincerity for God. With gentle love, and disregarding the person, he criticized many for intemperate living, for unworthy behavior, and for oppressing the Aleuts. Evil armed itself against him and gave him all sorts of trouble and sorrow. But God protected the Elder. Administrator of the Colony, Yanovsky, not having yet seen Father Herman, after receiving one of those complaints, had already written to Saint Petersburg of the necessity of his removal. He explained that it seemed that he was arousing the Aleuts against the administration. But this accusation turned out to be unjust, and in the end Yanovsky was numbered among the admirers of Father Herman. an inspector came to Spruce Island with the Administrator of the Colony and with company employees to search through Father Herman’s cell. This party expected to find property of great value in Father Herman’s cell. But when they found nothing of value, an employee of the American Company, Ponomarkhov, began to tear up the floor with an axe, undoubtedly with the consent of his seniors. Then Father Herman said to him, “My friend, you have lifted the axe in vain; this weapon shall deprive you of your life.” Some time later people were needed at Fort Nicholas, and for that reason several Russian employees were sent there from Kodiak; among them was Ponomarkhov; there the natives of Kenai cut off his head while he slept. Temptations of Father Herman great sorrows were borne by Father Herman from evil spirits. He himself revealed this to his disciple, Gerasim. Once when he entered Father Herman’s cell without the usual prayer he received no answer from Father Herman to any of his questions. The next day Gerasim asked him the reason for his silence. On that occasion Father Herman said to him, “When I came to this island and settled in this hermitage the evil spirits approached me ostensibly to be helpful. They came in the form of a man, and in the form of animals. I suffered much from them; from various afflictions and temptations. And that is why I do not speak now to anyone who enters into my presence without prayer.” (It is customary among devout laymen, as well as clergy, to say out loud a prayer, and upon hearing a response ending with Amen, to enter and go to the icon in the room to reverence it, and to say a prayer before greeting the host). Gifts from God dedicated himself fully for the Lord’s service; he strove with zeal solely for the glorification of His Most Holy Name. Far from his homeland in the midst of a variety of afflictions and privations Father Herman spent several decades performing the noblest deeds of self-sacrifice. He was privileged to receive many supernatural gifts from God. the midst of Spruce Island down the hill flows a little stream into the sea. The mouth of this stream was always swept by surf. In the spring when the brook fish appeared the Elder raked away some of the sand at its mouth so that the fish could enter, and at their first appearance they rushed up the stream. His disciple, lgnaty, said, “it was so that if ‘Apa’ would tell me, I would go and get fish in the stream!” Father Herman fed the birds with dried fish, and they would gather in great numbers around his cell. Underneath his cell there lived an ermine. This little animal can not be approached when it has had its young, but the Elder fed it from his own hand. “Was not this a miracle that we had seen?” said his disciple, Ignaty. They also saw Father Herman feeding bears. But when Father Herman died the birds and animals left; even the garden would not give any sort of crops even though someone had willingly taken care of it, Ignaty insisted. Spruce Island there once occurred a flood. The inhabitants came to the Elder in great fear. Father Herman then took an icon of the Mother of God from the home where his students lived, and placed it on a “laida” (a sandy bank) and began to pray. After his prayer he turned to those present and said,“Have no fear, the water will not go any higher than the place where this holy icon stands.” The words of the Elder were fulfilled. After this he promised the same aid from this holy icon in the future, through the intercessions of the Mother of God. He entrusted the icon to his disciple Sophia; in case of future floods the icon was to be placed on the “laida.” This icon is preserved on the island to this day. the request of the Elder, Baron F. P. Wrangel wrote a letter to a Metropolitan (his name is not known) which was dictated by Father Herman. When the letter was completed and read, the Elder congratulated the Baron upon his attaining the rank of admiral. The Baron was taken aback. This was news to him. It was confirmed, but only after an elapse of some time, and just before he departed for Saint Petersburg. Herman said to the administrator Kashevarov, from whom he accepted his son from the font (during the Sacrament of Baptism), “I am sorry for you, my dear ‘kum.’ It’s a shame; the change will be unpleasant for you.” In two years, during a change of administration, Kashevarov was sent to Sitka in chains. the forest on Spruce Island caught fire. The Elder, with his disciple Ignaty, in a thicket of the forest made a belt about a yard wide in which they turned over the moss. They extended it to the foot of the hill. The Elder said, “Rest assured, the fire will not pass this line.” On the next day, according to the testimony of Ignaty, there was no hope of salvation (from the fire) and the fire, pushed by a strong wind, reached the place where the moss had been turned over by the Elder. The fire ran over the moss and halted, leaving untouched the thick forest which was beyond the line. Elder often said that there would be a Bishop for America; this at a time when no one even thought of it, and there was no hope that there would be a Bishop for America. This was related by Bishop Peter, and his prophecy was fulfilled in time. “After my death,” said Father Herman, “there will be an epidemic, many people shall die during it, and the Russians shall unite the Aleuts.” And so it happened. It seems that about a half a year after his passing, there was a smallpox epidemic; the death rate in America during the epidemic was tremendous. In some villages, only a few inhabitants remained alive. This led the administration of the colony to unite the Aleuts; the twelve settlements were consolidated into seven. “Although a long time shall elapse after my death, I will not be forgotten” said Father Herman to his disciples. “My place of habitation will not remain empty. A monk like me, who will be escaping from the glory of men, will come and he will live on Spruce Island, and Spruce Island will not be without people.” (This prophecy has now been fulfilled in its entirety. Just such a monk as Father Herman described lived on Spruce Island for many years; his name was Archimandrite Gerasim, who died on October 13, 1969. This monk took on himself the responsibility of taking care of the Chapel under which the Elder Herman was first buried. Metropolitan Leonty, soon after his elevation to the primacy of the Russian Orthodox Church in America, made a pilgrimage to Spruce Island, and the grave of Herman. for the Future Creole Constantine, when he was not more than twelve years old, was asked by Father Herman, “My beloved one, what do you think; this chapel which they are building now, will it ever stand empty?” The youngster answered, “I do not know, Apa.” “Indeed,” said Constantine, “I did not understand his question at that time, even though the whole conversation with the Elder remains vivid in my memory.” The Elder remained silent for some time, and then said, “My child, remember, in time there will be a monastery in this place.” Herman said to his disciple the Aleut Ignaty Aligyaga, “Thirty years shall pass after my death, and all those living on Spruce Island will have died, but you alone will remain alive. You will be old and poor when I will be remembered.” And indeed after the death of Father Herman thirty years passed when they were reminded of him, and they began to gather information and facts about him, on the basis of which his Life was written. “It is amazing,” exclaims Ignaty, “how a man like us could know all this so long before it happened! However, no, he was no ordinary man! He knew our thoughts, and involuntarily he led us to the point where we revealed them to him, and we received counsel from him.” “When I die,” the Elder said to his disciple, “you will bury me alongside Father Joasaph. You will bury me by yourself, for you will not wait for the priest. Do not wash my body. Lay it on a board. Clasp my hands over my chest, wrap me in my mantia (the monk’s outer cloak), and with its wings cover my face and place the klobuk (monastic head covering) on my head. If anyone wishes to bid farewell to me, let them kiss the Cross. Do not show my face to anyone....” Repose of Father Herman time of the Elder’s passing had come. One day he ordered his disciple Gerasim to light a candle before the Icons, and to read the Acts of the Holy Apostles. After some time his face glowed brightly and he said in a loud voice, “Glory to Thee, O Lord!” He then ordered the reading to be halted, and he announced that the Lord had willed that his life would now be spared for another week. A week later, again by his orders, candles were lit, and the Acts of the Holy Apostles were read. Quietly, the Elder bowed his head on Gerasim’s chest; the cell was filled with a sweet-smelling odor; and his face glowed, and Father Herman was no more! Thus he died in blessedness, he passed away in the sleep of a righteous man in the eighty-first year of his life of great labor the 25th day of December 1837. (It was the 13th of December according to the Julian Calendar, although there are some records which state that he died on November 28th and was buried on December 26th). sent with the sad news to the harbor returned to announce that the administrator of the colony Kashevarov had forbidden the burial of the Elder until his own arrival. He also ordered that a finer coffin be made for Father Herman, and that he would come as soon as possible and would bring a priest with him. But then a great wind came up, a rain fell, and a terrible storm broke. The distance from the harbor to Spruce Island is not great—about a two hour journey—but no one would agree to go to sea in such weather. Thus it continued for a full month, and although the body lay in state for a full month in the warm house of his students, his face did not undergo any change at all, and not the slightest odor emanated from his body. Finally, through the efforts of Kuzma Uchilischev, a coffin was obtained. No one arrived from the harbor, and the inhabitants of Spruce Island alone buried the remains of the Elder in the ground. Thus the words which Father Herman uttered before his death were fulfilled. After this the wind quieted down, and the surface of the sea became as smooth as a mirror. evening, above the village Katani (on Afognak) an unusual pillar of light which reached up to heaven was seen above Spruce Island. Astonished by the miraculous appearance, experienced elders and the Creole Gerasim Vologdin and his wife Anna said, “It seems that Father Herman has left us,” and they began to pray. After a time, they were informed that the Elder had indeed passed away that very night. This same pillar was seen in various places by others. On the night of his death a vision was seen in another of the settlements on Afognak; it seemed as though a man was rising from Spruce Island into the clouds. disciples buried their father, and placed a wooden memorial marker above his grave. Father Peter Kashevarov, the priest on Kodiak, says, “I saw it myself, and I can say that today it seems as though it had never been touched by time; as though it had been cut this day.” witnessed the life of Father Herman glorified by his zealous labors, having seen his miracles, and the fulfillment of his predictions, finally having observed his blessed falling asleep, “in general, all the local inhabitants,” Bishop Peter witnesses, “have the highest esteem for him, as though he was a holy ascetic, and they are fully convinced that he has found favor in the presence of God.” 1842, five years after the passing away of the Elder, Archbishop Innocent of Kamchatka and the Aleutians, was near Kodiak on a sailing vessel which was in great distress. He looked to Spruce Island, and said to himself, “If you have found favor in God’s presence, Father Herman then may the wind change.” It seems as though not more than fifteen minutes had passed, said the bishop, when the wind became favorable, and he successfully reached the shore. In thanksgiving for being saved, Archbishop Innocent himself conducted a Memorial Service (Panikhida) over the grave of the blessed Father Herman. O Holy Father Herman of Alaska, pray unto God for us!

US, 1776-1836, Herman of Alaska, miracle MOG healing, hesychast, peacemaker, prophet, animals, light pillar
Moscow, 1772-1836, Priest, Herman of Alaska; Glorification of the Venerable Herman of Alaska, Wonderworker of All America, Commemorated on August 9 ; spiritual mission was organized in 1793, made up of monks of the Valaam Monastery. They were sent to preach the Word of God to the native inhabitants of northwestern America, who only ten years before had come under the sovereignty of Russia. Saint Herman was among the members of this Mission. Saint Herman came from a family of merchants of Serpukhov, a city of the Moscow Diocese. His name before he was tonsured, and his family name are not known. (The monastic name is given when a monk takes his vows). He had a great zeal for piety from youth, and at sixteen he entered monastic life. (This was in 1772, if we assume that Herman was born in 1756, although sometimes 1760 is given as the date of his birth.) First he entered the Trinity-Sergius Hermitage which was located near the Gulf of Finland on the Peterhof Road, about 15 versts (about 10 miles) from Saint Petersburg. Healing the Saint Sergius Hermitage there occurred the following incident to Father Herman. On the right side of his throat under his chin there appeared an abscess. The swelling grew rapidly, disfiguring his face. It became difficult for him to swallow, and the odor was unbearable. In this critical condition Father Herman awaited death. He did not appeal to a physician of this world, but locking his cell he fell before an icon of the Mother of God. With fervent tears he prayed, asking of Her that he might be healed. He prayed the whole night. Then he took a wet towel and with it wiped the face of the Most Holy Mother, and with this towel he covered the swelling. He continued to pray with tears until he fell asleep from sheer exhaustion on the floor. In a dream he saw the Virgin Mary healing him. Herman awoke in the morning, he found to his great surprise that he was fully healed. The swelling had disappeared, even though the abscess had not broken through, leaving behind but a small mark as though a reminder of the miracle. Physicians to whom this healing was described did not believe it, arguing that it was necessary for the abscess to have either broken through of its own accord or to have been cut open. But the words of the physicians were the words of human experience, for where the grace of God operates there the order of nature is overcome. Such occurrences humble human reason under the strong hand of God’s Mercy. at Valaam five or six years Father Herman continued to live in the Saint Sergius Hermitage, and then he transferred to the Valaam Monastery, which was widely scattered on the large islands in the waters of the great Lake Ladoga. He came to love the Valaam haven with all his soul, as he came to love its unforgettable Superior, the pious Elder Nazarius, and all the brethren. He wrote to Father Nazarius later from America, “Your fatherly goodness to me, humble one, will be erased out of my heart neither by the terrible, unpassable Siberian lands, nor by the dark forests. Nor will it be wiped out by the swift flow of the great rivers; nor will the awful ocean quench these feelings. In my mind I imagine my beloved Valaam, looking to it beyond the great ocean.” He praised the Elder Nazarius in his letters as, “the most reverend, and my beloved father,” and the brethren of Valaam he called, “my beloved and dearest.” The place where he lived in America, deserted Spruce Island, he called “New Valaam.” And as we can see, he always remained in spiritual contact with his spiritual homeland, for as late as 1823, that is after thirty years of his life within the borders of America, he wrote letters to the successor of Father Nazarius, the lgumen Innocent. Barlaam, later lgumen of Valaam, and a contemporary of Father Herman, who accepted his tonsure from Father Nazarius, wrote thus of the life of Father Herman. “Father Herman went through the various obediences here, and being ‘well disposed toward every thing’ was in the course of events sent to Serdobol to oversee there the work of quarrying marble. The Brothers loved Father Herman, and awaited impatiently his return to the cloisters from Serdobol. Recognizing the zeal of the young hermit the wise elder, Father Nazarius, released him to take abode in the wilderness. This wilderness was in the deep forest about a mile from the cloister: to this day this place has retained the name ‘Herman’s.’ On holy days, Father Herman returned to the monastery from the wilderness. Then it was that at Little Vespers he would stand in the choir and sing in his pleasant tenor the responses with the brethren from the Canon, ‘O Sweetest Jesus, save us sinners. Most Holy Theotokos, Save us,’ and tears would fall like hail from his eyes.” First Mission to America the second half of the 18th century the borders of Holy Russia expanded to the north. In those years Russian merchants discovered the Aleutian Islands which formed in the Pacific Ocean a chain from the eastern shores of Kamchatka to the western shores of North America. With the opening of these islands there was revealed the sacred necessity to illumine with the light of the Gospel the native inhabitants. With the blessing of the Holy Synod, Metropolitan Gabriel gave to the Elder Nazarius the task of selecting capable persons from the brethern of Valaam for this holy endeavor. Ten men were selected, and among them was Father Herman. The chosen men left Valaam for the place of their great appointment in 1793. (The members of this historical mission were: Archimandrite Joseph (Bolotoff); the hieromonks Juvenal, Macarius, Athanasius, Stephan, and Nectarius; hierodeacons Nectarius and Stephen; and the monks Joasaph and Herman.) a result of the holy zeal of the preachers the light of the evangelic sermon quickly poured out among the sons of Russia, and several thousand pagans accepted Christianity. A school for the education of newly-baptized children was organized, and a church was built at the place where the missionaries lived. But by the inscrutable providence of God the general progress of the mission was unsatisfactory. After five years of very productive labor, Archimandrite Joasaph, who had just been elevated to the rank of bishop, was drowned with his party. (This occurred on the Pacific Ocean between Kamchatka and the Aleutian Islands. The ship, Phoenix, one of the first sea-going ships built in Alaska, sailed from Okhotsk carrying the first Bishop for the American Mission and his party. The Phoenix was caught in one of the many storms which periodically sweep the northern Pacific, and the ship and all hands perished together with Bishop Joasaph and his party.) Before this the zealous Hieromonk Juvenal was granted the martyr’s crown. The others died one after another until in the end only Father Herman remained. The Lord permitted him to labor longer than any of his brethren in the apostolic task of enlightening the Aleutians. New Valaam — Spruce Island America, Father Herman chose as his place of habitation Spruce Island, which he called New Valaam. This island is separated by a strait about a mile and a quarter wide from Kodiak Island on which had been built a wooden monastery for the residence of the members of the mission, and a wooden church dedicated to the Resurrection of the Savior. (New Valaam was named for Valaam on Lake Ladoga, the monastery from which Father Herman came to America. It is interesting to note that Valaam is also located on an island, although, this island is in a fresh water lake, whereas, Spruce Island is on the Pacific Ocean, although near other islands and the Alaskan mainland.) Island is not large, and is almost completely covered by a forest. Almost through its middle a small brook flows to the sea. Herman selected this picturesque island for the location of his hermitage. He dug a cave out of the ground with his own hands, and in it he lived his first full summer. For winter there was built for him a cell near the cave, in which he lived until his death. The cave was converted by him into a place for his burial. A wooden chapel, and a wooden house to be used as a schoolhouse and a guest house were built not too distant from his cell. A garden was laid out in front of his cell. For more than forty years Father Herman lived here. Herman’s Way of Life Herman himself spaded the garden, planted potatoes and cabbage and various vegetables in it. For winter, he preserved mushrooms, salting or drying them. The salt was obtained by him from ocean water. It is said that a wicker basket in which the Elder carried seaweed from the shore, was so large that it was difficult for one person to carry. The seaweed was used for fertilizing the soil. But to the astonishment of all, Father Herman carried a basket filled with seaweed for a long distance without any help at all. By chance his disciple, Gerasim, saw him one winter night carrying a large log which normally would be carried by four men; and he was bare footed. Thus worked the Elder, and everything that he acquired as a result of his immeasurable labors was used for the feeding and clothing of orphans and also for books for his students. clothes were the same for winter as for summer. He did not wear a shirt; instead he wore a smock of deer skin, which he did not take off for several years at a time, nor did he change it, so that the fur in it was completely worn away, and the leather became glossy. Then there were his boots or shoes, cassock (podrasnik), an ancient and faded out cassock (riasa) full of patchwork, and his headdress (klobuk). He went everywhere in these clothes, and at all times; in the rain, in snowstorms, and during the coldest freezing weather. In this, Father Herman followed the example of many Eastern Ascetic Fathers and Monks who showed the greatest concern for the welfare and needs of others. Yet, they themselves wore the oldest possible clothes to show their great humility before God, and their detachment from worldly things. small bench covered with a time-worn deerskin served as Father Herman’s bed. He used two bricks for a pillow; these were hidden from visitors by a skin or a shirt. There was no blanket. Instead, he covered himself with a wooden board which lay on the stove. This board Father Herman himself called his blanket, and he willed that it be used to cover his remains; it was as long as he was tall. “During my stay in the cell of Father Herman,” writes the creole Constantine Larionov, “I, a sinner, sat on his ‘blanket’-and I consider this the acme of my fortune!” (‘creole’ is the name by which the Russians referred to the children of mixed marriages of native Indians of Alaska, Eskimo and Aleuts with Russians.) the occasions when Father Herman was the guest of administrators of the American Company and in the course of their soul-saving talks he sat up with them until midnight. He never spent the night with them, but regardless of the weather he always returned to his hermitage. If for some extraordinary reason it was necessary for him to spend the night away from his cell, then in the morning the bed which had been prepared for him would be found untouched; the Elder not having slept at all. The same was true in his hermitage where having spent the night in talks, he never rested. Elder ate very little. As a guest, he scarcely tasted the food, and remained without dinner. In his cell his dinner consisted of a very small portion of a small fish or some vegetables. His body, emaciated as a result of his labors, his vigils, and fasting, was crushed by chains which weighed about sixteen pounds. These chains are kept to this day in the chapel. Telling of these deeds of Father Herman, his disciple, the Aleut Ignaty Aligyaga, added, “Yes, Apa led a very hard life, and no one can imitate his life!” (The Aleutian word “Apa” means Elder or grandfather, and it is a name indicative of the great affection in which he was held). writing of the incidents in the life of the Elder deal, so to speak, with the external aspects of his labor. “His most important works,” says the Bishop Peter, “were his exercises in spiritual endeavor in his isolated cell where no one saw him, but outside the cell they heard him singing and celebrating services to God according to the monastic rule.” This witness of the Bishop is supported by the following answers of Father Herman, himself: “How do you manage to live alone in the forest, Father Herman? Don’t you ever become lonesome?” He answered, “No I am not there alone! God is here, as God is everywhere. The Holy Angels are there. With whom is it better to talk, with people, or with Angels? Most certainly with Angels.” Herman and the Native Alaskans way in which Father Herman looked upon the natives of America, how he understood his own relations with them, and how he was concerned for their needs he expressed himself in one of his letters to the former administrator of the colony, Simeon Yanovsky. He wrote, “Our Creator granted to our beloved homeland this land which like a newly-born babe does not yet have the strength for knowledge or understanding. It requires not only protection, because of its infantile weakness and impotence, but also his sustenance. Even for this it does not yet have the ability to make an appeal on its own behalf. And since the welfare of this nation by the Providence of God, it is not known for how long, is dependent on and has been entrusted into the hands of the Russian government which has now been given into your own power, therefore I, the most humble servant of these people, and their nurse (nyanka) stand before you in their behalf, write this petition with tears of blood. Be our Father and our Protector. Certainly we do not know how to be eloquent, so with an inarticulate infant’s tongue we say: Wipe away the tears of the defenseless orphans, cool the hearts melting away in the fire of sorrow. Help us to know what consolation means.” Elder acted the way he felt. He always interceded before the governors on behalf of those who had transgressed. He defended those who had been offended. He helped those who were in need with whatever means he had available. The Aleuts, men, women and children, often visited him. Some asked for advice, others complained of oppression, others sought out defense, and still others desired help. Each one received the greatest possible satisfaction from the Elder. He discussed their mutual difficulties, and he tried to settle these peacefully. He was especially concerned about reestablishing understanding in families. If he did not succeed in reconciling a husband and wife, the Elder prevailed upon them to separate temporarily. The need for such a procedure he explained thus, “it is better to let them live apart, or believe me, it can be terrible if they are not separated. There have been incidents when a husband killed his wife, or when a wife destroyed her husband.” Herman especially loved children. He made large quantities of biscuits for them, and he baked cookies (krendelki) for them; and the children were fond of the Elder. Father Herman’s love for the Aleuts reached the point of self-denial. Epidemic Strikes ship from the United States brought to Sitka Island, and from there to Kodiak Island, a contagious disease, a fatal illness. It began with a fever, a heavy cold, and difficult respiration, and it ended with chills; in three days the victim died. On the island there was neither a doctor nor medicine. The illness spread rapidly through the village, and then throughout the nearby areas. The disease affected all, even infants. The fatalities were so great that for three days there was no one to dig graves, and the bodies remained unburied. An eyewitness said, “I cannot imagine anything more tragic and horrible than the sight which struck me when I visited an Aleutian ‘Kazhim’. This was a large building, or barracks, with dividing sections, in which the Aleuts lived with their families; it contained about 100 people. Here some had died, their cold bodies lay near the living; others were dying; there were groans and weeping which tore at one’s soul.” “I saw mothers over whose bodies cold in death crawled a hungry child, crying and searching in vain for its food...My heart was bursting with compassion! It seemed that if anyone could paint with a worthy brush the full horror of this tragic scene, that he would have successfully aroused fear of death in the most embittered heart.” Father Herman, during this terrible sickness which lasted a whole month, gradually dying out towards the end, visited the sick, never tiring. He admonished them in their fear, prayed, brought them to penance, or prepared them for death. He never spared himself. Herman as a Spiritual Teacher Elder was concerned in particular for the moral growth of the Aleuts. With this end in mind a school was built for children-the orphans of the Aleuts. He himself taught them the Law of God and church music. For this same purpose he gathered the Aleuts on Sunday and Holy Days for prayer in the chapel near his cell. Here his disciple read the Hours and the various prayers while the Elder himself read the Epistle and Gospel. He also preached to them. His students sang, and they sang very well. The Aleuts loved to hear his sermons, gathering around him in large numbers. The Elder’s talks were captivating, and his listeners were moved by their wonderous power. He himself writes of one example of the beneficial results of his words. “Glory to the holy destinies of the Merciful God! He has shown me now through his unfathomable Providence a new occurrence which I, who have lived here for twenty years had never seen before on Kodiak,” he wrote. “Recently after Easter, a young girl about twenty years of age who knows Russian well, came to me. Having heard of the Incarnation of the Son of God and of Eternal Life, she became so inflamed with love for Jesus Christ that she does not wish to leave me. She pleaded eloquently with me. Contrary to my personal inclination and love for solitude, and despite all the hindrances and difficulties which I put forward before accepting her, she has now been living near the school for a month and is not lonesome. I, looking on this with great wonder, remembered the words of the Savior: ‘that which is hidden from the wise and learned is revealed to babes’” (Matthew 11:25). woman lived at the school until the death of the Elder. She watched for the good conduct of the children who studied in his school. Father Herman willed that after his death she was to continue to live on Spruce Island. Her name was Sophia Vlasova. writes about the character and the eloquence of the talks of the Elder thus: “When I met Father Herman I was thirty years old. I must say that I was educated in the naval corps school; that I knew many sciences having read extensively. But to my regret, the Science of sciences, that is the Law of God, I barely remembered the externals—and these only theoretically, not applying them to life. I was a Christian in name only, but in my soul and in reality, I was a freethinker. Furthermore, I did not admit the divinity and holiness of our religion, for I had read through many atheistic works. Father Herman recognized this immediately and he desired to reconvert me. To my great surprise he spoke so convincingly, wisely—and he argued with such conviction—that it seemed to me that no learning or worldly wisdom could stand one’s ground before his words. We conversed with him daily until midnight, and even later, of God’s love, of eternity, of the salvation of souls, and of Christian living. From his lips flowed a ceaseless stream of sweet words! By these continual talks and by the prayers of the holy Elder the Lord returned me completely to the way of Truth, and I became a real Christian. I am indebted for all this to Father Herman; he is my true benefactor. “Several years ago,” continues Yanovsky, “Father Herman converted a certain naval captain G. to Orthodoxy from the Lutheran Faith. This captain was well educated. Besides many sciences, he was well versed in languages. He knew Russian, English, German, French, Italian and also some Spanish. But for all this he could not resist the convictions and proofs of Father Herman. He changed his faith and was united to the Orthodox Church through Chrismation. When he was leaving America, the Elder said to him while they were parting, “Be on guard, if the Lord should take your wife from you then do not marry a German woman under any circumstance. If you do marry a German woman, undoubtedly she will damage your Orthodoxy.” The Captain gave his word, but he failed to keep it. The warning of the Elder was prophetic. Indeed, after several years the Captain’s wife did die, and he married a German woman. There is no doubt that his faith weakened or that he left it; for he died suddenly without penance.” on Yanovsky writes, “Once the Elder was invited aboard a frigate which came from Saint Petersburg. The Captain of the frigate was a highly educated man, who had been sent to America by order of the Emperor to make an inspection of all the colonies. There were more than twenty-five officers with the Captain, and they also were educated men. In the company of this group sat a monk of a hermitage, small in stature and wearing very old clothes. All these educated conversationalists were placed in such a position by his wise talks that they did not know how to answer him. The Captain himself used to say, ‘We were lost for an answer before him.’ “Father Herman gave them all one general question: ‘Gentlemen, What do you love above all, and what will each of you wish for your happiness?’ Various answers were offered ... Some desired wealth, others glory, some a beautiful wife, and still others a beautiful ship he would captain; and so forth in the same vein. ‘It is not true,’ Father Herman said to them concerning this, ‘that all your various wishes can bring us to one conclusion—that each of you desires that which in his own understanding he considers the best, and which is most worthy of his love?’ They all answered, ‘Yes, that is so!’ He then continued, ‘Would you not say, Is not that which is best, above all, and surpassing all, and that which by preference is most worthy of love, the Very Lord, our Jesus Christ, who created us, adorned us with such ideals, gave life to all, sustains everything, nurtures and loves all, who is Himself Love and most beautiful of all men? Should we not then love God above every thing, desire Him more than anything, and search Him out?’ “All said, ‘Why, yes! That’s self-evident!’ Then the Elder asked, ‘But do you love God?’ They all answered, ‘Certainly, we love God. How can we not love God?’ ‘And I a sinner have been trying for more than forty years to love God, I cannot say that I love Him completely,’ Father Herman protested to them. He then began to demonstrate to them the way in which we should love God. ‘If we love someone,’ he said, ‘we always remember them; we try to please them. Day and night our heart is concerned with the subject. Is that the way you gentlemen love God? Do you turn to Him often? Do you always remember Him? Do you always pray to Him and fulfill His holy commandments?’ They had to admit that they had not! ‘For our own good, and for our own fortune,’ concluded the Elder, ‘let us at least promise ourselves that from this very minute we will try to love God more than anything and to fulfill His Holy Will!’ Without any doubt this conversation was imprinted in the hearts of the listeners for the rest of their lives.’ “In general, Father Herman liked to talk of eternity, of salvation of the future life, of our destinies under God. He often talked on the lives of the Saints, on the Prologue, but he never spoke about anything frivolous. It was so pleasant to hear him that those who conversed with him, the Aleuts and their wives, were so captivated by his talks that often they did not leave him until dawn, and then they left him with reluctance;” thus witnesses the Creole, Constantine Larionov. Description of Father Herman writes a detailed description of Father Herman. “I have a vivid memory,” he said, “Of all the features of the Elder’s face reflecting goodness; his pleasant smile, his meek and attractive mien, his humble and quiet behavior, and his gracious word. He was short of stature. His face was pale and covered with wrinkles. His eyes were greyish-blue, full of sparkle, and on his head there were a few gray hairs. His voice was not powerful, but it was very pleasant.” Yanovsky relates two incidents from his conversations with the Elder. “Once,” he writes, “I read to Father Herman the ode, ‘God,’ by Derzhavin. The Elder was surprised, and entranced. He asked me to read it again. I read it once more, “Is it possible that a simple, educated man wrote this?” he asked. “Yes, a learned poet,” I answered. “This has been written under God’s inspiration,” said the Elder. Martyrdom of Peter “On another occasion I was relating to him how the Spanish in California had imprisoned fourteen Aleuts, and how the Jesuits were forcing all of them to accept the Catholic Faith. But this Aleut would not agree under any circumstances, saying, ‘We are Christians.’ The Jesuits protested, ‘That’s not true; you are heretics and schismatics. If you do not agree to accept our faith then we will torture all of you.’ Then the Aleuts were placed in cells until evening; two to a cell. At night the Jesuits came to the prison with lanterns and lighted candles. They began to persuade the Aleuts in the cell once again to accept the Catholic Faith. ‘We are Christians,’ was the answer of the Aleuts, ‘and we will not change our Faith.’ Then the Jesuits began to torture them, at first the one while his companion was the witness. They cut the toes off his feet, first one joint and then the other joint. And then they cut the first joint on the fingers of the hands, and then the other joint. Afterwards they cut off his feet, and his hands; the blood flowed. The martyr endured all and steadfastly insisted on one thing: ’I am a Christian.’ In such suffering, he bled to death. The Jesuit promised to torture to death his comrades also on the next day.... But that night an order was received from Monterey stating that the imprisoned Aleuts were to be released immediately, and sent there under escort. Therefore, in the morning all were dispatched to Monterey with the exception of the martyred Aleut. This was related to me by a witness, the same Aleut who was the comrade of the tortured Aleut. Afterwards he escaped from imprisonment, and I reported this incident to the supreme authorities in Saint Petersburg. When I finished my story, Father Herman asked, ‘And how did they call the martyred Aleut?’ I answered, ‘Peter; I do not remember his family name.’ The Elder stood up before an icon reverently, made the sign of the Cross and pronounced, ’Holy newly-martyred Peter, pray to God for us!’” Spirit of Father Herman’s Teaching order to express the spirit of Father Herman’s teaching, we present here a quotation from a letter that was written by his own hand. “The empty years of these desires separate us from our heavenly homeland, and our Love for these desires and our habits clothe us, as it were, in an odious dress; it is called by the Apostle ‘the external (earthy) man’ (1 Corinthians 15:47). We who are wanderers in the journey of this life call to God for aid. We must divest ourselves of this repulsiveness, and put on new desires, and a new love for the coming age. Thus, through this we will know either an attraction or a repulsion for the heavenly homeland. It is possible to do this quickly, but we must follow the example of the sick, who wishing for desired health, do not stop searching for means of curing themselves. But I am not speaking clearly.” desiring anything for himself in life, when he first came to America, he refused in his humility the dignity of hieromonk and archimandrite, deciding to remain forever a common monk, Father Herman, without the least fear before the powerful, strove with all sincerity for God. With gentle love, and disregarding the person, he criticized many for intemperate living, for unworthy behavior, and for oppressing the Aleuts. Evil armed itself against him and gave him all sorts of trouble and sorrow. But God protected the Elder. The Administrator of the Colony, Yanovsky, not having yet seen Father Herman, after receiving one of those complaints, had already written to Saint Petersburg of the necessity of his removal. He explained that it seemed that he was arousing the Aleuts against the administration. But this accusation turned out to be unjust, and in the end Yanovsky was numbered among the admirers of Father Herman. an inspector came to Spruce Island with the Administrator of the Colony and with company employees to search through Father Herman’s cell. This party expected to find property of great value in Father Herman’s cell. But when they found nothing of value, an employee of the American Company, Ponomarkhov, began to tear up the floor with an axe, undoubtedly with the consent of his seniors. Then Father Herman said to him, “My friend, you have lifted the axe in vain; this weapon shall deprive you of your life.” Some time later people were needed at Fort Nicholas, and for that reason several Russian employees were sent there from Kodiak; among them was Ponomarkhov; there the natives of Kenai cut off his head while he slept. Temptations of Father Herman great sorrows were borne by Father Herman from evil spirits. He himself revealed this to his disciple, Gerasim. Once when he entered Father Herman’s cell without the usual prayer he received no answer from Father Herman to any of his questions. The next day Gerasim asked him the reason for his silence. On that occasion Father Herman said to him, “When I came to this island and settled in this hermitage the evil spirits approached me ostensibly to be helpful. They came in the form of a man, and in the form of animals. I suffered much from them; from various afflictions and temptations. And that is why I do not speak now to anyone who enters into my presence without prayer.” (It is customary among devout laymen, as well as clergy, to say out loud a prayer, and upon hearing a response ending with Amen, to enter and go to the icon in the room to reverence it, and to say a prayer before greeting the host). Gifts from God dedicated himself fully for the Lord’s service; he strove with zeal solely for the glorification of His Most Holy Name. Far from his homeland in the midst of a variety of afflictions and privations Father Herman spent several decades performing the noblest deeds of self-sacrifice. He was privileged to receive many supernatural gifts from God. the midst of Spruce Island down the hill flows a little stream into the sea. The mouth of this stream was always swept by surf. In the spring when the brook fish appeared the Elder raked away some of the sand at its mouth so that the fish could enter, and at their first appearance they rushed up the stream. His disciple, lgnaty, said, “it was so that if ‘Apa’ would tell me, I would go and get fish in the stream!” Father Herman fed the birds with dried fish, and they would gather in great numbers around his cell. Underneath his cell there lived an ermine. This little animal can not be approached when it has had its young, but the Elder fed it from his own hand. “Was not this a miracle that we had seen?” said his disciple, Ignaty. They also saw Father Herman feeding bears. But when Father Herman died the birds and animals left; even the garden would not give any sort of crops even though someone had willingly taken care of it, Ignaty insisted. Spruce Island there once occurred a flood. The inhabitants came to the Elder in great fear. Father Herman then took an icon of the Mother of God from the home where his students lived, and placed it on a “laida” (a sandy bank) and began to pray. After his prayer he turned to those present and said,“Have no fear, the water will not go any higher than the place where this holy icon stands.” The words of the Elder were fulfilled. After this he promised the same aid from this holy icon in the future, through the intercessions of the Mother of God. He entrusted the icon to his disciple Sophia; in case of future floods the icon was to be placed on the “laida.” This icon is preserved on the island to this day. the request of the Elder, Baron F. P. Wrangel wrote a letter to a Metropolitan (his name is not known) which was dictated by Father Herman. When the letter was completed and read, the Elder congratulated the Baron upon his attaining the rank of admiral. The Baron was taken aback. This was news to him. It was confirmed, but only after an elapse of some time, and just before he departed for Saint Petersburg. Herman said to the administrator Kashevarov, from whom he accepted his son from the font (during the Sacrament of Baptism), “I am sorry for you, my dear ‘kum.’ It’s a shame; the change will be unpleasant for you.” In two years, during a change of administration, Kashevarov was sent to Sitka in chains. the forest on Spruce Island caught fire. The Elder, with his disciple Ignaty, in a thicket of the forest made a belt about a yard wide in which they turned over the moss. They extended it to the foot of the hill. The Elder said, “Rest assured, the fire will not pass this line.” On the next day, according to the testimony of Ignaty, there was no hope of salvation (from the fire) and the fire, pushed by a strong wind, reached the place where the moss had been turned over by the Elder. The fire ran over the moss and halted, leaving untouched the thick forest which was beyond the line. Elder often said that there would be a Bishop for America; this at a time when no one even thought of it, and there was no hope that there would be a Bishop for America. This was related by Bishop Peter, and his prophecy was fulfilled in time. “After my death,” said Father Herman, “there will be an epidemic, many people shall die during it, and the Russians shall unite the Aleuts.” And so it happened. It seems that about a half a year after his passing, there was a smallpox epidemic; the death rate in America during the epidemic was tremendous. In some villages, only a few inhabitants remained alive. This led the administration of the colony to unite the Aleuts; the twelve settlements were consolidated into seven. “Although a long time shall elapse after my death, I will not be forgotten” said Father Herman to his disciples. “My place of habitation will not remain empty. A monk like me, who will be escaping from the glory of men, will come and he will live on Spruce Island, and Spruce Island will not be without people.” (This prophecy has now been fulfilled in its entirety. Just such a monk as Father Herman described lived on Spruce Island for many years; his name was Archimandrite Gerasim, who died on October 13, 1969. This monk took on himself the responsibility of taking care of the Chapel under which the Elder Herman was first buried. Metropolitan Leonty, soon after his elevation to the primacy of the Russian Orthodox Church in America, made a pilgrimage to Spruce Island, and the grave of Saint Herman.) for the Future Creole Constantine, when he was not more than twelve years old, was asked by Father Herman, “My beloved one, what do you think; this chapel which they are building now, will it ever stand empty?” The youngster answered, “I do not know, Apa.” “Indeed,” said Constantine, “I did not understand his question at that time, even though the whole conversation with the Elder remains vivid in my memory.” The Elder remained silent for some time, and then said, “My child, remember, in time there will be a monastery in this place.” Herman said to his disciple the Aleut Ignaty Aligyaga, “Thirty years shall pass after my death, and all those living on Spruce Island will have died, but you alone will remain alive. You will be old and poor when I will be remembered.” And indeed after the death of Father Herman thirty years passed when they were reminded of him, and they began to gather information and facts about him, on the basis of which his Life was written. “It is amazing,” exclaims Ignaty, “how a man like us could know all this so long before it happened! However, no, he was no ordinary man! He knew our thoughts, and involuntarily he led us to the point where we revealed them to him, and we received counsel from him.” “When I die,” the Elder said to his disciple, “you will bury me alongside Father Joasaph. You will bury me by yourself, for you will not wait for the priest. Do not wash my body. Lay it on a board. Clasp my hands over my chest, wrap me in my mantia (the monk’s outer cloak), and with its wings cover my face and place the klobuk (monastic head covering) on my head. If anyone wishes to bid farewell to me, let them kiss the Cross. Do not show my face to anyone....” Repose of Father Herman time of the Elder’s passing had come. One day he ordered his disciple Gerasim to light a candle before the Icons, and to read the Acts of the Holy Apostles. After some time his face glowed brightly and he said in a loud voice, “Glory to Thee, O Lord!” He then ordered the reading to be halted, and he announced that the Lord had willed that his life would now be spared for another week. A week later, again by his orders, candles were lit, and the Acts of the Holy Apostles were read. Quietly, the Elder bowed his head on Gerasim’s chest; the cell was filled with a sweet-smelling odor; and his face glowed, and Father Herman was no more! Thus he died in blessedness, he passed away in the sleep of a righteous man in the eighty-first year of his life of great labor the 25th day of December 1837. (It was the 13th of December according to the Julian Calendar, although there are some records which state that he died on November 28th and was buried on December 26th). sent with the sad news to the harbor returned to announce that the administrator of the colony Kashevarov had forbidden the burial of the Elder until his own arrival. He also ordered that a finer coffin be made for Father Herman, and that he would come as soon as possible and would bring a priest with him. But then a great wind came up, a rain fell, and a terrible storm broke. The distance from the harbor to Spruce Island is not great—about a two hour journey—but no one would agree to go to sea in such weather. Thus it continued for a full month, and although the body lay in state for a full month in the warm house of his students, his face did not undergo any change at all, and not the slightest odor emanated from his body. Finally, through the efforts of Kuzma Uchilischev, a coffin was obtained. No one arrived from the harbor, and the inhabitants of Spruce Island alone buried the remains of the Elder in the ground. Thus the words which Father Herman uttered before his death were fulfilled. After this the wind quieted down, and the surface of the sea became as smooth as a mirror. evening, above the village Katani (on Afognak) an unusual pillar of light which reached up to heaven was seen above Spruce Island. Astonished by the miraculous appearance, experienced elders and the Creole Gerasim Vologdin and his wife Anna said, “It seems that Father Herman has left us,” and they began to pray. After a time, they were informed that the Elder had indeed passed away that very night. This same pillar was seen in various places by others. On the night of his death a vision was seen in another of the settlements on Afognak; it seemed as though a man was rising from Spruce Island into the clouds. disciples buried their father, and placed a wooden memorial marker above his grave. Father Peter Kashevarov, the priest on Kodiak, says, “I saw it myself, and I can say that today it seems as though it had never been touched by time; as though it had been cut this day.” witnessed the life of Father Herman glorified by his zealous labors, having seen his miracles, and the fulfillment of his predictions, finally having observed his blessed falling asleep, “in general, all the local inhabitants,” Bishop Peter witnesses, “have the highest esteem for him, as though he was a holy ascetic, and they are fully convinced that he has found favor in the presence of God.” 1842, five years after the passing away of the Elder, Archbishop Innocent of Kamchatka and the Aleutians, was near Kodiak on a sailing vessel which was in great distress. He looked to Spruce Island, and said to himself, “If you have found favor in God’s presence, Father Herman, then may the wind change.” It seems as though not more than fifteen minutes had passed, said the bishop, when the wind became favorable, and he successfully reached the shore. In thanksgiving for being saved, Archbishop Innocent himself conducted a Memorial Service (Panikhida) over the grave of the blessed Father Herman. O Holy Father Herman of Alaska, pray unto God for us! HERMAN OF ALASKA, MISSIONARY TO THE ALEUT, 9 August 1837; of Alaska (born 1756 or 1760 in Serpukhov, Russia – December 13 or November 15, 1837 on Spruce Island, Alaska) one of the first Eastern Orthodox missionaries to the New World, and is considered by Orthodox Christians to be the patron saint of the Americas. was born in the town of Serpukhov near Moscow around 1756. Herman is his name in monasticism; his birth name is unknown. 16, he entered the Russian Orthodox monastic life at the Trinity-St. Sergius Hermitage near St. Petersburg. he was tonsured a monk, though he was never ordained to the priesthood. request was made for a mission into the Alaskan territory. Herman was selected to go, along with seven other monks. and the other monks arrived on Kodiak Island on September 24, 1794. monks converted the native Aleuts, and as time progressed they found themselves protecting the natives from exploitation and abuse. of this moral stance the monks themselves were abused, arrested and physically threatened. time, enduring hardship, inclement weather, illness and more, Herman stood as the only remainder from the original band of missionaries, the others either being martyred for their faith, dying of natural causes or returning to Russia. eventually built a hermitage on Spruce Island, about a mile and a quarter from Kodiak Island. small chapel was built as well, along with a school and guest house. local people would visit him often. He devoted his life to prayer and to performing those services he could do as a simple monk who had not been ordained to the priesthood. died on November 15, 1837, but was not buried on Spruce Island until December 13 because a priest could not come to serve the funeral, and was forgotten until the first investigation of his life in 1867 by Bishop Peter of Alaska. was named a saint by the Orthodox Church in America on 9 August 1970. (more at Wikipedia) Repose of the Venerable Herman of Alaska, Wonderworker of All America, Commemorated on December 13;

US, 1777-1812, PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK Indian Nation, Long Island, NYC, on foot
US, 1777-1812, PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK Indian Nation, Long Island, NYC, on foot; Shinnecock Indian Nation; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4 ; on Long Island, little west of the junction of the old road to Riverhead is a small tract of land owned by the Shinnecock tribe of Indians, although how it came into their possession is unknown. Upon this tract is a plain marble tombstone, surrounded by a neat fence. This marks the last resting place of Rev. Paul Cuffee. tombstone tells its own story: "Erected by the New York Missionary Society, in memory of the Rev. Paul Cuffee, an Indian of the Shinnecock tribe, who was employed by the Society for the last thirteen years of his life, on the Eastern part of Long Island, where he labored the fidelity and success. pious and indefatigable in testifying the gospel of the grace of God, he finished his course with joy on the 7th of March, 1812, aged 55 years and 3 days". . . . The journeyings of Paul Cuffee extended from Poosepatuck to Montauk, and were made on foot. — from A History of Long Island, from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time, Vol. 2, by William S Pelletreau (1905). more at Wikipedia Note that this Paul Cuffee should not be confused with a far better known, contemporaneous Paul Cuffee, who lived in the same general area (Westport, Mass.). That Paul Cuffee was a devout Quaker of mixed Indian / Black ancestry who worked to repatriate African-Americans to Sierra Leone.

US, 1786-1818, ABSALOM JONES, St. George's in Philadelphia, 1786 Blacks to the Balcony, Jones and Allen form new parish
US, 1786-1818, ABSALOM JONES, St. George's Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, 1786 Blacks to the Balcony, Jones and Allen walked out to form new parish, both ordained, African Methodist Episcopal (AME), AME Zion, Christian Methodist Episcopal in the South (CME); St. George's Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia; ABSALOM JONES, (13 FEB 1818); 1786 the membership of St. George's Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia included both blacks and whites. the white members met that year and decided that thereafter black members should sit only in the balcony. black Sunday worshippers, Absalom Jones (1746-1818) and Richard Allen (1760-1831), whose enthusiasm for the Methodist Church had brought many blacks into the congregation, learned of the decision only when, on the following Sunday, ushers tapped them on the shoulder during the opening prayers, and demanded that they move to the balcony without waiting for the end of the prayer. They walked out, followed by the other black members. Absalom Jones conferred with William White, Episcopal Bishop of Philadelphia, who agreed to accept the group as an Episcopal parish. would serve as lay reader, and, after a period of study, would be ordained and serve as rector. wanted the group to remain Methodist, and in 1793 he left to form a Methodist congregation. In 1816 he left the Methodists to form a new denomination, the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME). (ordained deacon and priest in 1795 and 1802) and Allen (ordained deacon and elder in 1799 and 1816) were the first two black Americans to receive formal ordination in any denomination. I am told by my Episcopal source. On the other hand, a Baptist correspondent tells me of the earlier ordination of a black American to the Baptist ministry. Perhaps my first source either did not know of this, or did not consider the Baptist ordination to be "formal." This is not a question of snobbery. Some congregations I know simply ask someone who they think is a good speaker to be their preacher for a year, and there is no ceremony beyond the vote and his saying, "I accept.") African Methodist Episcopal Church Zion (AME Zion) formed in New York in about 1796 for similar reasons. two groups were well organized before they heard of each other. Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, also historically black, was an offshoot in 1870 of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. (The Methodists split into North and South before the War of 1861-1865, and have since re-united.) three black groups, and the United Methodist Church, and some other denominations of Methodist origin, are committed in principle to eventual union, but bureaucracies move slowly. Meanwhile, the groups are united in doctrine, and members of each are free to worship and to receive the Sacraments with members of the others. by James Kiefer

US, 1790-1840, Second Great Awakening
US, 1790-1840, Second Great Awakening; Great Awakening of 1740, First Great Awakening; George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15 ; Francis Asbury of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15; Asbury (August 20, 1745 – March 31, 1816) was one of the first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. In 1784 John Wesley named Asbury and Thomas Coke as co-superintendents of the work in America. This marks the beginning of the "Methodist Episcopal Church of the USA". For the next thirty-two years, Asbury led all the Methodists in America. Wesley, Asbury preached in all sorts of places: courthouses, public houses, tobacco houses, fields, public squares, wherever a crowd assembled to hear him. For the remainder of his life he rode an average of 6000 miles each year, preaching virtually every day and conducting meetings and conferences. Under his direction, the church grew from 1,200 to 214,000 members and 700 ordained preachers.

US, 1784, Samuel Seabury became Bishop of US Episcopal Church in Aberdeen, Scotland
Scotland, 1784, Samuel Seabury became Bishop of US Episcopal Church in Aberdeen, Scotland; Aberdeen, Scotland; SAMUEL SEABURY, BISHOP (14 NOV 1784), (BESTOWAL OF THE AMERICAN EPISCOPATE) ; crucial date for members of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America is the consecration of the first Bishop of the Anglican Communion in the United States. During the colonial era, there had been no Anglican bishops in the New World; and persons seeking to be ordained as clergy had had to travel to England for the purpose. After the achievement of American independence, it was important for the Church in the United States to have its own bishops, and an assembly of Connecticut clergy chose Samuel Seabury to go to England and there seek to be consecrated as a bishop. the English bishops were forbidden by law to consecrate anyone who would not take an oath of allegiance to the British Crown. He accordingly turned to the Episcopal Church of Scotland. When the Roman Catholic king James II was deposed in 1688, some of the Anglican clergy (including some who had been imprisoned by James for defying him on religious issues) said that, having sworn allegiance to James as King, they could not during his lifetime swear allegiance to the new monarchs William and Mary. Those who took this position were known as non-Jurors (non-swearers), and they included almost all the bishops and clergy of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. Accordingly, the monarchs and Parliament declared that thenceforth the official church in Scotland should be the Presbyterian Church. The Episcopal Church of Scotland thereafter had no recognition by the government, and for some time operated under serious legal disablities. However, since it had no connection with the government, it was free to consecrate Seabury without government permission, and it did. This is why you see a Cross of St. Andrew on the Episcopal Church flag. Aberdeen, 14 November 1784, Samuel Seabury was consecrated to the Episcopate by the Bishop and the Bishop Coadjutor of Aberdeen and the Bishop of Ross and Caithness. He thus became part of the unbroken chain of bishops that links the Church today with the Church of the Apostles. In return, he promised them that he would do his best to persuade the American Church to use as its Prayer of Consecration (blessing of the bread and wine at the Lord's Supper) the Scottish prayer, taken largely unchanged from the 1549 Prayer Book, rather than the much shorter one in use in England. The aforesaid prayer, adopted by the American Church with a few modifications, has been widely regarded as one of the greatest treasures of the Church in this country. by James Kiefer

US Presidents Folder, 1789-1841, 1776 Declaration of Independence

US, 1776, December 1, 1776: Seal Date for the tribe of Manasseh
US, 1776, December 1, 1776: Seal Date for the tribe of Manasseh;

US, 1776, 1 Dec 1776 NS, United States Declaration of Independence
US, 1776, 1 Dec 1776 NS, United States Declaration of Independence ; US, 1776, December 1, 1776: Seal Date for the tribe of Manasseh; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26;

US, 1789-1797, President, George Washington, leader, general, statesman, won R war, P Const Conv, Father of Nation
US President, 1789-1797, George Washington ; Washington (February 22, 1732[b] – December 14, 1799) was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and Founding Father of the United States, who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. led the Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War, and presided at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which established the Constitution of the United States and a federal government. Washington has been called the "Father of the Nation"[10] for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the country. first public office was serving as official Surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia from 1749 to 1750. Subsequently, he received his initial military training (as well as a command with the Virginia Regiment) during the French and Indian War. was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress. he was appointed Commanding General of the Continental Army. With this title, he commanded American forces (allied with France) in the defeat and surrender of the British at the Siege of Yorktown during the American Revolutionary War. He resigned his commission after the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783. played an indispensable role in adopting and ratifying the Constitution of the United States. He was then twice elected president by the Electoral College. He implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while sanctioning the Jay Treaty. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including the title "Mr. President", and his Farewell Address is widely regarded as a pre-eminent statement on republicanism. owned several hundred slaves, and he supported measures passed by Congress to protect slavery. Starting in 1778, he became troubled with the institution of slavery and freed William Lee, one of his slaves, in his will. He freed the other 123 slaves that he owned upon the death of his wife, Martha Washington. She decided to respect her husband's wishes and freed these slaves on January 1, 1801, before her death. He also freed in his will 33 more slaves that he acquired in a prior debt agreement with his brother-in-law Bartholomew Dandridge upon the death of Dandridge's widow.[11][12] endeavored to assimilate Native Americans into the Anglo-American culture but combated indigenous resistance during instances of violent conflict. was a member of the Anglican Church and the Freemasons, and he urged broad religious freedom in his roles as general and president. his death, he was eulogized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen".[13] He has been memorialized by monuments, a federal holiday, various media, geographical locations, including the national capital, the State of Washington, stamps, and currency, and many scholars and polls rank him among the greatest U.S. presidents. March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily ranked General of the Armies, an honor that has only been awarded twice in the history of the United States. PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 1787 ; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26;

US, 1794-1821, ELIZABETH SEATON, New York City, Founder US parochial schools, Catholic saint, anti-catholic laws
US, 1794-1821, ELIZABETH SEATON, New York City, Founder American Sisters of Charity, Baltimore, Episcopalian became catholic in Italy, C saint, anti-catholic laws, girls school, religious c, roots of 6 r communities. founder US parochial school system; Ann Bayley Seton, SC, (August 28, 1774 – January 4, 1821) was a Catholic religious sister in the United States and an educator, known as a founder of the country's parochial school system. her death, she became the first person born in what would become the United States to be canonized by the Catholic Church (September 14, 1975).[1][2][3] also established the first Catholic girls' school in the nation in Emmitsburg, Maryland, where she likewise founded the first American congregation of religious sisters, the Sisters of Charity. life[edit] Ann Bayley was born on August 28, 1774, the second child of a socially prominent couple, a surgeon, Richard Bayley and Catherine Charlton of New York City.[4] Bayley and Charlton families were among the earliest European settlers in the New York area. Her father's parents were of French Huguenot and English descent and lived in New Rochelle, New York. Chief Health Officer for the Port of New York, Bayley attended to immigrants disembarking from ships onto Staten Island and cared for New Yorkers when yellow fever swept through the city (for example, killing 700 in four months).[5] later served as the first professor of anatomy at Columbia College.[6] Elizabeth's mother was the daughter of a Church of England priest who was rector of St. Andrew's Church on Staten Island for 30 years. Elizabeth was raised in what would eventually become (in the years after the American Revolution) the Episcopal Church. mother, Catherine, died in 1777 when Elizabeth was three years old, possibly due to complications from the birth of her namesake Catherine, who died early the following year. father then married Charlotte Amelia Barclay, a member of the Jacobus James Roosevelt family,[4] to provide a mother for his two surviving daughters. The new Mrs. Bayley participated in her church's social ministry and often took young Elizabeth with her on charitable rounds. They visited the poor in their homes to distribute food and needed items. Elizabeth Ann Seton, from Appleton's Cyclopaedia couple had five children, but the marriage ended in separation. During the breakup, their stepmother rejected Elizabeth and her older sister. Their father then traveled to London for further medical studies, so the sisters lived temporarily in New Rochelle with their paternal uncle, William Bayley, and his wife, Sarah Pell Bayley. Elizabeth endured a time of darkness, grieving the absence of a second mother, as she later reflected in her journals. In these journals, Elizabeth showed her love for nature, poetry, and music, especially the piano. Other entries expressed her religious aspirations and favorite passages from her reading, showing her introspection and natural bent toward contemplation. Elizabeth was fluent in French, a fine musician, and an accomplished horsewoman.[7] and motherhood[edit] January 25, 1794, at age 19, Elizabeth married William Magee Seton, aged 25, a wealthy businessman in the import trade. Samuel Provoost, the first Episcopal bishop of New York, presided at their wedding.[8] Her husband's father, William Seton (1746–1798), belonged to an impoverished noble Scottish family, emigrated to New York in 1758, and became superintendent and part-owner of the iron-works of Ringwood, New Jersey. loyalist, the senior William Seton was the last royal public notary for the city and province of New York. He brought his sons William (Elizabeth's husband) and James into the import-export mercantile firm, the William Seton Company, which became Seton, Maitland, and Company in 1793. younger William had visited important counting houses in Europe in 1788, was a friend of Filippo Filicchi (a renowned merchant in Leghorn, Italy, with whom his firm traded), and brought the first Stradivarius violin to America.[5] after they married, Elizabeth and William moved into a fashionable residence on Wall Street. Socially prominent in New York society, the Setons belonged to Trinity Episcopal Church, near Broadway and Wall Streets. devout communicant, Elizabeth took John Henry Hobart (later a bishop) as her spiritual director. Along with her sister-in-law Rebecca Mary Seton (1780–1804) (her soul-friend and dearest confidante), continued her former stepmother's social ministry—nursing the sick and dying among family, friends, and needy neighbors. by her father, she became a charter member of The Society for the Relief of Poor Widows with Small Children (1797) and served as its treasurer.[9] the elder William Seton died, the Seton family fortunes waned during the volatile economic climate preceding the War of 1812. The couple took in William's six younger siblings, ages seven to seventeen, in addition to their own five children: Anna Maria (Annina) (1795–1812), William II (1796–1868), Richard Seton (1798–1823), Catherine (1800–1891) (who was to become the first American to join the Sisters of Mercy) and Rebecca Mary (1802–1816). This necessitated a move to the larger Seton family residence.[5] and conversion to Catholicism[edit] The Seton home in New York City was located at the site on which a church now stands in her honor, with the adjacent James Watson House serving as the rectory. dispute between the United States of America and the French Republic from 1798 to 1800 led to a series of attacks on American shipping. The United Kingdom's blockade of France, and the loss of several of his ships at sea, led William Seton into bankruptcy, and the Setons lost their home at 61 Stone Street in lower Manhattan.[8] following summer, Elizabeth and the children stayed with her father, who was still the health officer for the Port of New York on Staten Island.[7] From 1801 to 1803, they lived in a house at 8 State Street, on the site of the present Church of Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary (built in 1964). most of their married life, William Seton suffered from tuberculosis. The stress worsened his illness; his doctors sent him to Italy for the warmer climate, with Elizabeth and their eldest daughter as his companions. landing at the port of Leghorn, they were held in quarantine for a month, for authorities feared they might have brought yellow fever from New York. William died on December 27, 1803,[6] and was buried in Italy's Old English Cemetery. and Anna Maria were received by the families of her late husband's Italian business partners, Filippo and Antonio Filicchi, who introduced her to Catholicism. St. Peter's, Barclay Street, 1785 to New York, the widow Seton was received into the Catholic Church on March 14, 1805, by Matthew O'Brien, pastor of St. Peter's Church,[9] the city's only Catholic church. (Anti-Catholic laws had been lifted just a few years before.) year later, she received the sacrament of confirmation from the Bishop of Baltimore, John Carroll, the only Catholic bishop in the nation. support herself and her children, Seton had started an academy for young ladies, as was common for widows of social standing in that period. After news of her conversion to Catholicism spread, most parents withdrew their daughters from her school. In 1807, students attending a local Protestant Academy were boarded at her house on Stuyvesant Lane in the Bowery, near St. Mark's Church.[10] was about to move to Canada when she met a visiting priest, Louis William Valentine Dubourg, who was a member of the French émigré community of Sulpician Fathers and then president of St. Mary's College, Baltimore. Sulpicians had taken refuge in the United States from the religious persecution of the Reign of Terror in France. They were in the process of establishing the first Catholic seminary for the United States, in keeping with the goals of their society. For several years, Dubourg had envisioned a religious school to meet the educational needs of the new nation's small Catholic community.[9] living through many difficulties in life, in 1809, Seton accepted the Sulpicians' invitation and moved to Emmitsburg, Maryland. A year later, she established the Saint Joseph's Academy and Free School, a school dedicated to Catholic girls' education. This was possible due to the financial support of Samuel Sutherland Cooper,[6] a wealthy convert and seminarian at the newly established Mount Saint Mary's University, begun by John Dubois, S.S., and the Sulpicians. July 31, Seton established a religious community in Emmitsburg dedicated to the care of the children of the poor. This was the first congregation of religious sisters founded in the United States, and its school was the first free Catholic school in America. This modest beginning marked the start of the Catholic parochial school system in the United States.[11] The congregation was initially called the Sisters of Charity of St. Joseph's. From that point on, she became known as "Mother Seton." In 1811, the sisters adopted the rules of the Daughters of Charity, co-founded in France by Vincent de Paul and Louise de Marillac. life and death[edit] Mother Seton's tomb in Emmitsburg remainder of Seton's life was spent leading and developing the new congregation. Seton was described as a charming and cultured lady. Her connections to New York society and the accompanying social pressures to leave the new life she had created for herself did not deter her from embracing her religious vocation and charitable mission. The most significant difficulties she faced were internal, stemming from misunderstandings, interpersonal conflicts, and the deaths of two daughters, other loved ones, and young sisters in the community. Ann Seton died on January 4, 1821, at the age of 46. Today, her remains are interred in the National Shrine of Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton in Emmitsburg, Maryland. Sign of the New York shrine Statue in St. Raymond's Cemetery, Bronx, New York 1830, the Sisters of Charity of St. Joseph's were running orphanages and schools as far west as Cincinnati and New Orleans and had established the first hospital west of the Mississippi in St. Louis.[11] had been Seton's original intention to join the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, but the embargo of France due to the Napoleonic Wars prevented this connection. It was only decades later, in 1850, that the Emmitsburg community took steps to merge with the Daughters and become their first American branch, as their foundress had envisioned.[11] six separate religious congregations trace their roots to the beginnings of the Sisters of Charity in Emmitsburg. In addition to the original community of Sisters at Emmitsburg (now part of the Vincentian order), they are based in New York City;[12] Cincinnati, Ohio;[13] Halifax, Nova Scotia;[14] Convent Station, New Jersey;[15] and Greensburg, Pennsylvania.[16] The community at Convent Station established the Academy of Saint Elizabeth in 1860 and the College of Saint Elizabeth in 1899. Ann Seton has also been inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.[17] In 1952, a miracle involving the healing of 4 year old Ann O'Neil from leukemia was attributed to the intercession of Seton after a nun prayed for the girl to Seton. The miracle was a factor in the beatification of Seton and Seton was beatified by Pope John XXIII on March 17, 1963. The pope said on the occasion, "In a house that was very small, but with ample space for charity, she sowed a seed in America which by Divine Grace grew into a large tree."[18] Paul VI canonized Seton on September 14, 1975, in a ceremony in St. Peter's Square. In his words, "Elizabeth Ann Seton is a saint. St. Elizabeth Ann Seton is an American. All of us say this with special joy and with the intention of honoring the land and the nation from which she sprang forth as the first flower in the calendar of the saints. Elizabeth Ann Seton was wholly American! Rejoice for your glorious daughter. Be proud of her. And know how to preserve her fruitful heritage."[1] The miracle which led to the canonization of Seton involved the healing of a man in 1963, who was given hours to live after contracting meningitis and having encephalitis in his brain. Seton's feast day is January 4, the eleventh day of Christmastide and the anniversary of her death.[19] Seton is the patron saint of seafarers[20] and widows.[21] Elizabeth Ann Seton is honored[22] with a Lesser Feast on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America[23] on January 4.[24] institutions[edit] The Daughters of Charity Health Network established Bayley Seton Hospital in 1980 on the site of the former Marine Hospital Service hospital in Stapleton, Staten Island, New York.[25] Most of the property is now the Bayley Seton campus of Richmond University Medical Center, while a portion is used by New York Foundling, a Catholic social services organization. Mother Seton School in Emmitsburg, Maryland, is a direct descendant of the Saint Joseph's Academy and Free School.[26] It is located less than a mile from the site of the original school and is sponsored by the Daughters of Charity.[27] Mother Seton School is a private elementary school located in Emmitsburg and enrolls 306 students from pre-kindergarten through 8th grade. Mother Seton School is the 84th-largest private school in Maryland and the 3,381st-largest nationally. It has 15 students to every teacher.[28] the Philippines, the Elizabeth Seton School in BF Resort Village, Las Piñas was established in 1975, the year of Seton's canonization. It is the largest Catholic school in the city in terms of population.[29] Seton College, located in Yonkers, New York, was a college opened to assist young struggling women and men in need of furthering their education, offering Associate of Science or Associate of Occupational Science degrees. It merged with Iona College in 1989. Hall College (now known as Seton Hall University) in South Orange, New Jersey, was founded in 1856 by Seton's nephew Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley and named after his aunt.[30] Seton Hall Prep is an all-boys High School in West Orange, New Jersey, was formerly associated with the University, but is now independent. Seton Hill Schools (now part of Seton Hill University), named for Seton, were founded by the Sisters of Charity in 1885. The university continues to operate in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, under the auspices of the Sisters of Charity of Seton Hill. Elizabeth Seton High School, an all-girls Catholic school in Bladensburg, Maryland, sponsored by the Daughters of Charity, is named in honor of Seton. Seton Academy (1963–2016) was a high school in South Holland, Illinois. Seton Catholic High School (1900–2007) was a high school in Pittston, Pennsylvania.[31] Seton School in Manassas, Virginia is also named for Mother Seton. Seton Catholic School (K-8) Hudson, Ohio College of Mount Saint Vincent in Bronx, New York, was founded by the Sisters of Charity of New York and traces its lineage to Seton. It features the Elizabeth Seton Library and the Italian Renaissance-style Seton Hall, with a cornerstone set by John Cardinal Farley in November 1911. University in Lewiston, New York, near Niagara Falls, also has a dormitory building named after her, called Seton Hall. Several Catholic churches are named for Seton. The first parish named in her honor, Blessed Elizabeth Ann Seton, was established in 1963 in Shrub Oak, New York, with a school opening in 1966, staffed by the Sisters of Charity. her canonization in 1975, St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Catholic Church was established in Crofton, Maryland,[32] in the same Archdiocese of Baltimore where she had founded Saint Joseph's Academy and Free School. of 2018, there are churches in her name in more than 40 states of the United States, plus Canada and Italy.[33] The College of Mount Saint Vincent in Bronx, New York, was founded by the Sisters of Charity of New York and traces its lineage to Seton. It features the Elizabeth Seton Library and the Italian Renaissance-style Seton Hall, with a cornerstone set by John Cardinal Farley in November 1911. University in Lewiston, New York, near Niagara Falls, also has a dormitory building named after her, called Seton Hall. Seton Villa, a small charity for providing accommodation for women with disabilities, was established in 1966 by the Daughters of Charity of St Vincent de Paul in Sydney, Australia.[34] New York City; ELIZABETH SETON, FOUNDER OF THE AMERICAN SISTERS OF CHARITY, 1821, Commemorated January 4 ; Ann Bayley Seton (August 28, 1774 — January 4, 1821) was the first native-born citizen of the United States to be canonized in the Roman Catholic Church, on September 14, 1975. was born on August 28, 1774 to Richard Bayley of New York City. She was raised in the Episcopal Church. Her mother, daughter of an Episcopal priest, died when Elizabeth was three. At the age of nineteen, she married William Magee Seton, a wealthy businessman. Five children were born to the marriage. husband's business lost several ships at sea and the family ended up bankrupt. Soon after, her husband became ill and his doctors sent him to Italy for the warmer climate, with Elizabeth Seton accompanying him. Italy, they were held in quarantine, during which time her husband died. spent time with a wealthy family where she was exposed to Catholicism. Two years later she converted to Roman Catholicism, on March 14, 1805 and was received into the Church by the first bishop of Baltimore, John Carroll. support her children, she started a school in Baltimore, but it failed due to the anti-Catholic bigotry of the day. In 1809, after some trying and difficult years, Elizabeth moved to Emmitsburg, Maryland, where a year later she established Saint Joseph's Academy and Free School, a school dedicated to the education of Catholic girls, at the invitation of Samuel Sutherland Cooper. Elizabeth was able to establish a religious community in Emmitsburg, Maryland dedicated to the care of the children of the poor. It was the first religious community of apostolic women founded in the United States. The order was called the Sisters of Charity of St. Joseph. remainder of Elizabeth's life was spent in leading and developing the new order, which expanded to include the Sulpician priests of Baltimore. Today, six independent religious communities trace their roots to the humble beginnings of the Sisters of Charity in Emmitsburg, Maryland. more at Wikipedia

US, 1797-1801, President, John Adams, statesman, diplomat, writer, Founding Father, dec of Indep, MA const, Thoughts on govt
US President, 1797-1801, John Adams; Adams Jr. (October 30, 1735[a] - July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. his presidency, he was a leader of the American Revolution that achieved independence from Great Britain, and he served as the first vice president of the United States. was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with many important figures in early American history, including his wife and adviser Abigail Adams and Thomas Jefferson. lawyer and political activist prior to the revolution, Adams was devoted to the right to counsel and presumption of innocence. He defied anti-British sentiment and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from the Boston Massacre. was a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776. As a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain and secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780, which influenced the United States constitution, as did his essay Thoughts on Government. was elected to two terms as vice president under President George Washington and was elected as the United States' second president in 1796. He was the only president elected under the banner of the Federalist Party. During his single term, Adams encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans and from some in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts and built up the Army and Navy in the undeclared Quasi-War with France. his term, he became the first president to reside in the executive mansion now known as the White House. his bid for reelection, opposition from Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his former friend Thomas Jefferson, and he retired to Massachusetts. eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by initiating a correspondence that lasted fourteen years. and his wife generated a family of politicians, diplomats, and historians now referred to as the Adams political family, which includes their son John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence – hours after Jefferson's death. Adams and his son are the only presidents of the first twelve that did not own slaves in their lives. Surveys of historians and scholars have favorably ranked his administration. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26;

US, 1801-1809, President, Thomas Jefferson, diplomat, architect, musician, founding father, Aliens&S, B pirates, L Pur
US President, 1801-1809, Thomas Jefferson; Jefferson (April 13, 1743[a] - July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, musician,[1] philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. had previously served as the second vice president of the United States under John Adams between 1797 and 1801, and as the first United States secretary of state under George Washington between 1790 to 1793. principal author of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson was a proponent of democracy, republicanism, and individual rights for certain categories of people, motivating American colonists to break from the Kingdom of Great Britain and form a new nation; he produced formative documents and decisions at both the state and national levels. the American Revolution, Jefferson represented Virginia in the Continental Congress that adopted the Declaration of Independence. a Virginia legislator, he drafted a state law for religious freedom. served as the second Governor of Virginia from 1779 to 1781, during the American Revolutionary War. 1785, Jefferson was appointed the United States Minister to France, and subsequently, the nation's first Secretary of State under President George Washington from 1790 to 1793. and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System. Madison, he anonymously wrote the provocative Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798 and 1799, which sought to strengthen states' rights by nullifying the federal Alien and Sedition Acts. president, Jefferson pursued the nation's shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. in 1803, Jefferson promoted a western expansionist policy, organizing the Louisiana Purchase which doubled the nation's land area. make room for settlement, Jefferson began a controversial process of Indian tribal removal from the newly acquired territory. a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. was reelected in 1804. His second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former vice president Aaron Burr. 1807, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act in response to British threats to U.S. shipping. The same year, Jefferson signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves. while primarily a planter, lawyer and politician, mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and mechanics. He was an architect in the classical tradition. Jefferson's keen interest in religion and philosophy led to his presidency of the American Philosophical Society; he shunned organized religion but was influenced by Christianity, Epicureanism,[2] and deism. A philologist, Jefferson knew several languages. He was a prolific letter writer and corresponded with many prominent people, including Edward Carrington, John Taylor of Caroline and James Madison. Among his books is Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), considered perhaps the most important American book published before 1800.[3] Jefferson championed the ideals, values, and teachings of the Enlightenment. his lifetime, Jefferson owned over 600 slaves, who were kept in his household and on his plantations. Since Jefferson's time, controversy has revolved around his relationship with Sally Hemings, a mixed-race enslaved woman, and his late wife's half-sister.[4] According to DNA evidence from surviving descendants and oral history, Jefferson fathered at least six children with Hemings, including four that survived to adulthood.[5] Evidence suggests that Jefferson started the relationship with Hemings when they were in Paris, where she arrived at the age of 14 when Jefferson was 44. By the time she returned to the United States at 16, she was pregnant.[6] retiring from public office, Jefferson founded the University of Virginia. Jefferson and his colleague John Adams both died on Independence Day, July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Presidential scholars and historians generally praise Jefferson's public achievements, including his advocacy of religious freedom and tolerance in Virginia. Although some modern scholars have been critical of his stance on slavery, Jefferson continues to rank highly among the U.S. presidents, often in the top ten. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; ELIZABETH SETON, FOUNDER OF THE AMERICAN SISTERS OF CHARITY, 1821, Commemorated December 4; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26;

US, 1803, Louisiana Purchase, From France, $15 Million, for European rights to the area
1803, Louisiana Purchase; Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane, lit. 'Sale of Louisiana') was the acquisition of the territory of Louisiana by the United States from Napoleonic France in 1803. return for fifteen million dollars, or approximately eighteen dollars per square mile, the United States nominally acquired a total of 828,000 sq mi (2,140,000 km2; 530,000,000 acres). However, France only controlled a small fraction of this area, most of it inhabited by Native Americans; for the majority of the area, what the United States bought was the "preemptive" right to obtain "Indian" lands by treaty or by conquest, to the exclusion of other colonial powers.[1][2] The total cost of all subsequent treaties and financial settlements over the land has been estimated to be around 2.6 billion dollars.[1][2] Kingdom of France had controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, Napoleon, the First Consul of the French Republic, regained ownership of Louisiana as part of a broader project to re-establish a French colonial empire in North America. However, France's failure to put down a revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to consider selling Louisiana to the United States. Acquisition of Louisiana was a long-term goal of President Thomas Jefferson, who was especially eager to gain control of the crucial Mississippi River port of New Orleans. Jefferson tasked James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston with purchasing New Orleans. Negotiating with French Treasury Minister François Barbé-Marbois (who was acting on behalf of Napoleon), the American representatives quickly agreed to purchase the entire territory of Louisiana after it was offered. Overcoming the opposition of the Federalist Party, Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison persuaded Congress to ratify and fund the Louisiana Purchase. Louisiana Purchase extended United States sovereignty across the Mississippi River, nearly doubling the nominal size of the country. The purchase included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces, including the entirety of Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; large portions of North Dakota and South Dakota; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; the northeastern section of New Mexico; northern portions of Texas; New Orleans and the portions of the present state of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River; and small portions of land within Alberta and Saskatchewan. At the time of the purchase, the territory of Louisiana's non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were enslaved Africans.[3] The western borders of the purchase were later settled by the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain, while the northern borders of the purchase were adjusted by the Treaty of 1818 with Britain.

US, 1804-1806, Lewis and Clark Expedition Folder

Lewis and Clark Expedition 1 (St Charles, Mo)
Lewis and Clark Expedition;

Lewis and Clark 2 (La Charrette, MO (near Marthasville))

Lewis and Clark 3 (Kansas City, MO)

Lewis and Clark 4 (Omaha, NB)

Lewis and Clark 5 (Sioux City, IA, Floyds Bluff)

Lewis and Clark 6 (Fort Mandan, ND)

Lewis and Clark Expedition (Yellowstone River Mouth)

Marias River

Lewis and Clark Expedition (Marias River Source)

Lewis and Clark Expedition (Marias River Mouth)

Missouri River Source (Brower's Spring)

Missouri River 1

Lewis and Clark 7 (Lemhi Pass, Continental Divide)

Selway River Source (southeast of Stripe Mountain)

Clearwater River Middle Fork (Selway and Lochsa Rivers)

Lewis and Clark Return Trip Camp Chopunnish (Kamiah, ID)
Camp Chopunnish;

Lewis and Clark 8 (Canoe Camp)
In October 1805, the Lewis and Clark Expedition descended the Clearwater River in dugout canoes, putting in at "Canoe Camp," five miles (8 km) downstream from Orofino.

Lewis and Clark 9 (Clearwater River Mouth, Snake River, Lewiston, ID)

Lewis and Clark 10 (Snake River Mouth, Columbia River, Pasco, WA)

Lewis and Clark 11 (Celilo Falls, The Dalles)

Lewis and Clark 12 (Portland, Willamett River Mouth)

Lewis and Clark 13 (Fort Clatsop, Astoria, OR)

Lewis and Clark Expedition

US, 1808-1850, ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, from Malden, MA, non-Buddhist Swaleen people received
Burma, 1808-1850, ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, from Malden, MA, non-Buddhist Swaleen people received Gospel easily, then converted Buddhists; Burma; ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; Judson, Jr. (9 August 1788 – 12 April 1850) was a Baptist missionary from the United States who labored for almost forty years in Burma. the age of 25, Adoniram Judson was the first Protestant missionary sent from North America to preach in Burma. His mission and work led to the formation of the first Baptist association in America, inspired many Americans to become or support missionaries, translated the Bible into Burmese, and established a number of Baptist churches in Burma. Judson is remembered as the first significant missionary there, as well as one of the group of the very first missionaries from America to travel overseas. was born on 9 August 1788 in Malden, Massachusetts, son of a Congregational minister of the same name. graduated as valedictorian of his class at Brown Univ. at the age of nineteen. He then attended The Andover Theological Seminary, and graduated in 1810. had joined an earnest group of mission-minded students at Andover who called themselves "the Brethren." Passionately eager to serve abroad, and convinced that "Asia with its idolatrous myriads, was the most important field in the world for missionary effort", they appeared before the Congregational Church's General Association to appeal for support to their missionary intentions. by the polite behavior of the four men and their sincerity, the elders in 1810 voted to form an "American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions." some mishaps and delays, Judson arrived in Calcutta on June 17, 1812. While aboard ship on route to India, he did a focused study on the theology of baptism. He came to the position that believer's baptism was theologically valid. September 6, 1812, he switched to the Baptist denomination along with his wife and they were baptized by immersion in Calcutta by an English missionary associate of William Carey. They were ordered out of India by the British East India Company, to whom American missionaries were even less welcome than British. The following year, on July 13, 1813, he moved to Burma. Burma, Judson was told by the Baptists, was impermeable to Christian evangelism. Judson, who already knew Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, immediately began studying the Burmese grammar but took over three years learning to speak it. This was due, in part, to the radical difference in structure between Burmese and that of "Western" languages. Four years passed before Judson dared even to hold a semi-public service. It wasn't until June, 1819, that he baptized his first Burmese convert. attempts by the Judsons to interest the natives of Rangoon with the Gospel of Jesus met with almost total indifference. By 1823, ten years after his arrival, membership of the little church had grown to eighteen, and Judson had finally finished the first draft of his translation of the entire text of the New Testament in Burmese. Karen people were a primitive, hunted minority group of ancient Tibeto-Burman ancestry scattered in the forests and jungles of the Salween River and in the hills along the southeast coast. was the first missionary to make contact with them about 1827 when he ransomed and freed a debt-slave from one of his early converts. The freed slave, Ko Tha Byu, was an illiterate, surly man who spoke almost no Burmese and was reputed to be not only a thief but also a murderer. In 1828 the former Karen bandit, "whose rough, undisciplined genius, energy and zeal for Christ" had caught the notice of the missionaries, was sent south with a new missionary couple, the Boardmans, into the territory of the strongly animistic, non-Buddhist Karen. There, he was no sooner baptized then he set off into the jungle alone to preach to his fellow tribespeople. Astonishingly, he found them strangely prepared for his preaching. the Boardmans and Ko Tha Byu were penetrating the jungles to the south, Adoniram Judson shook off a paralyzing year-long siege of depression that overcame him after the death of his wife, Ann, and set out alone on long canoe trips up the Salween River into the tiger-infested jungles to evangelize the northern Karen. trips he worked untiringly at his lifelong goal of translating the whole Bible into Burmese. When he finished it at last in 1834, he had been labouring on it for twenty-four years. It was printed and published in 1835. developed a serious lung disease and doctors prescribed a sea voyage as a cure. On 12 April 1850, Adoniram Judson died at age 61 on board ship in the Bay of Bengal and was buried at sea, having spent 37 years in missionary service abroad with only one home leave. — more at Wikipedia

US, 1809-1817, President, James Madison, statesman, diplomat, expansionist, founding father, father of the constitution, federalist papers, L Purchase
US President, 1809-1817, James Madison ; Madison Jr. (March 16, 1751[b] - June 28, 1836) was an American statesman, diplomat, expansionist, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817. is hailed as the "Father of the Constitution" for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the Constitution of the United States and the United States Bill of Rights. He co-wrote The Federalist Papers, co-founded the Democratic-Republican Party, and served as the fifth United States Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. into a prominent Virginia planter family, Madison served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates and the Continental Congress during and after the American Revolutionary War. became dissatisfied with the weak national government established by the Articles of Confederation and helped organize the Constitutional Convention, which produced a new constitution to supplant the Articles of Confederation. Virginia Plan served as the basis for the Constitutional Convention's deliberations, and he was one of the most influential individuals at the convention. Madison became one of the leaders in the movement to ratify the Constitution, and he joined with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in writing The Federalist Papers, a series of pro-ratification essays that was one of the most influential works of political science in American history. the ratification of the Constitution, Madison emerged as an important leader in the United States House of Representatives and served as a close adviser to President George Washington. was the main force behind the ratification of the United States Bill of Rights, which enshrines guarantees of personal freedoms and rights within the Constitution.[1] the early 1790s, Madison opposed the economic program and the accompanying centralization of power favored by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. with Thomas Jefferson, Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party, which was, alongside Hamilton's Federalist Party, one of the nation's first major political parties. Jefferson won the 1800 presidential election, Madison served as Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. In that position, he supervised the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the United States. succeeded Jefferson with a victory in the 1808 presidential election. diplomatic protests and a trade embargo failed to end British seizures of American shipping, he led the United States into the War of 1812. The war was an administrative morass and ended inconclusively, but many Americans saw it as a successful "second war of independence" against Britain. The war convinced Madison of the necessity of a stronger federal government. presided over the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and the enactment of the protective Tariff of 1816. By treaty or war, Madison's presidency added 23 million acres of American Indian land to the United States. retired from public office in 1817 and died in 1836. Madison never privately reconciled his Republican beliefs with his slave ownership. Madison is considered one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States, and historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; ELIZABETH SETON, FOUNDER OF THE AMERICAN SISTERS OF CHARITY, 1821, Commemorated December 4; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26; ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30;

US, 1809-1870, JACKSON KEMPER, started western college in St Louis, Nashota House and Racine College, urged Indian outreach
US, 1809-1870, JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, Pleasant Valley (town, near Poughkeepsie, NY, Hudson River 14), started western college in St Louis, and Nashota House and Racine College, urged Indian outreach, and translation to their languages; Pleasant Valley (town), New York; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870); Kemper was born 24 December 1789 in Pleasant Valley, New York, Columbia College, and was ordained a priest in 1814. 1835, the Episcopal Church undertook to consecrate missionary bishops to preach the Gospel west of the settled areas, and Kemper was the first to be chosen. promptly headed west. Having found that clergy who had lived all their lives in the settled East were slow to respond to his call to join him on the frontier, he determined to recruit priests from among men who were already in the West, and established a college in St. Louis, Missouri, for that purpose. went on to found Nashotah House and Racine College in Wisconsin. He constantly urged a more extensive outreach to the Indian peoples, and translations of the Scriptures and the services of the Church into Indian languages. From 1859 till his death in 1870, he was bishop of Wisconsin, but the effect of his labors covered a far wider area. House Seminary From a sermon preached before the Board of Missions in 1841 remarkably peculiar, how vastly important is the position of our Church! Possessing as we fully believe all those characteristics which distinguished the primitive fold:--A scriptural Liturgy--evangelical doctrines--and the apostolic succession--having the form of godliness and the power thereof--free from the false and worldly scruples and the time-serving policy of civil governments--independent-- respected and influential--in the midst of an intelligent, enterprising and commercial people--Brethren! may it not be OUR duty to convert the world--may not this high, this inestimable privilege be offered to US! And are we prepared--are we doing at the present moment EVEN ONE TENTH part of what we are capable? Our means and our power are extensive--and under the blessing of Him, without whom nothing is strong, nothing is holy, our aim--our constant, undeviating, untiring aim should be great and lofty. "Glorious things are spoken of thee, O city of God." the talents we possess, (and for which, as good stewards, we must finally account, at that hour when no secrets can be hid), with the talents committed to our trust and the privileges we enjoy, cannot our faith, our liberality and our self-denial, GREATLY increase? Cannot our supplications be more fervent, our economy more strict, our love of souls more ardent? Have we, as individuals, or a Church, a deep and abiding interest in the success of missions? a brother here would I accuse of indifference or cowardice. But I would stir up, with God's permission, the pure mind of each one, by way of remembrance. It is the spirit of missions I earnestly and most affectionately advocate. division into Foreign and Domestic is often arbitrary, and might, without detriment, be abolished; for no one, I presume, would wish to withdraw our heralds of the cross from Africa, suspend our incipient efforts for Texas, or abandon the much injured aborigines to all the degrading vices they have learned from unprincipled men who claim to be civilized. Let us go where duty calls--where Providence points the way--and let us rejoice in the privilege, for we assuredly ought--Oh, let us rejoice in the privilege of sending forth in the name of the Lord and under the guidance of His Spirit all those who, thoroughly instructed in sacred truths, hear the cry, "Come over and help us"--and cannot resist the deep, the abiding conviction concerning their sphere of duty--whose hearts burn within them when they hear of people or nations wholly given to idolatry, or licentiousness, or worldly-mindedness. Cultivate, dear brethren of the clergy, cultivate with the utmost assiduity your own vineyard--love with the strongest affections your own spiritual children,--but close not your hearts to the sufferings and wants of your neighbors. collect refers to him as the first missionary bishop in the United States. Whether this is literally true, or means only first Anglican missionary bishop, I do not know.)

US, 1811, National Road Folder (Cumberland Road, National Pike)
National Road 1811-37;

National Road (Western Maryland to Central Illinois)
National Road 1811-37;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 1 (Cumberland, MD)
National Road (Cumberland Road); (Cumberland, MD);

National Road (Cumberland Road) 2 (Frostburg, MD)
National Road (Cumberland Road); Frostburg, MD;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 3 (Uniontown, PA)
National Road (Cumberland Road); Uniontown, Pennsylvania;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 4 (Washington, PA)
National Road (Cumberland Road); Washington, Pennsylvania;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 5 (Wheeling, WV)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; 2 (Wheeling, WV);

National Road (Cumberland Road) 6 (St. Clairsville, OH)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; St. Clairsville, Ohio;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 7 (Zanesville, OH)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Zanesville, Ohio;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 8 (Columbus, OH)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Columbus, Ohio;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 9 (Springfield, OH)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Springfield, Ohio;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 10 (Richmond, IN)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Richmond, Indiana;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 11 (Indianapolis, IN)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Indianapolis, Indiana;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 12 (Terre Haute, IN)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Terre Haute, Indiana;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 13 (Effingham, IL)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Effingham, Illinois;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 14 (Vandalia, IL)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Vandalia, Illinois;

US, 1811, National Road Folder, 1811-Present (Cumberland Road, National Pike)

National Road (Western Maryland to Central Illinois)
National Road 1811-37

US, 1817-1879, St Innocent, Aleut Enlightener&Moscow Metropolitan, Apostle to t Americas, m more
Russia, Siberia, 1817-1879, St Innocent the Metropolitan of Moscow and Enlightener of the Aleuts, Apostle to the Americas, Irkutsk, Siberia (Angara River 1, Lake Baikal, Trans-Siberian Road 14), early age mastery studies, from 1823 45 yrs missionary, 10,000 baptized, endless travels, geography, ethnography, linguistics, Aleut alphabet & grammar for catechism, Gospel & prayers, indication of way into heaven, 1840 became monk Innocent and Bishop, 1850 archbishop, 1868 Metropolitan of Moscow, organized missionary service, 1870 Japanese Spiritual Mission, Moscow Spiritual Academy; Irkutsk; Glorification of St Innocent the Metropolitan of Moscow and Enlightener of the Aleuts, Apostle to the Americas, Commemorated on October 6 ; Innocent, Metropolitan of Moscow, Enlightener of the Aleuts and Apostle to America (in the world John Popov-Veniaminov), born on August 26, 1797 in the village of Anginsk in the Irkutsk diocese, into the family of a sacristan. boy mastered his studies at an early age and by age seven, he was reading the Epistle in church. 1806 they sent him to the Irkutsk seminary. 1814, the new rector thought it proper to change the surnames of some of the students. John Popov received the surname Veniaminov in honor of the deceased Archbishop Benjamin of Irkutsk (+ July 8, 1814). May 13, 1817 he was ordained deacon for the Irkutsk Annunciation church, and on May 18, 1821, he was ordained priest. missionary service of the future Apostle of America and Siberia began with the year 1823. John spent 45 years laboring for the enlightenment of the peoples of Kamchatka, the Aleutian Islands, North America, Yakutsk, the Khabarov frontier, his apostolic exploit in severe conditions and at great risks to life. Innocent baptized ten thousand people, and built churches, beside which he founded schools and he himself taught the fundamentals of the Christian life. knowledge of various crafts and arts aided him in his work. John was a remarkable preacher. During the celebration of the Liturgy, memorial services and the all-night Vigil, he incessantly guided his flock. his time of endless travels, Father John studied the languages, customs and habits of the peoples, among whom he preached. work in geography, ethnography and linguistics received worldwide acclaim. composed an alphabet and grammar for the Aleut language and translated the Catechism, the Gospel and many prayers into that language. of the finest of his works was the Indication of the Way into the Kingdom of Heaven (1833), translated into the various languages of the peoples of Siberia and appearing in more than 40 editions. to the toil of Father John, the Yakut people in 1859 first heard the Word of God and divine services in their own native language. November 29, 1840, after the death of his wife, Father John was tonsured a monk with the name Innocent by Saint Philaret, the Metropolitan of Moscow, in honor of Saint Innocent of Irkutsk. December 15, Archimandrite Innocent was consecrated Bishop of Kamchatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands. April 21, 1850 Bishop Innocent was elevated to the rank of archbishop. the Providence of God on January 5, 1868, Saint Innocent succeeded Metropolitan Philaret on the Moscow cathedra. the Holy Synod, Metropolitan Innocent consolidated the secular missionary efforts of the Russian Church (already in 1839 he had proposed a project for improving the organization of missionary service). the care of Metropolitan Innocent a Missionary Society was created, the Protection monastery was reorganized for missionary work. 1870 the Japanese Orthodox Spiritual Mission headed by Archimandrite Nicholas Kasatkin [afterwards Saint Nicholas of Japan, (February 3)] was set up, with whom Saint Innocent had shared much of his own spiritual experience. guidance by Saint Innocent of the Moscow diocese was also fruitful, his efforts, the church of the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos was built up into the Moscow Spiritual Academy. Innocent fell asleep in the Lord on March 31, 1879, on Holy Saturday, was buried at the Holy Spirit Church of the Trinity-Saint Sergius Lavra. October 6, 1977, Saint Innocent was glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church. memory is celebrated three times during the year: on March 31, the day of his blessed repose, on October 5 (Synaxis of the Moscow Hierarchs), and on October 6, the day of his glorification.

US, 1818-1825, President, James Monroe, statesman, diplomat, founding father, Monroe doctrine opposing E in Americas
US President, 1818-1825, James Monroe; Monroe (April 28, 1758 - July 4, 1831) was an American statesman, lawyer, diplomat and Founding Father who served as the fifth president of the United States from 1817 to 1825. member of the Democratic-Republican Party, Monroe was the last president of the Virginia dynasty; his presidency coincided with the Era of Good Feelings. He is perhaps best known for issuing the Monroe Doctrine, a policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas. also served as the governor of Virginia, a member of the United States Senate, the U.S. ambassador to France and Britain, the seventh Secretary of State, and the eighth Secretary of War. into a planter family in Westmoreland County, Virginia, Monroe served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. studying law under Thomas Jefferson from 1780 to 1783, he served as a delegate in the Continental Congress. a delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention, Monroe opposed the ratification of the United States Constitution. In 1790, he won election to the Senate, where he became a leader of the Democratic-Republican Party. left the Senate in 1794 to serve as President George Washington's ambassador to France but was recalled by Washington in 1796. won the election as Governor of Virginia in 1799 and strongly supported Jefferson's candidacy in the 1800 presidential election. President Jefferson's special envoy, Monroe helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase, through which the United States nearly doubled in size. fell out with his longtime friend James Madison after Madison rejected the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty that Monroe negotiated with Britain. unsuccessfully challenged Madison in the 1808 presidential election, but in April 1811 he joined Madison's administration as Secretary of State. the later stages of the War of 1812, Monroe simultaneously served as Madison's Secretary of State and Secretary of War. His wartime leadership established him as Madison's heir apparent, and he easily defeated Federalist Party candidate Rufus King in the 1816 presidential election. presidency was coterminous with the Era of Good Feelings, as the Federalist Party collapsed as a national political force. president, Monroe signed the Missouri Compromise, which admitted Missouri as a slave state and banned slavery from territories north of the parallel 36°30′ north. foreign affairs, Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams favored a policy of conciliation with Britain and a policy of expansionism against the Spanish Empire. the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain, the United States secured Florida and established its western border with New Spain. In 1823, Monroe announced the United States' opposition to any European intervention in the recently independent countries of the Americas with the Monroe Doctrine, which became a landmark in American foreign policy. was a member of the American Colonization Society, which supported the colonization of Africa by freed slaves, and Liberia's capital of Monrovia is named in his honor. his retirement in 1825, Monroe was plagued by financial difficulties, and died on July 4, 1831 in New York City. He has been generally ranked as an above-average president by historians. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; ELIZABETH SETON, FOUNDER OF THE AMERICAN SISTERS OF CHARITY, 1821, Commemorated December 4; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26; ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30;

US, 1821-1825, Erie Canal Folder

Erie Canal

Erie Canal (Onondaga Formation (Escarpment))
Erie Canal; Onondaga Formation (Escarpment);

Erie Canal 1 (Albany, New York, Hudson River)
Albany, New York, Hudson River;

Erie Canal 2 (Watervliet, New York)

Erie Canal 3 (Cohoes, New York)

Erie Canal 4 (Crescent, New York)

Erie Canal 5 (Rexford, New York)

Erie Canal 6 (Rome, New York)

Erie Canal 7 (toward Oneida Lake)

Erie Canal 8 (Canastota, New York)

Erie Canal 9 (Syracuse, New York)

Erie Canal 10 (Rochester, New York)

Finger Lakes Region (Upstate New York)
Finger Lakes Region; Iroquois League; Mohawk Valley; ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, AMELIA BLOOMER, SOJOURNER TRUTH, HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN: FOUR AMERICAN PIONEERS OF BLACK RIGHTS AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS, Commemorated July 20 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931) ; ELIE NAUD, (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722; JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830) ; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796;

Erie Canal 11 (Buffalo, New York, Lake Erie)
Buffalo, New York, Lake Erie;

US, 1821, Santa Fe Trail Folder

Santa Fe Trail 834 Miles

Santa Fe Trail Southern Route 787 Miles

Santa Fe Trail North to Trappers Trail and Morman Trail 293 Miles

Santa Fe Trail (Franklin, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Missouri River Crossing, Arrow Rock, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Marshall, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Lexington, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Fort Osage)

Santa Fe Trail (Independence, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Olathe, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Baldwin City, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Burlingame, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Council Grove, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Lyons, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Great Bend, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Dodge City, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Garden City, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Fort Bent, AR)

Santa Fe Trail (La Junta, CO)

Santa Fe Trail (Ulysses, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Elkhart, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Fort Union)

Santa Fe Trail (Boise City, OK)

Santa Fe Trail (Clayton, NM)

Santa Fe Trail (Fort Laramie, WY, Trappers Trail, Mormon Trail)

Santa Fe Trail (Santa Fe, NM)

US, 1821, Rio Grande River Folder

Rio Grande River Source (Canby Mountain, Continental Divide)

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Rio Grande River 2 (Red River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 3 (Rio Hondo (Northern New Mexico) Mouth)

Rio Grande River 4 (Rio Pueblo de Taos, NM)

Rio Grande River 5 (Embudo River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 6 (Rio Chama River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 7 (Santa Fe River (New Mexico) Mouth)

Rio Grande River 8 (Las Cruces, NM)

Rio Grande River 9

Rio Grande River 10 (Rio Conchos River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 11 (Pecos River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 12 (Devils River (Texas) Mouth)

Rio Grande River 13 (Rio Salado River Mouth, Mexico)

Rio Grande River 13 (Rio Alamo River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 13 (San Juan River Mouth, Rio Grande City)

Rio Grande River Mouth (Gulf of Mexico)
Rio Grande River;

Rio Grande River

US, 1822-1864, Alaskan Saint, Jacob Netsvetov
Alaskan Saint, 1828-1864, Jacob Netsvetov; Repose of St Jacob Netsvetov the Enlightener of the Peoples of Alaska, Commemorated on July 26;

US, 1822-1878, RICHARD UPJOHN, Architect, famous fGothic Revival Churches, Upjohn's Rural Architecture, New York Trinity Church
US, 1822-1878, RICHARD UPJOHN, English born Architect, emigrated tNew Bedford, MA (Acushnet River Mouth, Buzzards Bay), famous fGothic Revival Churches, 1852 influential book Upjohn's Rural Architecture, tBoston 1833, tNew York 1839 alterations&build Trinity Church i1846; New Bedford, Massachusetts; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; Upjohn (22 January 1802 - 16 August 1878) was an English-born architect who emigrated to the United States and became most famous for his Gothic Revival churches. family initially settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts then moved on to Boston in 1833, where he worked in architectural design. had relocated to New York by 1839 where he worked on alterations to Trinity Church. alterations were later abandoned and he was commissioned to design a new church, completed in 1846. published his extremely influential book, rural architecture: Designs, working drawings and specifications for a wooden church, and other rural structures, in 1852. Notable projects included: Trinity Church, New York, in 1912 View of Trinity Church, New York, in 1912 Trinity Church in New York City (1839-46) The Church of the Ascension in New York City (1840-41) Grace Church, Providence, Rhode Island (1845; later remodelled by Ralph Adams Cram, above) St. Mary's Episcopal Church in Burlington, New Jersey (1846-54) Christ Episcopal Church in Raleigh, North Carolina (1846-48) Grace Church in Newark, New Jersey (1847-48) St. Paul's Cathedral in Buffalo, New York (1849-51) Zion Episcopal Church in Rome, New York (1850-1851) St. John Chrysostom Church in Delafield, Wisconsin (1851-56) St. Paul's Protestant Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland (1854) All Saint's Episcopal Church in Frederick, Maryland (1855) St. Mark's Episcopal Church (San Antonio, Texas) (1858) St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Albany, New York (1859) Church of the Holy Comforter in Poughkeepsie, New York (1860) St. Philip's Church in the Highlands in Garrison, New York (1860-61) St. Stephen's Episcopal Church in Providence, Rhode Island (1860-62) Memorial Church of St. Luke The Beloved Physician, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1861) Trinity-St. Paul's Episcopal Church (New Rochelle, New York) (1862) All Saint's Memorial Church in Navesink, New Jersey (1863-64) St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Selma, Alabama (1871-75) more at Wikipedia

US, 1823-1879, MARIA STEWART, Hartford, Boston, New York, Baltimore, Black public speaker, writer, abolitionist, and feminist
US, 1823-1879, MARIA STEWART, Hartford, Boston, New York, Baltimore, African American public speaker, abolitionist, and feminist, fHartford CT, Orphan, Servant, tBostaon, Married 1831, cheated Inheritance, short writing speaking career, published Lloyd Garrison's Liberator, tNew York, tWashington, DC, head matron Freedman's Hospital, ; US, 1823-1879, MARIA STEWART, Hartford, CT (Connecticut River 24), African American public speaker, abolitionist, and feminist; W. Stewart (née Miller) (1803 - December 17, 1879) was a free-born African American who became a teacher, journalist, lecturer, abolitionist, and women's rights activist. first known American woman to speak to a mixed audience of men and women, white and black, she was also the first African-American woman to make public lectures, as well as to lecture about women's rights and make a public anti-slavery speech.[1] Liberator published two pamphlets by Stewart: Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, The Sure Foundation on Which We Must Build (which advocated abolition and black autonomy) in 1831, and another of religious meditations, Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria Stewart (1832). February 1833, she addressed Boston's African Masonic Lodge, which soon ended her brief lecturing career. Her claim that black men lacked "ambition and requisite courage" caused an uproar among the audience, and Stewart decided to retire from giving lectures. Seven months later, she gave a farewell address at a schoolroom in the African Meeting House ("Paul's Church"). this, she moved to New York City, then to Baltimore, and finally Washington, DC, where she worked as a schoolteacher, and then head matron at Freedmen's Hospital, where she eventually died. life was born Maria Miller, the child of free African-American parents in Hartford, Connecticut. In 1806, At the age of three she lost both parents and was sent to live with a minister and his family. She continued as a servant in that home until she was 15, without receiving any formal education. Between the ages of 15 and 20, Maria attended Sabbath School before church service on Sundays and developed a lifelong affinity for religious work.[2] August 10, 1826, Maria Miller married James W. Stewart, an independent shipping agent, before the Reverend Thomas Paul, pastor of the African Meeting House, in Boston, Massachusetts. She took not only his last name but his middle initial.[3] Their marriage lasted only three years and produced no children; James Stewart died in 1829. executors of his estate deprived Maria as his widow of any inheritance. This moment spurred Stewart to begin thinking about women's rights and the inequities they faced.[4] However, James had served in the War of 1812 and eventually a law was passed allowing veterans' widows their husbands' pensions.[5] speaking was the first American woman to speak to a mixed audience of men, women, whites and blacks (termed a "promiscuous" audience during the early 19th century).[6] first African-American woman to lecture about women's rights — Stewart focused particularly on the rights of black women — religion, and social justice among black people. was someone who could be called a Matronist: one of the matriarchs of black feminist thought during the Jim Crow era. also became the first African-American woman to make public anti-slavery speeches.[7] of the first African-American women to make public lectures for which there are still surviving copies, Stewart referred to her public lectures as "speeches" and not "sermons", despite their religious tone and frequent Biblical quotes. women preachers of the era, such as Jarena Lee, Julia Foote and Amanda Berry Smith, undoubtedly influenced Stewart, and Sojourner Truth later used a similar style in her public lectures.[8] delivered her speeches in Boston, to organizations including the African-American Female Intelligence Society.[9] Walker, a prosperous clothing shop owner, who was a well-known, outspoken member of the General Colored Association, also influenced Stewart. (A house at 81 Joy Street where from 1827 till 1829 Walker and his wife were tenants subsequently also became home to Stewart.)[10] A leader within Boston's African-American enclave, Walker wrote a very controversial piece on race relations entitled David Walker's Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World (1829). In 1830, he was found dead outside of his shop, just one year after Stewart's husband had died. events precipitated a "born again" spiritual experience for Stewart. She became a vocal and militant advocate for "Africa, freedom and God's cause".[7] However, she was far less militant than Walker, and resisted advocating violence. Instead, Stewart put forth African-American exceptionalism, the special bond she saw between God and African Americans, and advocated social and moral advancement, even as she vocally protested against social conditions African Americans experienced, and touched on several political issues. 1831, before her public speaking career began, Stewart published a small pamphlet entitled Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, the Sure Foundation on Which We Must Build. In 1832, she published a collection of religious meditations, Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria Stewart. She wrote and delivered four lectures between 1832 and 1833, including an adapted version of her Religion pamphlet delivered to the African American Female Intelligence Society in April 1832.[4] While her speeches were daring and not well received, William Lloyd Garrison, a friend and the central figure of the abolitionist (anti-slavery) movement, published all four in his newspaper, The Liberator, the first three individually, and later, all four together. Garrison also recruited Stewart to write for The Liberator in 1831.[7] public-speaking career lasted three years. She delivered her farewell lectures on September 21, 1833, in the schoolroom of the African Meeting House, known then as the Belknap Street Church, and as of 2019 part of Boston's Black Heritage Trail. Upon leaving Boston, she first moved to New York, where she published her collected works in 1835. She taught school and participated in the abolitionist movement, as well as literary organization. Stewart then moved to Baltimore and eventually to Washington, D.C., where she also taught school before becoming head matron (nurse) of the Freedmen's Hospital and Asylum in Washington, later the medical school of Howard University. She ultimately died at that hospital.[11] her writings, Stewart was very cogent when she talked about the plight of the Negro. She said, "Every man has a right to express his opinion. Many think, because your skins are tinged with a sable hue, that you are an inferior race of beings ... Then why should one worm say to another, Keep you down there, while I sit up yonder; for I am better than thou. It is not the color of the skin that makes the man, but it is the principle formed within the soul.[12]" She understood that education about God and country would lift the Negro out of ignorance and poverty. "She expressed concern for African Americans' temporal affairs and eternal salvation and urged them to develop their talents and intellect, live moral lives, and devote themselves to racial activism. Stewart challenged her audience to emulate the valor of the pilgrims and American revolutionaries in demanding freedom, and advised them to establish institutions such as grocery stores and churches to support their community.[13]" Stewart's radical point of view was not well received by her audience. William Lloyd Garrison said of her, whole adult life has been devoted to the noble task of educating and elevating your people, sympathizing with them in their affliction, and assisting them in their needs; and, though advanced in years, you are still animated with the spirit of your earlier life, and striving to do what in you lies to succor the outcast, reclaim the wanderer, and lift up the fallen. In this blessed work may you be generously assisted by those to whom you may make your charitable appeals, and who may have the means to give efficiency to your efforts.[12] wanted to help the black community to do and be better as they circumnavigated their way around a country where subjugation of the Negro was the law of the land. W. Stewart was humble and deeply determined to preach the word of God. She evangelized during a time when educated women, especially educated Negro women, were frowned upon. She once wrote, lost my position in Williamsburg, Long Island, and hearing the colored people were more religious and God-fearing in the South, I wended my way to Baltimore in 1852. But I found all was not gold that glistened; and when I saw the want of means for the advancement of the common English branches, with no literary resources for the improvement of the mind scarcely, I threw myself at the foot of the Cross, resolving to make the best of a bad bargain ...[14] was shocked that the conditions in the south for African Americans did not measure up to what she imagined. She eventually took a job as a teacher where she taught reading, writing, spelling and arithmetic. was paid 50 cents a month while other teachers were paid $1. Her salary was barely enough to cover her monthly expenses. She readily admitted she was not good at handling her finances and to some degree people took advantage. evangelists were often very poor and leaned on the kindness of strangers, friends and religious leaders to help sustain them. One such friend went by the name of Elizabeth Keckley, a former slave, seamstress and civil rights activist she wrote of fondly, "There was a lady, Mrs. Keckley, I knew, formerly from Baltimore, who proved to be an ardent friend to me in my great emergency. ..."[14] Stewart was born free and Keckley a slave, but both women saw a need to be active in the burgeoning civil rights movement of the late 19th century. preaching of God's word during the 1800s was seen in society as patrilineal, even among some Negro religious institutions. As one writer said: Women in the black churches were relegated to positions that posed no real threat to the power structure maintained by preachers, deacons, and other male leaders. Women were usually assigned roles of Sunday school teachers, exhorters, secretaries, cooks, and cleaners. Such positions paralleled those reserved for women within the domestic sphere of the home."[15] believed wholeheartedly that she was called to do God's work even at great peril to herself. She used her platform to talk about racial injustices and sexism by highlighting the contradictions between the message of peace and unity preached from the pulpits of the white churches verses the reality of the slavery. According to one writer: Stewart, this ... newly freed community ... barely one generation from slavery, yearning for a fully realized freedom rather than a nominal one. Given the small size of the free Black community,[16] it is easy to assume solidarity, cohesion, and unquestioned allegiance to the Black church. just as revolutionary Americans had to grapple with what it meant to be 'American,'... Blacks ... just 50 years from slavery in Massachusetts, were grappling with their identity as free people, and there were likely competing agendas being cast forth of what Blacks should 'do' and how they should operate."[17] loved her work and her people. She knew they could be successful if they had the proper tools to succeed. That is why she started a school for the children of runaway slaves. Stewart knew education and faith in God was the great equalizer. Stewart delivered four public lectures that The Liberator published during her lifetime, addressing women's rights, moral and educational aspiration, occupational advancement, and the abolition of slavery. delivered the lecture "Why Sit Ye Here and Die?" on September 21, 1832, at Franklin Hall, Boston, to the New England Anti-Slavery Society. She demanded equal rights for African-American women: have asked several individuals of my sex, who transact business for themselves, if providing our girls were to give them the most satisfactory references, they would not be willing to grant them an equal opportunity with others? Their reply has been—for their own part, they had no objection; but as it was not the custom, were they to take them into their employ, they would be in danger of losing the public patronage. And such is the powerful force of prejudice. Let our girls possess what amiable qualities of soul they may; let their characters be fair and spotless as innocence itself; let their natural taste and ingenuity be what they may; it is impossible for scarce an individual of them to rise above the condition of servants. Ah! why is this cruel and unfeeling distinction? Is it merely because God has made our complexion to vary? If it be, O shame to soft, relenting humanity! "Tell it not in Gath! publish it not in the streets of Askelon!" Yet, after all, methinks were the American free people of color to turn their attention more assiduously to moral worth and intellectual improvement, this would be the result: prejudice would gradually diminish, and the whites would be compelled to say, unloose those fetters! the same speech Stewart emphasized that African-American women were not so different from African-American men: at many of the most worthy and interesting of us doomed to spend our lives in gentlemen's kitchens. Look at our young men, smart, active and energetic, with souls filled with ambitious fire; if they look forward, alas! what are their prospects? They can be nothing but the humblest laborers, on account of their dark complexions ... continued the theme that African Americans were subjected not only to Southern slavery but to Northern racism and economic structures: have heard much respecting the horrors of slavery; but may Heaven forbid that the generality of my color throughout these United States should experience any more of its horrors than to be a servant of servants, or hewers of wood and drawers of water! Tell us no more of southern slavery; for with few exceptions, although I may be very erroneous in my opinion, yet I consider our condition but little better than that. Stewart critiqued Northern treatment of African Americans at a meeting in which Northerners gathered to criticize and plan action against Southern treatment of African Americans. challenged the supposed dichotomy between the inhumane enslavement of the South and the normal proceedings of capitalism in the North, arguing that the relegation of African Americans to service jobs was also a great injustice and waste of human potential. In doing so, she anticipated arguments about the intersection of racism, capitalism, and sexism that would later be advanced by womanist thinkers. Christian faith strongly influenced Stewart. She often cited Biblical influences and the Holy Spirit, and implicitly critiqued societal failure to educate her and others like her: after all, methinks there are no chains so galling as the chains of ignorance—no fetters so binding as those that bind the soul, and exclude it from the vast field of useful and scientific knowledge. O, had I received the advantages of early education, my ideas would, ere now, have expanded far and wide; but, alas! I possess nothing but moral capability—no teachings but the teachings of the Holy spirit. W. Stewart delivered the speech entitled "An Address: African Rights and Liberty" to a mixed audience at the African Masonic Hall in Boston on February 27, 1833.[18] It was not received well and it would be her last public address before she embarked on a life of activism. The speech says in part: of our color have been taught to stand in fear of the white man from their earliest infancy, to work as soon as they could walk, and to call "master" before they scarce could lisp the name of mother. Continual fear and laborious servitude have in some degree lessened in us that natural force and energy which belong to man; or else, in defiance of opposition, our men, before this, would have nobly and boldly contended for their rights ... give the man of color an equal opportunity with the white from the cradle to manhood, and from manhood to the grave, and you would discover the dignified statesman, the man of science, and the philosopher. But there is no such opportunity for the sons of Africa ... I fear that our powerful ones are fully determined that there never shall be ... O ye sons of Africa, when will your voices be heard in our legislative halls, in defiance of your enemies, contending for equal rights and liberty? ... Is it possible, I exclaim, that for the want of knowledge we have labored for hundreds of years to support others, and been content to receive what they chose to give us in return? Cast your eyes about, look as far as you can see; all, all is owned by the lordly white, except here and there a lowly dwelling which the man of color, midst deprivations, fraud, and opposition has been scarce able to procure. Like King Solomon, who put neither nail nor hammer to the temple, yet received the praise; so also have the white Americans gained themselves a name, like the names of the great men that are in the earth, while in reality we have been their principal foundation and support. We have pursued the shadow, they have obtained the substance; we have performed the labor, they have received the profits; we have planted the vines, they have eaten the fruits of them.[14] very powerful and thought provoking speech about the greatness of African-American people gives us today a glimpse into the mind of an important historical figure in African-American history.[citation needed] and legacy died at Freedmen's Hospital on December 17, 1879.[11] She was buried in Graceland Cemetery,[19] which was closed two decades later after extensive litigation and most of the land used by the Washington Electric Railway. The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) remembers Maria Stewart annually, together with William Lloyd Garrison, on December 17. is included in Daughters of Africa: An International Anthology of Words and Writings by Women of African Descent, edited by Margaret Busby (1992),[20] the title of which is inspired by Stewart's 1831 declaration,[21] in which she said: O, ye daughters of Africa, awake! awake! arise! no longer sleep nor slumber, but distinguish yourselves. Show forth to the world that ye are endowed with noble and exalted faculties.[22] Hartford, Connecticut; Maria Steward of WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON AND MARIA STEWART PROPHETIC WITESSES, 1879 Commemorated December 17 ; Stewart (Maria Miller) (1803 – December 17, 1879) was an African American public speaker, abolitionist, and feminist. was born in Hartford, Connecticut and at the age of five became an orphan and was sent to live with a minister and his family, where she was a servant in their home. later moved to Boston, and married James W. Stewart. died after only three years of marriage, and she was cheated out of a considerable inheritance. then embarked on a short (1831-1833) writing and public speaking career, for which she is best known. most famous speech was Religion and the pure principles of Morality The sure Foundation on which We Must Build. and others were published in William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator. later moved to New York, and then to Washington, DC, where she was head matron of the Freedman's Hospital.

US, 1824, Saint Lawrence Seaway Folder, first locks 1824, Canada, huge US impact
Saint Lawrence Seaway;

Canada, Eastern Canada
Eastern Canada; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22 ; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796, Commemorated April 16 ; New Martyr Archpriest Vasily Martysz, Commemorated on May 4;

Saint Lawrence Seaway

Saint Lawrence Seaway (Western End)
Saint Lawrence Seaway;

Saint Lawarence Seaway (Sault Ste. Marie)
Saint Lawrence Seaway; Saint Mary's, Ontario (Sault Ste. Marie); John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902);

Saint Mary's, Ontario (Sault Ste. Marie)
Saint Mary's, Ontario (Sault Ste. Marie); John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902);

Ontario, Canada (Saint Lawarence Seaway and Hudson Bay)
Ontario, Canada (Saint Lawarence Seaway and Hudson Bay); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1929, Commemorated January 29 ;

Ojibwa People, Ontario (Saultiers) and Michigan
Ojibwa People; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Ojibwe Lands (Outlet Lake Superior, Eastern Canada)
Ojibwe Lands: Because many Ojibwe were historically formerly located mainly around the outlet of Lake Superior, which the French colonists called Sault Ste. Marie, they referred to the Ojibwe as Saulteurs. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. Ojibwe who were originally located about the Mississagi River and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the Mississaugas. ROBERT McDONALD, Commemorated December 15; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Saint Lawrence Seaway (Welland Canal)
Welland Canal

Salford, Ontario
Salford, Ontario ; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ;

Saint Lawrence Seaway (Montreal)

Saint Lawrence Seaway (Eastern End)

Newfoundland
Newfoundland; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940;

Great Northern Peninsula, Northern Newfoundland
Great Northern Peninsula; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940;

St Anthony, Great Northern Penninsula, Newfoundland
St Anthony, Newfoundland and Labrador; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940 ;

Indian Harbour, Labrador (Laurentian Divide 3)
Indian Harbour, Newfoundland; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940 ;

Canada, Saint Laurence Seaway North, Laurentian Divide 1-7 Folder, Northeastern CAN

Continental Divide - Laurentian Divide

Laurentian Divide 1 (Killinig Island, Cape Chidley)
Laurentian Divide;

Laurentian Divide 2

Labrador (Laurentian Divide 2)
Labrador; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940;

Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940;

Laurentian Divide 3

Laurentian Divide 4

Triple Divide Peak, MT, Laurentian Divide
Triple Divide Peak (Montana); Laurentian Divide;

Canada, Saint Laurence River Folder, Eastern CAN

Saint Laurence River

Saint Laurence River Source (Lake Ontario)
Saint Laurence River;

Saint Laurence River Mouth (Gulf of Saint Laurence)

Canada, St Laurence River Mouth, Rideau Canal Folder, Montreal, Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto

Rideau Canal
Rideau Canal ;

Rideau Canal (Montreal)
Rideau Canal ;

Rideau Canal (Ottawa)
Rideau Canal ;

Ottawa, Canad (Saint Laurence Seaway)
Canada; JOHN HORDEN MISSIONARY BISHOP IN CANADA, 1893, Commemorated December 15 ; JOHN MUIR, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ; Appearance of the Tikhvin Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on June 26;

Rideau Canal (Kingston, Ontario)

Cataraqui River Mouth (Lake Ontario)
Cataraqui River ;

Little Cataraqui Creek Mouth (Lake Ontario)

Kingston, Ontario, Eastern Canada (Saint Laurence River Source)
Kingston, Ontario; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796, Commemorated April 16 ;

St Pauls Anglican Church, 137 Queen St, Kingston, ON
St. Paul's Anglican Church, 137 Queen Street (at Montreal) , Kingston, ON K7K 1A8; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796. Commemorated April 16;

Cataraqui, near Kingston, Ontario (Saint Laurence River Source, Lake Ontario)
MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796;

Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Rideau Canal, Saint Laurence River Source, Saint Laurence Seaway)
Toronto, Ontario, Canada; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944, Commemorated January 24;

Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough)
Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough); ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Peterborough, Ontario (near Toronto)
Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough); ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Petersburg, Ontario (Wilmot, between London and Toronto)
Petersburg, Ontario (between London and Toronto); ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Canada, St Lawarence Divide Folder, Southeastern CAN

Continental Divide - St Lawrence Divide

St Lawrence Divide (Cape Breton Island)

St Lawrence Divide (New Brunswick)

New Brunswick Province, Eastern Canada
New Brunswick Province, Canada; William Lloyd Garrison of WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON AND MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESSES, 1879, Commemorated December 17 ;

All Saints Cathedral, Halifax, New Brunswick Province, 1907
All Saints Cathedral, Halifax, 1907 ; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16;

St Lawrence Divide (Lake Champlain, near Rutland, VT)

St Lawrence Divide (near Ottawa, Canada)

St Lawrence Divide (Oneida, NY)

St Lawrence Divide (Finger Lakes)

St Lawrence Divide (Erie)

Saint Lawarence Divide (Cleveland)

Saint Lawrence Divide (Chicago)

St Lawrence Divide (Milwaukee)

St Lawrence Divide (Oneida, WI)

US, 1825-1829, President, John Quincy Adams, statesman, diplomat, ex federalist, ex anti mason, Whig, Florida, abolitionist
US President, 1825-1829, John Quincy Adams; Quincy Adams (July 11, 1767 - February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States, from 1825 to 1829. previously served as the eighth United States Secretary of State from 1817 to 1825. During his long diplomatic and political career, Adams also served as an ambassador, and as a member of the United States Senate and House of Representatives representing Massachusetts. was the eldest son of John Adams, who served as the second U.S. president from 1797 to 1801, and First Lady Abigail Adams. Initially a Federalist like his father, he won election to the presidency as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and in the mid-1830s became affiliated with the Whig Party. in Braintree, Massachusetts[4] (now part of the town of Quincy), Adams spent much of his youth in Europe, where his father served as a diplomat. After returning to the United States, Adams established a successful legal practice in Boston. 1794, President George Washington appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to the Netherlands, and Adams would serve in high-ranking diplomatic posts until 1801, when Thomas Jefferson took office as president. leaders in Massachusetts arranged for Adams's election to the United States Senate in 1802, but Adams broke with the Federalist Party over foreign policy and was denied re-election. 1809, President James Madison, a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to Russia. Adams held diplomatic posts for the duration of Madison's presidency, and he served as part of the American delegation that negotiated an end to the War of 1812. 1817, newly elected president James Monroe selected Adams as his Secretary of State. In that role, Adams negotiated the Adams–Onís Treaty, which provided for the American acquisition of Florida. also helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine, which became a key tenet of U.S. foreign policy. 1818, Adams was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.[5] Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay — all members of the Democratic-Republican Party — competed in the 1824 presidential election. Because no candidate won a majority of electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election, which Adams won with the support of Clay. president, Adams called for an ambitious agenda that included federally funded infrastructure projects, the establishment of a national university, and engagement with the countries of Latin America, but Congress refused to pass many of his initiatives. Adams's presidency, the Democratic-Republican Party polarized into two major camps: the National Republican Party, which supported President Adams, and Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party. The Democrats proved to be more effective political organizers than Adams and his National Republican supporters, and Jackson trounced Adams in the 1828 presidential election, the second president (after his father) to fail to win re-election. than retiring from public service, Adams won election to the House of Representatives, where he would serve from 1831 to his death in 1848. remains the only ex-president to be elected to the chamber (although John Tyler was elected a Confederate representative, but died before he could take his seat). failing attempts at election as Governor of Massachusetts and re-election to the Senate, Adams joined the Anti-Masonic Party in the early 1830s before becoming a member of the Whig Party, which united those opposed to President Jackson. his time in Congress, Adams became increasingly critical of slavery and of the Southern leaders who he believed controlled the Democratic Party. He was particularly opposed to the annexation of Texas and the Mexican–American War, which he saw as a war to extend slavery and its political grip on Congress. He also led the repeal of the "gag rule", which had prevented the House of Representatives from debating petitions to abolish slavery. Historians concur that Adams was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history; they typically rank him as an average president, as he had an ambitious agenda but could not get it passed by Congress. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26; William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30;

US, 1825-1879, WILLIAM L GARRISON, Prominent American Christian, abolitionist, journalist, suffragist, social reformer
US, 1825-1879, WILLIAM L GARRISON, Newburyport, Massachusetts, Prominent American Christian, abolitionist, journalist, suffragist, social reformer, known for his newspaper The Liberator, published iBoston til abolition i1865, promoted no-governmentism, rejected tyrannical American Govt, fWar, Imperialism, slavery, first opposed violence, then Civil War abandoned principles supported Lincoln, Bible tSource oHis power, prayed constantly, prejudice all fixed forms worship, &authority human Govt, &every binding otSpirit tConform tHuman Law, all from his constant Bible reading, price on his head; Newburyport, Massachusetts; William Lloyd Garrison of WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON AND MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESSES, 1879, Commemorated December 17 ; Lloyd Garrison (December 10, 1805 – May 24, 1879) a prominent American Christian, abolitionist, journalist, suffragist, and social reformer. is best known for his widely read antislavery newspaper The Liberator, he founded in 1831 and published in Boston until slavery in the United States was abolished by constitutional amendment in 1865. promoted "no-governmentism" and rejected the inherent validity of the American government on the basis that its engagement in war, imperialism, and slavery made it corrupt and tyrannical. initially opposed violence as a principle and advocated for Christian nonresistance against evil; the outbreak of the Civil War, he abandoned his previous principles and embraced the armed struggle and the Lincoln administration. was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society promoted immediate and uncompensated, as opposed to gradual and compensated, emancipation of slaves in the United States. source of Garrison's power was the Bible. his earliest days, he read the Bible constantly and prayed constantly. was with this fire that he started his conflagration. ... also, a prejudice against all fixed forms of worship, against the authority of human government, against every binding of the spirit into conformity with human law, – all these things grew up in Garrison's mind out of his Bible reading." the other major abolitionist printer-publisher, the martyred Elijah Lovejoy, a price was on his head; he was burned in effigy and a gallows was erected in front of his Boston office. more at Wikipedia

US, 1826, Pennsylvania Main Line Canal Folder, started 1826, completed 1834

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 1 (Philidelphia)
Pennsylvania Main Line Canal ;

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 2

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 3

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 4

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 5 (Hollidaysburg)

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 6 (Johnstown)

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 7 (Pittsburg)
Pennsylvania Main Line Canal

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal (Philadelphia to Pittsburg)

US, 1829-1837, President, Andrew Jackson, war hero, Dem party founder, expansionist, common man, no natnl debt
US President, 1829-1837, Andrew Jackson; Jackson (March 15, 1767 - June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, soldier, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. being elected to the presidency, Jackson gained fame as a general in the United States Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. expansionist president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the "common man"[1] against a "corrupt aristocracy"[2] and to preserve the Union. in the colonial Carolinas in the decade before the American Revolutionary War, Jackson became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards. served briefly in the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate, representing Tennessee. resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as The Hermitage, and became a wealthy, slaveowning planter. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander the following year. led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. The subsequent Treaty of Fort Jackson required the Creek surrender of vast lands in present-day Alabama and Georgia. the concurrent war against the British, Jackson's victory in 1815 at the Battle of New Orleans made him a national hero. then led U.S. forces in the First Seminole War, which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824, winning a plurality of the popular and electoral vote. As no candidate won an electoral majority, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election. reaction to the alleged "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Henry Clay and the ambitious agenda of President Adams, Jackson's supporters founded the Democratic Party. ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. Jackson faced the threat of secession by South Carolina over what opponents called the "Tariff of Abominations". The crisis was defused when the tariff was amended, and Jackson threatened the use of military force if South Carolina attempted to secede. Congress, Henry Clay led the effort to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson, regarding the Bank as a corrupt institution that benefited the wealthy at the expense of ordinary Americans, vetoed the renewal of its charter. After a lengthy struggle, Jackson and his allies thoroughly dismantled the Bank. 1835, Jackson became the only president to completely pay off the national debt, fulfilling a longtime goal. Jackson pursued numerous reforms designed to eliminate waste and corruption, his presidency marked the beginning of the ascendancy of the party "spoils system" in American politics. 1830, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which forcibly removed most members of the major tribes of the Southeast to Indian Territory; these removals were subsequently known as the Trail of Tears. The relocation process dispossessed these nations of their land and resulted in widespread death and disease. opposed the abolitionist movement, which grew stronger in his second term. In foreign affairs, Jackson's administration concluded a "most favored nation" treaty with the United Kingdom, settled claims of damages against France from the Napoleonic Wars, and recognized the Republic of Texas. January 1835, he survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president. his retirement, Jackson remained active in Democratic Party politics, supporting the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk. fearful of its effects on the slavery debate, Jackson advocated the annexation of Texas, which was accomplished shortly before his death. has been widely revered in the United States as an advocate for democracy and the common man. Many of his actions proved divisive, garnering both fervent support and strong opposition from many in the country. reputation has suffered since the 1970s, largely due to his anti-abolitionist views and policy of the forcible removal of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands. surveys of historians and scholars have ranked Jackson favorably among U.S. presidents. PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26; William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ;

US, 1830, Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) Jacksonville Beach, Florida to San Diego, California

Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) Jacksonville Beach, Florida, 1830

Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) - Jacksonville Beach, Florida
Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) - San Diego, California to Jacksonville Beach, Florida;

Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) - San Diego, California to Jacksonville Beach, Florida
Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) - San Diego, California to Jacksonville Beach, Florida;

US, 1831-1896, HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER, Uncle Tom's Cabin, caused anti-slavery North & hatred South, underground railroad
US, 1831-1896, HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER, Litchfield, Connecticut (Naugatuck River West Branch), Uncle Tom's Cabin, caused anti-slavery North & hatred South, underground railroad, fugitive slave law inspired the book, mother of 7; Litchfield, Connecticut; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Beecher Stowe (June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American abolitionist and author. novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) depicted life for African-Americans under slavery; it reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and United Kingdom and made the political issues of the 1850s regarding slavery tangible to millions, energizing anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. Upon meeting Stowe, Abraham Lincoln allegedly remarked, "So you're the little lady who started this great war!" The quote is regarded as apocryphal. Beecher was born in Litchfield, Connecticut on June 14, 1811. was the daughter of outspoken religious leader Lyman Beecher and Roxana Foote, a deeply religious woman who died when Stowe was four years old. was the sister of the educator and author, Catharine Beecher, clergymen Henry Ward Beecher, Charles Beecher, and Edward Beecher. enrolled in the seminary run by her eldest sister Catharine, where she received a traditionally "male" education. the age of 21, she moved to Cincinnati, Ohio to join her father, who had become the president of Lane Theological Seminary, in 1836 she married Calvin Ellis Stowe, a professor at the seminary and an ardent critic of slavery. Stowes supported the Underground Railroad and housed several fugitive slaves in their home. They eventually moved to Brunswick, Maine, where Calvin taught at Bowdoin College. 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Law, prohibiting assistance to fugitives. Stowe was moved to present her objections on paper, and in June 1851, the first installment of Uncle Tom's Cabin appeared in the antislavery journal National Era. 40-year-old mother of seven children sparked a national debate and, as Abraham Lincoln is said to have noted, a war. Stowe died on July 1, 1896, at age eighty-five, in Hartford, Connecticut. — more at Wikipedia

US, 1836-1896, ANNE AYRES, NYC and Long Island, founded first Episcopal religious order for women in US
US, , ANNE AYRES, St. Johnland, in King's Park, Long Island and St Luke's Hospital1836-1896, NYC, founded first Episcopal religious order for women in US; Saint Johnland House ; St Johnland Nursing Center, History; Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896), Commemorated April 8; ANNE AYRES, RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896), Commemorated April 8; Ayres (January 3, 1816 – February 9, 1896) was a nun and the founder of the first Episcopalian religious order for women. in London, she emigrated to the United States in 1836; settling in New York City. She tutored the daughters of wealthy families, and in 1845 she decided to follow a religious life, after hearing a speech by Episcopal clergyman William Augustus Muhlenberg. were no religious orders specifically for women in the Episcopal Church so Ayres was consecrated a “sister of the Holy Communion”. She gathered other women as teachers at a Parish school and as charity workers, and they formed the Sisterhood of the Holy Communion in 1852. order opened an infirmary in 1853, before moving to St. Luke's Hospital. Ayres helped Muhlenberg found St. Johnland, in King's Park, Long Island, which was intended to be a rural utopia for poor inner-city people. wrote a biography of William Augustus Muhlenberg, first published in 1880 as The Life and Work of William Augustus Muhlenberg. — from Wikipedia

US, 1837-1841, President, Martin VanBuren, Dutch, Democrat founder but Abolitionist, opposed Texas annexation as slave state,
US President, 1837-1841, Martin VanBuren ; Van Buren (December 5, 1782 - July 24, 1862) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the eighth president of the United States from 1837 to 1841. founder of the Democratic Party, he had previously served as the ninth governor of New York, the tenth United States secretary of state, and the eighth vice president of the United States. won the 1836 presidential election with the endorsement of popular outgoing President Andrew Jackson and the organizational strength of the Democratic Party. was the third incumbent vice president to be elected president, and the last until 1988. lost his 1840 reelection bid to the Whig nominee, William Henry Harrison, thanks in part to the poor economic conditions surrounding the Panic of 1837. Later in his life, Van Buren emerged as an elder statesman and an important anti-slavery leader who led the Free Soil Party ticket in the 1848 presidential election. Buren was born in Kinderhook, New York, where most residents were of Dutch descent and spoke Dutch as their primary language. was the first president to have been born after the American Revolution—in which his father served as a patriot—and is the only president to have spoken English as a second language. as a lawyer, he quickly became involved in politics as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and won a seat in the New York State Senate, and then in the United States Senate in 1821. the leader of the Bucktails faction, Van Buren emerged as the most influential politician from New York in the 1820s and established a political machine known as the Albany Regency. Following the 1824 presidential election, Van Buren led to re-establish a two-party system with partisan differences based on ideology rather than personalities or sectional differences; he supported Jackson's candidacy in the 1828 presidential election with this goal in mind. ran successfully for governor of New York to support Jackson's campaign, but resigned shortly after Jackson was inaugurated so that he could accept appointment as Jackson's secretary of state. his cabinet position, Van Buren became a key Jackson advisor, and built the organizational structure for the coalescing Democratic Party. He ultimately resigned to help resolve the Petticoat affair, and briefly served as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom. Jackson's behest, the 1832 Democratic National Convention nominated Van Buren for vice president of the United States, and he took office after the Democratic ticket won the 1832 presidential election. Jackson's strong support, Van Buren won the presidential nomination at the 1835 Democratic National Convention, and he defeated several Whig opponents in the 1836 presidential election. his presidency soon eroded with his response to the Panic of 1837, which centered on his Independent Treasury system, a plan under which the Federal government of the United States would store its funds in vaults rather than in banks; more conservative Democrats and Whigs in Congress ultimately delayed his plan from being implemented until 1840. presidency was further marred by the costly Second Seminole War (a result of continuing Jackson's Indian removal policy); and his refusal to admit Texas to the Union as a slave state, done as an attempt to avoid heightened sectional tensions. In 1840, a surge of new voters—who nicknamed him "Martin Van Ruin"—helped turn him out of office. Buren was initially the leading candidate for the Democratic Party's nomination again in 1844, but his continued opposition to the annexation of Texas angered Southern Democrats, leading to the nomination of James K. Polk. Buren was the newly formed Free Soil Party's presidential nominee in 1848, and his candidacy most likely helped Whig nominee Zachary Taylor defeat Democrat Lewis Cass. Van Buren returned to the Democrats after 1848, but grew increasingly opposed to slavery, and became one of the party's outspoken abolitionists. He supported Abraham Lincoln's policies during the American Civil War. He died in Kinderhook in July 1862, aged 79. historical rankings, historians and political scientists often rank Van Buren as an average or below-average U.S. president, due to his handling of the Panic of 1837. However, Van Buren is largely remembered today as a leader in the formation of the two-party system in the United States. PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ;

US, 1837-1895, Frederick Douglass, escaped slave and leader in abolition movement
Maryland, 1837-1895, Frederick Douglass, escaped slave and leader in abolition movement; Douglass (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, c. February 1817[a] - February 20, 1895) was an American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. escaping from slavery in Maryland, he became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York, becoming famous for his oratory[5] and incisive antislavery writings. Accordingly, he was described by abolitionists in his time as a living counterexample to slaveholders' arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens.[6][7] Likewise, Northerners at the time found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave.[8] wrote three autobiographies, describing his experiences as a slave in his Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845), which became a bestseller and was influential in promoting the cause of abolition, as was his second book, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855). Following the Civil War, Douglass was active campaigner for the rights of freed slaves and wrote his last autobiography, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass. First published in 1881 and revised in 1892, three years before his death, the book covers events both during and after the Civil War. Douglass also actively supported women's suffrage, and held several public offices. Without his permission, Douglass became the first African-American nominated for Vice President of the United States as the running mate and Vice Presidential nominee of Victoria Woodhull, on the Equal Rights Party ticket.[9] believed in dialogue and in making alliances across racial and ideological divides, as well as in the liberal values of the U.S. Constitution.[10] When radical abolitionists, under the motto "No Union with Slaveholders", criticized Douglass's willingness to engage in dialogue with slave owners, he replied: "I would unite with anybody to do right and with nobody to do wrong."[11] as a slave Augustus Washington Bailey was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Talbot County, Maryland. The plantation was between Hillsboro and Cordova;[12] his birthplace was likely his grandmother's cabin[b] east of Tappers Corner, (38.8845°N 75.958°W) and west of Tuckahoe Creek.[13][14][15] In his first autobiography, Douglass stated: "I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it."[16] However, based on the extant records of Douglass's former owner, Aaron Anthony, historian Dickson J. Preston determined that Douglass was born in February 1818.[3] Though the exact date of his birth is unknown, he chose to celebrate February 14 as his birthday, remembering that his mother called him her "Little Valentine."[17][18] family was of mixed race, which likely included Native American[19] and African on his mother's side, as well as European.[20] In contrast, his father was "almost certainly white", according to historian David W. Blight in his 2018 biography of Douglass.[21] Douglass said his mother Harriet Bailey gave him his name Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey and, after he escaped to the North in September 1838, he took the surname Douglass, having already dropped his two middle names.[22] later wrote of his earliest times with his mother:[23] The opinion was…whispered that my master was my father; but of the correctness of this opinion I know nothing. … My mother and I were separated when I was but an infant. … It is a common custom, in the part of Maryland from which I ran away, to part children from their mothers at a very early age. … I do not recollect of ever seeing my mother by the light of day. She was with me in the night. She would lie down with me, and get me to sleep, but long before I waked she was gone. separation from his mother during infancy, young Frederick lived with his maternal grandmother Betsy Bailey, who was also a slave, and his maternal grandfather Isaac, who was free.[24] Betsy would live until 1849.[25] mother remained on the plantation about 12 miles (19 km) away, only visiting Frederick a few times before her death when he was 7 years old. learning and experience Auld family of a series on Slavery the age of 6, Frederick was separated from his grandparents and moved to the Wye House plantation, where Aaron Anthony worked as overseer.[15] After Anthony died in 1826, Douglass was given to Lucretia Auld, wife of Thomas Auld, who sent him to serve Thomas' brother Hugh Auld in Baltimore. Douglass felt that he was lucky to be in the city, where he said slaves were almost freemen, compared to those on plantations. Douglass was about 12, Hugh Auld's wife Sophia began teaching him the alphabet. From the day he arrived, she saw to it that Douglass was properly fed and clothed, and that he slept in a bed with sheets and a blanket.[26] Douglass described her as a kind and tender-hearted woman, who treated him "as she supposed one human being ought to treat another."[27] Auld disapproved of the tutoring, feeling that literacy would encourage slaves to desire freedom. Douglass later referred to this as the "first decidedly antislavery lecture" he had ever heard. "'Very well, thought I,'" wrote Douglass. "'Knowledge unfits a child to be a slave.' I instinctively assented to the proposition, and from that moment I understood the direct pathway from slavery to freedom."[28] her husband's influence, Sophia came to believe that education and slavery were incompatible and one day snatched a newspaper away from Douglass.[29] She stopped teaching him altogether and hid all potential reading materials, including her Bible, from him.[26] In his autobiography, Douglass related how he learned to read from white children in the neighborhood, and by observing the writings of the men he worked with.[30] continued, secretly, to teach himself to read and write. He later often said, "knowledge is the pathway from slavery to freedom."[31] As Douglass began to read newspapers, pamphlets, political materials, and books of every description, this new realm of thought led him to question and condemn the institution of slavery. later years, Douglass credited The Columbian Orator, an anthology that he discovered at about age 12, with clarifying and defining his views on freedom and human rights. First published in 1797, the book is a classroom reader, containing essays, speeches, and dialogues, to assist students in learning reading and grammar. He later learned that his mother had also been literate, about which he would later declare: I am quite willing, and even happy, to attribute any love of letters I possess, and for which I have got—despite of prejudices—only too much credit, not to my admitted Anglo-Saxon paternity, but to the native genius of my sable, unprotected, and uncultivated mother—a woman, who belonged to a race whose mental endowments it is, at present, fashionable to hold in disparagement and contempt.[32] Freeland Douglass was hired out to William Freeland, he taught other slaves on the plantation to read the New Testament at a weekly Sunday school. As word spread, the interest among slaves in learning to read was so great that in any week, more than 40 slaves would attend lessons. For about six months, their study went relatively unnoticed. While Freeland remained complacent about their activities, other plantation owners became incensed about their slaves being educated. One Sunday they burst in on the gathering, armed with clubs and stones, to disperse the congregation permanently. Edward Covey In 1833, Thomas Auld took Douglass back from Hugh ("[a]s a means of punishing Hugh," Douglass later wrote). Thomas sent Douglass to work for Edward Covey, a poor farmer who had a reputation as a "slave-breaker". He whipped Douglass so frequently that his wounds had little time to heal. Douglass later said the frequent whippings broke his body, soul, and spirit.[33] The 16-year-old Douglass finally rebelled against the beatings, however, and fought back. After Douglass won a physical confrontation, Covey never tried to beat him again.[34][35] Recounting his beatings at Covey's farm in Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Douglass described himself as "a man transformed into a brute!"[36] Still, Douglass came to see his physical fight with Covey as life-transforming, and introduced the story in his autobiography as such: "You have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man."[37] From slavery to freedom Douglass first tried to escape from Freeland, who had hired him from his owner, but was unsuccessful. In 1837, Douglass met and fell in love with Anna Murray, a free black woman in Baltimore about five years his senior. Her free status strengthened his belief in the possibility of gaining his own freedom. Murray encouraged him and supported his efforts by aid and money.[38] Anna Murray Douglass, Douglass's wife for 44 years, portrait ca. 1860 On September 3, 1838, Douglass successfully escaped by boarding a northbound train of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad.[39] The area where he boarded was thought to be a short distance east of the train depot, in a recently developed neighborhood between the modern neighborhoods of Harbor East and Little Italy. This depot was at President and Fleet Streets, east of "The Basin" of the Baltimore harbor, on the northwest branch of the Patapsco River. Research cited in 2021, however, suggests that Douglass in fact boarded the train at the Canton Depot of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad on Boston Street, in the Canton neighborhood of Baltimore, further east.[40][41][42] Young Douglass reached Havre de Grace, Maryland, in Harford County, in the northeast corner of the state, along the southwest shore of the Susquehanna River, which flowed into the Chesapeake Bay. Although this placed him only some 20 miles (32 km) from the Maryland–Pennsylvania state line, it was easier to continue by rail through Delaware, another slave state. Dressed in a sailor's uniform provided to him by Murray, who also gave him part of her savings to cover his travel costs, he carried identification papers and protection papers that he had obtained from a free black seaman.[38][43][44] Douglass crossed the wide Susquehanna River by the railroad's steam-ferry at Havre de Grace to Perryville on the opposite shore, in Cecil County, then continued by train across the state line to Wilmington, Delaware, a large port at the head of the Delaware Bay. From there, because the rail line was not yet completed, he went by steamboat along the Delaware River further northeast to the "Quaker City" of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, an anti-slavery stronghold. He continued to the safe house of noted abolitionist David Ruggles in New York City. His entire journey to freedom took less than 24 hours.[45] Douglass later wrote of his arrival in New York City: I have often been asked, how I felt when first I found myself on free soil. And my readers may share the same curiosity. There is scarcely anything in my experience about which I could not give a more satisfactory answer. A new world had opened upon me. If life is more than breath, and the "quick round of blood," I lived more in one day than in a year of my slave life. It was a time of joyous excitement which words can but tamely describe. In a letter written to a friend soon after reaching New York, I said: "I felt as one might feel upon escape from a den of hungry lions." Anguish and grief, like darkness and rain, may be depicted; but gladness and joy, like the rainbow, defy the skill of pen or pencil.[46] Once Douglass had arrived, he sent for Murray to follow him north to New York. She brought the basics for them to set up a home. They were married on September 15, 1838, by a black Presbyterian minister, just eleven days after Douglass had reached New York.[45] At first they adopted Johnson as their married name, to divert attention.[38] Abolitionist and preacher Frederick Douglass, c. 1840s, in his 20s The couple settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts, (an abolitionist center, full of former slaves), in 1838, moving to Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1841.[47] After meeting and staying with Nathan and Mary Johnson, they adopted Douglass as their married name:[38] Douglass had grown up using his mother's surname of Bailey; after escaping slavery he had changed his surname first to Stanley and then to Johnson. In New Bedford, the latter was such a common name that he wanted one that was more distinctive, and asked Nathan Johnson to choose a suitable surname. Nathan suggested "Douglass",[48] after having read the poem The Lady of the Lake by Walter Scott, in which two of the principal characters have the surname "Douglas".[49] The home and meetinghouse of the Johnsons, where Douglass and his wife lived in New Bedford, Massachusetts Douglass thought of joining a white Methodist Church, but was disappointed, from the beginning, upon finding that it was segregated. Later, he joined the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, an independent black denomination first established in New York City, which counted among its members Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman.[50] He became a licensed preacher in 1839,[51] which helped him to hone his oratorical skills. He held various positions, including steward, Sunday-school superintendent, and sexton. In 1840, Douglass delivered a speech in Elmira, New York, then a station on the Underground Railroad, in which a black congregation would form years later, becoming the region's largest church by 1940.[52] Douglass also joined several organizations in New Bedford, and regularly attended abolitionist meetings. He subscribed to William Lloyd Garrison's weekly newspaper, The Liberator. He later said that "no face and form ever impressed me with such sentiments [of the hatred of slavery] as did those of William Lloyd Garrison." So deep was this influence that in his last biography, Douglass said "his paper took a place in my heart second only to The Bible."[53] Garrison was likewise impressed with Douglass, and had written about his anti-colonialist stance in The Liberator as early as 1839. Douglass first heard Garrison speak in 1841, at a lecture that Garrison gave in Liberty Hall, New Bedford. At another meeting, Douglass was unexpectedly invited to speak. After telling his story, Douglass was encouraged to become an anti-slavery lecturer. A few days later, Douglass spoke at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society's annual convention, in Nantucket. Then 23 years old, Douglass conquered his nervousness and gave an eloquent speech about his rough life as a slave. William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist and one of Douglass's first friends in the North While living in Lynn, Douglass engaged in early protest against segregated transportation. In September 1841, at Lynn Central Square station, Douglass and friend James N. Buffum were thrown off an Eastern Railroad train because Douglass refused to sit in the segregated railroad coach.[47][54][55][56] In 1843, Douglass joined other speakers in the American Anti-Slavery Society's "Hundred Conventions" project, a six-month tour at meeting halls throughout the eastern and midwestern United States. During this tour, slavery supporters frequently accosted Douglass. At a lecture in Pendleton, Indiana, an angry mob chased and beat Douglass before a local Quaker family, the Hardys, rescued him. His hand was broken in the attack; it healed improperly and bothered him for the rest of his life.[57] A stone marker in Falls Park in the Pendleton Historic District commemorates this event. In 1847, Frederick Douglass explained to Garrison, "I have no love for America, as such; I have no patriotism. I have no country. What country have I? The Institutions of this Country do not know me—do not recognize me as a man."[58] Further information: Abolitionism in New Bedford, Massachusetts Autobiography Douglass's best-known work is his first autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, written during his time in Lynn, Massachusetts[59] and published in 1845. At the time, some skeptics questioned whether a black man could have produced such an eloquent piece of literature. The book received generally positive reviews and became an immediate bestseller. Within three years, it had been reprinted nine times, with 11,000 copies circulating in the United States. It was also translated into French and Dutch and published in Europe. Douglass published three versions of his autobiography during his lifetime (and revised the third of these), each time expanding on the previous one. The 1845 Narrative was his biggest seller, and probably allowed him to raise the funds to gain his legal freedom the following year, as discussed below. In 1855, Douglass published My Bondage and My Freedom. In 1881, after the Civil War, Douglass published Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, which he revised in 1892. Travels to Ireland and Great Britain Plaque to Frederick Douglass, West Bell St., Dundee, Scotland Douglass in 1847, around 29 years of age Douglass's friends and mentors feared that the publicity would draw the attention of his ex-owner, Hugh Auld, who might try to get his "property" back. They encouraged Douglass to tour Ireland, as many former slaves had done. Douglass set sail on the Cambria for Liverpool, England, on August 16, 1845. He traveled in Ireland as the Great Famine was beginning. The feeling of freedom from American racial discrimination amazed Douglass:[60] Eleven days and a half gone and I have crossed three thousand miles of the perilous deep. Instead of a democratic government, I am under a monarchical government. Instead of the bright, blue sky of America, I am covered with the soft, grey fog of the Emerald Isle [Ireland]. I breathe, and lo! the chattel [slave] becomes a man. I gaze around in vain for one who will question my equal humanity, claim me as his slave, or offer me an insult. I employ a cab—I am seated beside white people—I reach the hotel—I enter the same door—I am shown into the same parlour—I dine at the same table—and no one is offended ... I find myself regarded and treated at every turn with the kindness and deference paid to white people. When I go to church, I am met by no upturned nose and scornful lip to tell me, 'We don't allow niggers in here!' Still, Douglass was astounded by the extreme levels of poverty he encountered, much of it reminding him of his experiences in slavery. In a letter to William Lloyd Garrison, Douglass wrote "I see much here to remind me of my former condition, and I confess I should be ashamed to lift up my voice against American slavery, but that I know the cause of humanity is one the world over. He who really and truly feels for the American slave, cannot steel his heart to the woes of others; and he who thinks himself an abolitionist, yet cannot enter into the wrongs of others, has yet to find a true foundation for his anti-slavery faith."[61] He also met and befriended the Irish nationalist and strident abolitionist Daniel O'Connell,[62][63] who was to be a great inspiration.[64][65] Douglass spent two years in Ireland and Great Britain, lecturing in churches and chapels. His draw was such that some facilities were "crowded to suffocation". One example was his hugely popular London Reception Speech, which Douglass delivered in May 1846 at Alexander Fletcher's Finsbury Chapel. Douglass remarked that in England he was treated not "as a color, but as a man."[66] In 1846, Douglass met with Thomas Clarkson, one of the last living British abolitionists, who had persuaded Parliament to abolish slavery in Great Britain's colonies.[67] During this trip Douglass became legally free, as British supporters led by Anna Richardson and her sister-in-law Ellen of Newcastle upon Tyne raised funds to buy his freedom from his American owner Thomas Auld.[66][68] Many supporters tried to encourage Douglass to remain in England but, with his wife still in Massachusetts and three million of his black brethren in bondage in the United States, he returned to America in the spring of 1847,[66] soon after the death of Daniel O'Connell.[69] In the 21st century, historical plaques were installed on buildings in Cork and Waterford, Ireland, and London to celebrate Douglass's visit: the first is on the Imperial Hotel in Cork and was unveiled on August 31, 2012; the second is on the façade of Waterford City Hall, unveiled on October 7, 2013. It commemorates his speech there on October 9, 1845.[70] The third plaque adorns Nell Gwynn House, South Kensington in London, at the site of an earlier house where Douglass stayed with the British abolitionist George Thompson.[71] Douglass spent time in Scotland and was appointed "Scotland's Antislavery agent."[72] He made anti-slavery speeches and wrote letters back to the USA. He considered the city of Edinburgh to be elegant, grand and very welcoming. Maps of the places in the city that were important to his stay are held by the National Library of Scotland.[73][74] A plaque and a mural on Gilmore Place in Edinburgh mark his stay there in 1846. "A variety of collaborative projects are currently [in 2021] underway to commemorate Frederick Douglass’s journey and visit to Ireland in the 19th century."[75] Return to the United States Douglass circa 1847–52, around his early 30s After returning to the U.S. in 1847, using £500 (equivalent to $46,030 in 2019) given to him by English supporters,[66] Douglass started publishing his first abolitionist newspaper, the North Star, from the basement of the Memorial AME Zion Church in Rochester, New York.[76] Originally, Pittsburgh journalist Martin Delany was co-editor but Douglass didn't feel he brought in enough subscriptions, and they parted ways.[77] The North Star's motto was "Right is of no Sex – Truth is of no Color – God is the Father of us all, and we are all brethren."[78] The AME Church and North Star vigorously opposed the mostly white American Colonization Society and its proposal to send blacks back to Africa. Douglass also soon split with Garrison, perhaps because the North Star competed with Garrison's National Anti-Slavery Standard and Marius Robinson's Anti-Slavery Bugle. Besides publishing the North Star and delivering speeches, Douglass also participated in the Underground Railroad. He and his wife provided lodging and resources in their home to more than four hundred escaped slaves.[79] Douglass also came to disagree with Garrison. Earlier Douglass had agreed with Garrison's position that the Constitution was pro-slavery, because of the three-fifths clause its compromises related to apportionment of Congressional seats, based on partial counting of slave populations with state totals; and protection of the international slave trade through 1807. Garrison had burned copies of the Constitution to express his opinion. However, Lysander Spooner published The Unconstitutionality of Slavery (1846), which examined the United States Constitution as an anti-slavery document. Douglass's change of opinion about the Constitution and his splitting from Garrison around 1847 became one of the abolitionist movement's most notable divisions. Douglass angered Garrison by saying that the Constitution could and should be used as an instrument in the fight against slavery.[80] In September 1848, on the tenth anniversary of his escape, Douglass published an open letter addressed to his former master, Thomas Auld, berating him for his conduct, and inquiring after members of his family still held by Auld.[81][82] In the course of the letter, Douglass adeptly transitions from formal and restrained to familiar and then to impassioned. At one point he is the proud parent, describing his improved circumstances and the progress of his own four young children. But then he dramatically shifts tone: Oh! sir, a slaveholder never appears to me so completely an agent of hell, as when I think of and look upon my dear children. It is then that my feelings rise above my control. … The grim horrors of slavery rise in all their ghastly terror before me, the wails of millions pierce my heart, and chill my blood. I remember the chain, the gag, the bloody whip, the deathlike gloom overshadowing the broken spirit of the fettered bondman, the appalling liability of his being torn away from wife and children, and sold like a beast in the market.[83] In a graphic passage, Douglass asked Auld how he would feel if Douglass had come to take away his daughter Amanda as a slave, treating her the way he and members of his family had been treated by Auld.[81][82] Yet in his conclusion Douglass shows his focus and benevolence, stating that he has "no malice towards him personally," and asserts that, "there is no roof under which you would be more safe than mine, and there is nothing in my house which you might need for comfort, which I would not readily grant. Indeed, I should esteem it a privilege, to set you an example as to how mankind ought to treat each other."[83] Women's rights In 1848, Douglass was the only African American to attend the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, in upstate New York.[84][85] Elizabeth Cady Stanton asked the assembly to pass a resolution asking for women's suffrage.[86] Many of those present opposed the idea, including influential Quakers James and Lucretia Mott.[87] Douglass stood and spoke eloquently in favor of women's suffrage; he said that he could not accept the right to vote as a black man if women could not also claim that right. He suggested that the world would be a better place if women were involved in the political sphere. In this denial of the right to participate in government, not merely the degradation of woman and the perpetuation of a great injustice happens, but the maiming and repudiation of one-half of the moral and intellectual power of the government of the world.[87] After Douglass's powerful words, the attendees passed the resolution.[87][88] In the wake of the Seneca Falls Convention, Douglass used an editorial in The North Star to press the case for women's rights. He recalled the "marked ability and dignity" of the proceedings, and briefly conveyed several arguments of the convention and feminist thought at the time. On the first count, Douglass acknowledged the "decorum" of the participants in the face of disagreement. In the remainder, he discussed the primary document that emerged from the conference, a Declaration of Sentiments, and the "infant" feminist cause. Strikingly, he expressed the belief that "[a] discussion of the rights of animals would be regarded with far more complacency...than would be a discussion of the rights of women," and Douglass noted the link between abolitionism and feminism, the overlap between the communities. His opinion as the editor of a prominent newspaper carried weight, and he stated the position of the North Star explicitly: "We hold woman to be justly entitled to all we claim for man." This letter, written a week after the convention, reaffirmed the first part of the paper's slogan, "right is of no sex." After the Civil War, when the 15th Amendment giving Blacks the right to vote was being debated, Douglass split with the Stanton-led faction of the women's rights movement. Douglass supported the amendment, which would grant suffrage to black men. Stanton opposed the 15th Amendment because it limited the expansion of suffrage to black men; she predicted its passage would delay for decades the cause for women's right to vote. Stanton argued that American women and black men should band together to fight for universal suffrage, and opposed any bill that split the issues.[89] Douglass and Stanton both knew that there was not yet enough male support for women's right to vote, but that an amendment giving black men the vote could pass in the late 1860s. Stanton wanted to attach women's suffrage to that of black men so that her cause would be carried to success.[90] Douglass thought such a strategy was too risky, that there was barely enough support for black men's suffrage. He feared that linking the cause of women's suffrage to that of black men would result in failure for both. Douglass argued that white women, already empowered by their social connections to fathers, husbands, and brothers, at least vicariously had the vote. African-American women, he believed, would have the same degree of empowerment as white women once African-American men had the vote.[90] Douglass assured the American women that at no time had he ever argued against women's right to vote.[91] Ideological refinement Frederick Douglass in 1856, around 38 years of age Meanwhile, in 1851, Douglass merged the North Star with Gerrit Smith's Liberty Party Paper to form Frederick Douglass' Paper, which was published until 1860. On July 5, 1852, Douglass delivered an address to the ladies of the Rochester Anti-Slavery Sewing Society. This speech eventually became known as "What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?"; one biographer called it "perhaps the greatest antislavery oration ever given."[92] In 1853, he was a prominent attendee of the radical abolitionist National African American Convention in Rochester. Douglass's was one of five names attached to the address of the convention to the people of the United States published under the title, The Claims of Our Common Cause, along with Amos Noë Freeman, James Monroe Whitfield, Henry O. Wagoner, and George Boyer Vashon.[93] Like many abolitionists, Douglass believed that education would be crucial for African Americans to improve their lives; he was an early advocate for school desegregation. In the 1850s, Douglass observed that New York's facilities and instruction for African-American children were vastly inferior to those for whites. Douglass called for court action to open all schools to all children. He said that full inclusion within the educational system was a more pressing need for African Americans than political issues such as suffrage. John Brown Douglass argued against John Brown's plan to attack the arsenal at Harpers Ferry, painting by Jacob Lawrence See also: Shields Green On March 12, 1859, Douglass met with radical abolitionists John Brown, George DeBaptiste, and others at William Webb's house in Detroit to discuss emancipation.[94] Douglass met Brown again when Brown visited his home two months before leading the raid on Harpers Ferry. Brown penned his Provisional Constitution during his two-week stay with Douglass. Also staying with Douglass for over a year was Shields Green, a fugitive slave that Douglass was helping, as he often did. The secret meeting in the Chambersburg stone quarry Shortly before the raid, Douglass, taking Green with him, travelled from Rochester, via New York City, to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, John Brown's communications headquarters. He was recognized there by Blacks, who asked him for a lecture. Douglass agreed, although he said his only topic was slavery. John Brown, incognito, sat in the audience; Shields Green joined him on the stage. A white reporter, referring to "Nigger Democracy", called it a "flaming address" by "the notorious Negro Orator".[95] There, in an abandoned stone quarry for secrecy, Douglass and Green met with Brown and John Henri Kagi, to discuss the raid. After discussions lasting, as Douglass put it, "a day and a night", he disappointed Brown by declining to join him, considering the mission suicidal. To Douglass's surprise, Green went with Brown instead of returning to Rochester with Douglass. Anne Brown said that Green told her that Douglass promised to pay him on his return, but David Blight called this "much more ex post facto bitterness than reality.[96]: 172–174  Almost all that is known about this incident comes from Douglass. It is clear that it was of immense importance to him, both as a turning point in his life—not accompanying John Brown—and its importance in his public image. The meeting was not revealed by Douglass for 20 years. He first disclosed it in his speech on John Brown at Storer College in 1881, trying unsuccessfully to raise money to support a John Brown professorship at Storer, to be held by a Black man. He again referred to it stunningly in his last Autobiography. After the raid, which took place between October 16 and 18, 1859, Douglass was accused both of supporting Brown and of not supporting him enough.[97] He was nearly arrested on a Virginia warrant,[98][99][100] and fled for a brief time to Canada before proceeding onward to England on a previously-planned lecture tour, arriving near the end of November.[101] During his lecture tour of Great Britain, on March 26, 1860, Douglass delivered a speech before the Scottish Anti-Slavery Society in Glasgow, "The Constitution of the United States: Is It Pro-Slavery or Antislavery?", outlining his views on the American Constitution.[102] That month, on the 13th, Douglass's youngest daughter Annie died in Rochester, New York, just days shy of her 11th birthday. Douglass sailed back from England the following month, traveling through Canada to avoid detection. Douglass's Storer College address (1881) Years later, in 1881, Douglass shared a stage at Storer College in Harpers Ferry with Andrew Hunter, the prosecutor who secured Brown's conviction and execution. Hunter congratulated Douglass.[103] Photography Douglass considered photography very important in ending slavery and racism, and believed that the camera would not lie, even in the hands of a racist white, as photographs were an excellent counter to the many racist caricatures, particularly in blackface minstrelsy. He was the most photographed American of the 19th century, consciously using photography to advance his political views.[104][105] He never smiled, specifically so as not to play into the racist caricature of a happy slave. He tended to look directly into the camera to confront the viewer, with a stern look.[106][107] Religious views As a child, Douglass was exposed to a number of religious sermons, and in his youth, he sometimes heard Sophia Auld reading the Bible. In time, he became interested in literacy; he began reading and copying bible verses, and he eventually converted to Christianity.[108][109] He described this approach in his last biography, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: I was not more than thirteen years old, when in my loneliness and destitution I longed for some one to whom I could go, as to a father and protector. The preaching of a white Methodist minister, named Hanson, was the means of causing me to feel that in God I had such a friend. He thought that all men, great and small, bond and free, were sinners in the sight of God: that they were by nature rebels against His government; and that they must repent of their sins, and be reconciled to God through Christ. I cannot say that I had a very distinct notion of what was required of me, but one thing I did know well: I was wretched and had no means of making myself otherwise. I consulted a good old colored man named Charles Lawson, and in tones of holy affection he told me to pray, and to "cast all my care upon God." This I sought to do; and though for weeks I was a poor, broken-hearted mourner, traveling through doubts and fears, I finally found my burden lightened, and my heart relieved. I loved all mankind, slaveholders not excepted, though I abhorred slavery more than ever. I saw the world in a new light, and my great concern was to have everybody converted. My desire to learn increased, and especially, did I want a thorough acquaintance with the contents of the Bible.[110] Douglass was mentored by Rev. Charles Lawson, and, early in his activism, he often included biblical allusions and religious metaphors in his speeches. Although a believer, he strongly criticized religious hypocrisy[111] and accused slaveholders of wickedness, lack of morality, and failure to follow the Golden Rule. In this sense, Douglass distinguished between the "Christianity of Christ" and the "Christianity of America" and considered religious slaveholders and clergymen who defended slavery as the most brutal, sinful, and cynical of all who represented "wolves in sheep's clothing".[112][113] Notably, in a famous oration given in the Corinthian Hall of Rochester,[114] he sharply criticized the attitude of religious people who kept silent about slavery, and held that religious ministers committed a blasphemy when they taught it as sanctioned by religion. He considered that a law passed to support slavery was "one of the grossest infringements of Christian Liberty" and said that pro-slavery clergymen within the American Church "stripped the love of God of its beauty, and leave the throne of religion a huge, horrible, repulsive form", and "an abomination in the sight of God".[111] Of ministers like John Chase Lord, Leonard Elijah Lathrop, Ichabod Spencer, and Orville Dewey, he said that they taught, against the Scriptures, that "we ought to obey man's law before the law of God". He further asserted, "in speaking of the American church, however, let it be distinctly understood that I mean the great mass of the religious organizations of our land. There are exceptions, and I thank God that there are. Noble men may be found, scattered all over these Northern States ... Henry Ward Beecher of Brooklyn, Samuel J. May of Syracuse, and my esteemed friend [Robert R. Raymonde]".[111] He maintained that "upon these men lies the duty to inspire our ranks with high religious faith and zeal, and to cheer us on in the great mission of the slave's redemption from his chains". In addition, he called religious people to embrace abolitionism, stating, "let the religious press, the pulpit, the Sunday school, the conference meeting, the great ecclesiastical, missionary, Bible and tract associations of the land array their immense powers against slavery and slave-holding; and the whole system of crime and blood would be scattered to the winds."[111] During his visits to the United Kingdom between 1846 and 1848, Douglass asked British Christians never to support American churches that permitted slavery,[115] and he expressed his happiness to know that a group of ministers in Belfast had refused to admit slaveholders as members of the Church. On his return to the United States, Douglass founded the North Star, a weekly publication with the motto "Right is of no sex, Truth is of no color, God is the Father of us all, and we are all Brethren." Douglass later wrote a letter to his former slaveholder, in which he denounced him for leaving Douglass's family illiterate: Your wickedness and cruelty committed in this respect on your fellow creatures, are greater than all the stripes you have laid upon my back or theirs. It is an outrage upon the soul, a war upon the immortal spirit, and one for which you must give account at the bar of our common Father and Creator. — Letter to His Old Master. To my Old Master Thomas Auld.[60] Sometimes considered a precursor of a non-denominational liberation theology,[116][117] Douglass was a deeply spiritual man, as his home continues to show. The fireplace mantle features busts of two of his favorite philosophers, David Friedrich Strauss, author of "The Life of Jesus", and Ludwig Feuerbach, author of "The Essence of Christianity"[dubious – discuss]. In addition to several Bibles and books about various religions in the library, images of angels and Jesus are displayed, as well as interior and exterior photographs of Washington's Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church.[52] Throughout his life, Douglass had linked that individual experience with social reform, and like other Christian abolitionists, he followed practices such as abstaining from tobacco, alcohol and other substances that he believed corrupted body and soul.[118] Civil War years Before the Civil War By the time of the Civil War, Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his orations on the condition of the black race and on other issues such as women's rights. His eloquence gathered crowds at every location. His reception by leaders in England and Ireland added to his stature. Fight for emancipation and suffrage A 1863 Broadside listing Douglass as a speaker calling men of color to arms Douglass and the abolitionists argued that because the aim of the Civil War was to end slavery, African Americans should be allowed to engage in the fight for their freedom. Douglass publicized this view in his newspapers and several speeches. In August 1861 he published an account of the First Battle of Bull Run, noting that some blacks were already in the Confederate ranks. A few weeks later, Douglass brought the subject up again, quoting a witness to the battle who said they saw black Confederates "with muskets on their shoulders and bullets in their pockets."[119] Douglass conferred with President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers,[120] and with President Andrew Johnson on the subject of black suffrage.[121] President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which took effect on January 1, 1863, declared the freedom of all slaves in Confederate-held territory. (Slaves in Union-held areas were not covered by this war-measures act; slaves in Union-held areas and Northern states were freed with the adoption of the 13th Amendment on December 6, 1865.) Douglass described the spirit of those awaiting the proclamation: "We were waiting and listening as for a bolt from the sky ... we were watching ... by the dim light of the stars for the dawn of a new day ... we were longing for the answer to the agonizing prayers of centuries."[122] During the U.S. Presidential Election of 1864, Douglass supported John C. Frémont, who was the candidate of the abolitionist Radical Democracy Party. Douglass was disappointed that President Lincoln did not publicly endorse suffrage for black freedmen. Douglass believed that since African-American men were fighting for the Union in the American Civil War, they deserved the right to vote.[123] With the North no longer obliged to return slaves to their owners in the South, Douglass fought for equality for his people. He made plans with Lincoln to move liberated slaves out of the South. During the war, Douglass also helped the Union cause by serving as a recruiter for the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment. His eldest son, Charles Douglass, joined the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, but was ill for much of his service.[51] Lewis Douglass fought at the Battle of Fort Wagner.[124] Another son, Frederick Douglass Jr., also served as a recruiter. After Lincoln's death The post-war (1865) ratification of the 13th Amendment outlawed slavery. The 14th Amendment provided for citizenship and equal protection under the law. The 15th Amendment protected all citizens from being discriminated against in voting because of race.[89] On April 14, 1876, Douglass delivered the keynote speech at the unveiling of the Emancipation Memorial in Washington's Lincoln Park. He spoke frankly about Lincoln, noting what he perceived as both positive and negative attributes of the late President. Calling Lincoln "the white man's president", Douglass criticized Lincoln's tardiness in joining the cause of emancipation, noting that Lincoln initially opposed the expansion of slavery but did not support its elimination. But Douglass also asked, "Can any colored man, or any white man friendly to the freedom of all men, ever forget the night which followed the first day of January 1863, when the world was to see if Abraham Lincoln would prove to be as good as his word?"[125] He also said: "Though Mr. Lincoln shared the prejudices of his white fellow-countrymen against the Negro, it is hardly necessary to say that in his heart of hearts he loathed and hated slavery ..." The crowd, roused by his speech, gave Douglass a standing ovation. Lincoln's widow Mary Lincoln supposedly gave Lincoln's favorite walking-stick to Douglass in appreciation. That walking-stick still rests in his final residence, "Cedar Hill", now preserved as the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site. delivering the speech, Frederick Douglass immediately wrote to the National Republican newspaper in Washington (which published five days later, April 19), criticizing the statue's design and suggesting the park could be improved by more dignified monuments of free Black people. "The negro here, though rising, is still on his knees and nude," Douglass wrote. "What I want to see before I die is a monument representing the negro, not couchant on his knees like a four-footed animal, but erect on his feet like a man."[126] era Frederick Douglass in 1876, around 58 years of age the Civil War, Douglass continued to work for equality for African-Americans and women. Due to his prominence and activism during the war, Douglass received several political appointments. He served as president of the Reconstruction-era Freedman's Savings Bank.[127] white insurgents had quickly arisen in the South after the war, organizing first as secret vigilante groups, including the Ku Klux Klan. Armed insurgency took different forms. Powerful paramilitary groups included the White League and the Red Shirts, both active during the 1870s in the Deep South. They operated as "the military arm of the Democratic Party", turning out Republican officeholders and disrupting elections.[128] Starting 10 years after the war, Democrats regained political power in every state of the former Confederacy and began to reassert white supremacy. They enforced this by a combination of violence, late 19th-century laws imposing segregation and a concerted effort to disfranchise African Americans. New labor and criminal laws also limited their freedom.[129] combat these efforts, Douglass supported the presidential campaign of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868. In 1870, Douglass started his last newspaper, the New National Era, attempting to hold his country to its commitment to equality.[51] President Grant sent a Congressionally sponsored commission, accompanied by Douglass, on a mission to the West Indies to investigate if the annexation of Santo Domingo would be good for the United States. Grant believed annexation would help relieve the violent situation in the South by allowing African Americans their own state. Douglass and the commission favored annexation, however, Congress remained opposed to annexation. Douglass criticized Senator Charles Sumner, who opposed annexation, stating if Sumner continued to oppose annexation he would "regard him as the worst foe the colored race has on this continent."[130] Douglass's former residence in the U Street Corridor of Washington, D.C. He built 2000–2004 17th Street, NW, in 1875. the midterm elections, Grant signed the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (also known as the Klan Act), and the second and third Enforcement Acts. Grant used their provisions vigorously, suspending habeas corpus in South Carolina and sending troops there and into other states. Under his leadership over 5,000 arrests were made. Grant's vigor in disrupting the Klan made him unpopular among many whites, but earned praise from Douglass. A Douglass associate wrote that African Americans "will ever cherish a grateful remembrance of [Grant's] name, fame and great services." 1872, Douglass became the first African American nominated for Vice President of the United States, as Victoria Woodhull's running mate on the Equal Rights Party ticket. He was nominated without his knowledge. Douglass neither campaigned for the ticket nor acknowledged that he had been nominated.[9] In that year, he was presidential elector at large for the State of New York, and took that state's votes to Washington, D.C.[131] in early June of that year, Douglass's third Rochester home, on South Avenue, burned down; arson was suspected.[132][133] There was extensive damage to the house, its furnishings, and the grounds; in addition, sixteen volumes of the North Star and Frederick Douglass' Paper were lost.[134] Douglass then moved to Washington, D.C. the Reconstruction era, Douglass continued speaking, emphasizing the importance of work, voting rights and actual exercise of suffrage. His speeches for the twenty-five years following the war emphasized work to counter the racism that was then prevalent in In a November 15, 1867, speech he said "A man's rights rest in three boxes. The ballot box, jury box and the cartridge box. Let no man be kept from the ballot box because of his color. Let no woman be kept from the ballot box because of her sex."[136][137] Douglass spoke at many colleges around the country, including Bates College in Lewiston, Maine, in 1873. 1881, Douglass delivered at Storer College, in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, a speech praising John Brown and revealing unknown information about their relationship, including their meeting in an abandoned stone quarry near Chambersburg shortly before the raid. [138] life Frederick Douglass after 1884 with his second wife Helen Pitts Douglass (sitting). The woman standing is her sister Eva Pitts. Further information: Douglass family and Anna Murray had five children: Rosetta Douglass, Lewis Henry Douglass, Frederick Douglass Jr., Charles Remond Douglass, and Annie Douglass (died at the age of ten). Charles and Rosetta helped produce his newspapers. Douglass remained a loyal supporter of her husband's public work. His relationships with Julia Griffiths and Ottilie Assing, two women with whom he was professionally involved, caused recurring speculation and scandals.[139] Assing was a journalist recently immigrated from Germany, who first visited Douglass in 1856 seeking permission to translate My Bondage and My Freedom into German. Until 1872, she often stayed at his house "for several months at a time" as his "intellectual and emotional companion."[77]: 387, 290–291  held Anna Douglass "in utter contempt" and was vainly hoping that Douglass would separate from his wife. Douglass biographer David W. Blight concludes that Assing and Douglass "were probably lovers."[77]: 387, 290–291  Though Douglass and Assing are widely believed to have had an intimate relationship, the surviving correspondence contains no proof of such a relationship.[77]: 521–522, 529, 570, 572–574  Anna died in 1882, in 1884 Douglass married again, to Helen Pitts, a white suffragist and abolitionist from Honeoye, New York. Pitts was the daughter of Gideon Pitts Jr., an abolitionist colleague and friend of Douglass's. graduate of Mount Holyoke College (then called Mount Holyoke Female Seminary), Pitts worked on a radical feminist publication named Alpha while living in Washington, D.C. She later worked as Douglass's secretary.[140] who had depression and was diagnosed with incurable breast cancer, committed suicide in France in 1884 after hearing of the marriage.[141] Upon her death, Assing bequeathed Douglass $13,000, albums, and his choice of books from her library.[142] marriage of Douglass and Pitts provoked a storm of controversy, since Pitts was both white and nearly 20 years younger. Her family stopped speaking to her; his children considered the marriage a repudiation of their mother. feminist Elizabeth Cady Stanton congratulated the couple.[143] Douglass responded to the criticisms by saying that his first marriage had been to someone the color of his mother, and his second to someone the color of his father.[144] years in Washington, D.C. Freedman's Savings Bank went bankrupt on June 29, 1874, just a few months after Douglass became its president in late March.[145] During that same economic crisis, his final newspaper, The New National Era, failed in September.[146] Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was elected president, he named Douglass as United States Marshal for the District of Columbia, the first person of color to be so named. The Senate voted to confirm him on March 17, 1877.[147] Douglass accepted the appoint, which helped assure his family's financial security.[51] his tenure, Douglass was urged by his supporters to resign from his commission, since he was never asked to introduce visiting foreign dignitaries to the President, which is one of the usual duties of that post. However, Douglass believed that no covert racism was implied by the omission, and stated that he was always warmly welcomed in presidential circles.[148][149] Cedar Hill, Douglass's house in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D.C., is preserved as a National Historic Site. 1877, Douglass visited his former slavemaster Thomas Auld on his deathbed, and the two men reconciled. Douglass had met Auld's daughter, Amanda Auld Sears, some years prior. She had requested the meeting and had subsequently attended and cheered one of Douglass's speeches. Her father complimented her for reaching out to Douglass. The visit also appears to have brought closure to Douglass, although some criticized his effort.[81] same year, Douglass bought the house that was to be the family's final home in Washington, D.C., on a hill above the Anacostia River. He and Anna named it Cedar Hill (also spelled CedarHill). They expanded the house from 14 to 21 rooms, and included a china closet. One year later, Douglass purchased adjoining lots and expanded the property to 15 acres (61,000 m2). The home is now preserved as the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site. 1881, Douglass published the final edition of his autobiography, The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass. That year he was appointed as Recorder of Deeds for the District of Columbia. His wife Anna Murray Douglass died in 1882, leaving the widower devastated. After a period of mourning, Douglass found new meaning from working with activist Ida B. Wells. He remarried in 1884, as mentioned above. also continued his speaking engagements and travel, both in the United States and abroad. With new wife Helen, Douglass traveled to England, Ireland, France, Italy, Egypt and Greece from 1886 to 1887. He became known for advocating Irish Home Rule and supported Charles Stewart Parnell in Ireland. addition to his travel abroad during those years, he lectured in small towns in the United States. On December 28, 1885, the aging orator spoke to the literary society in Rising Sun, a town in northeastern Maryland below the Mason–Dixon line.[150] The program, "The Self-Made Man," attracted a large audience including students from Lincoln University in Chester County, PA, the Oxford Press reported. "Mr. Douglass is growing old and has lost much of his fire and vigor of mind as well as body, but he is still able to interest an audience. He is a remarkable man and is a bright example of the capability of the colored race, even under the blighting influence of slavery, from which he emerged and became one of the distinguished citizens of the country," the Chester County PA newspaper remarked.[151] The gravestone of Frederick Douglass located in Mount Hope Cemetery, Rochester the 1888 Republican National Convention, Douglass became the first African American to receive a vote for President of the United States in a major party's roll call vote.[152][153][154] That year, Douglass spoke at Claflin College, a historically black college in Orangeburg, South Carolina, and the state's oldest such institution.[155] African Americans, called Exodusters, escaped the Klan and racially discriminatory laws in the South by moving to Kansas, where some formed all-black towns to have a greater level of freedom and autonomy. Douglass did not favor this, nor the Back-to-Africa movement. He thought the latter resembled the American Colonization Society which he had opposed in his youth. In 1892, at an Indianapolis conference convened by Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, Douglass spoke out against the separatist movements, urging blacks to stick it out.[51] He made similar speeches as early as 1879, and was criticized both by fellow leaders and some audiences, who even booed him for this position.[156] Speaking in Baltimore in 1894, Douglass said, "I hope and trust all will come out right in the end, but the immediate future looks dark and troubled. I cannot shut my eyes to the ugly facts before me."[157] Harrison appointed Douglass as the United States's minister resident and consul-general to the Republic of Haiti and Chargé d'affaires for Santo Domingo in 1889.[158] but Douglass resigned the commission in July 1891 when it became apparent that the American President was intent upon gaining permanent access to Haitian territory regardless of that country's desires.[159] In 1892, Haiti made Douglass a co-commissioner of its pavilion at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.[160] 1892, Douglass constructed rental housing for blacks, now known as Douglass Place, in the Fells Point area of Baltimore. The complex still exists, and in 2003 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[161][162] Death February 20, 1895, Douglass attended a meeting of the National Council of Women in Washington, D.C. During that meeting, he was brought to the platform and received a standing ovation. Shortly after he returned home, Douglass died of a massive heart attack.[163] He was 77. funeral was held at the Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church. Thousands of people passed by his coffin to show their respect. Although Douglass had attended several churches in the nation's capital, he had a pew here and had donated two standing candelabras when this church had moved to a new building in 1886. He also gave many lectures there, including his last major speech, "The Lesson of the Hour."[52] coffin was transported to Rochester, New York, where he had lived for 25 years, longer than anywhere else in his life. He was buried next to Anna in the Douglass family plot of Mount Hope Cemetery. Helen was also buried there in 1903.[164] JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911):;

US, 1838-1895, FREDERICK DOUGLASS, Priest, abolitionist, wmen's suffragist, editor, orator, author, reformer
US, 1838-1895, FREDERICK DOUGLASS, Anacostia (neighborhood), Washington DC, Priest, abolitionist, women's suffragist, editor, orator, author, statesman and reformer, slave till 1838, 3 vautobiographies, educaton the key, conferred w Lincoln, women's sufferage Convention 1848, England&Ireland, important political positions after War; Anacostia (neighborhood of Washington, DC); FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 18; Douglass (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, circa 1818 – February 20, 1895) an American abolitionist, women's suffragist, editor, orator, author, statesman and reformer. Called "The Sage of Anacostia" and "The Lion of Anacostia", Douglass is one of the most prominent figures in African American and United States history. was a firm believer in the equality of all people, whether black, female, Native American, or recent immigrant. He was fond of saying, "I would unite with anybody to do right and with nobody to do wrong." Douglass was born a slave in Talbot County, Maryland. He was separated from his mother, Harriet Bailey, when he was still an infant. She died when Douglass was about seven and Douglass lived with his maternal grandmother Betty Bailey. Douglass was about twelve, his owner's wife started teaching him the alphabet, which was against the law. Douglass succeeded in learning to read from white children in the neighborhood and by observing the writings of men with whom he worked. As Douglass learned and began to read newspapers, political materials, and books of every description, he was exposed to a new realm of thought that led him to question and then condemn the institution of slavery. was hired out to a number of owners before finally escaping north to freedom in September 1838. Douglass continued traveling up to Massachusetts. There he joined various organizations in New Bedford, including a black church, and regularly attended abolitionist meetings. best-known work is his first autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, published in 1845. The book received generally positive reviews and it became an immediate bestseller. Douglass published three versions of his autobiography during his lifetime (and revised the third of these), each time expanding on the previous one. The 1845 Narrative, which was his biggest seller, was followed by My Bondage and My Freedom in 1855. In 1881, after the Civil War, Douglass published Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, which he revised in 1892. produced some regular abolitionist newspapers, including The North Star. Its motto was "Right is of no Sex — Truth is of no Color — God is the Father of us all, and we are all brethren." believed that education was key for African Americans to improve their lives. For this reason, he was an early advocate for desegregation of schools. conferred with President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers, and with President Andrew Johnson on the subject of black suffrage. His early collaborators were the white abolitionists William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips. 1848, Douglass attended the first women's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, as the only African American. Elizabeth Cady Stanton asked the assembly to pass a resolution asking for women's suffrage. Many of those present opposed the idea, but Douglass stood and spoke eloquently in favor; he said that he could not accept the right to vote himself as a black man if woman could not also claim that right. His powerful words rang true with enough attendees that the resolution passed. the time of the Civil War, Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his orations on the condition of the black race and on other issues such as women's rights. His eloquence gathered crowds at every location. reception by leaders in England and Ireland added to his stature. the Civil War, Douglass was appointed to several important political positions. He served as President of the Reconstruction-era Freedman's Savings Bank; as marshal of the District of Columbia; as minister-resident and consul-general to the Republic of Haiti (1889–1891); and as chargé d'affaires for the Dominican Republic. was an ordained minister of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. — more from Wikipedia

US, 1838-1876, JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, Missionary, Queens, NY, 1844 Nashotah House WI, Chippewa Indians
US, 1838-1876, JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary, Flushing Institute, Flushing, Queens, NY, 1844 Nashotah House WI, Chippewa Indians ; Flushing Institute, Flushing, NY; JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); was born 27 June 1818 near Philadelphia, and attended high school at the Flushing Institute, founded by William Augustus Muhlenberg (see 8 April), who inspired him to resolve at the age of sixteen to devote himself to missionary activity. 1844, by then a priest, he went to Wisconsin (then on the frontier) with two classmates, under the direction of Bishop Kemper, to found Nashotah House, intended as a monastic community, a seminary, and a center for theological work. It continues today as a seminary and representative of one traditional aspect of Anglican thought and practice. a letter to a friend, Breck described the seminary in his day as follows: The students boarding with us are all theological. They are chiefly young men, sons of the farmers, and all communicants of the Church. Our students, like ourselves, are poor, but not the less worthy for all that. They seek the Ministry, but are unable to attain it without aid. We have a house; for this we pay no rent; it belongs to the Church, and so do we. We have land. They work four hours a day for their board and washing, and we give them their education without cost. Thus their clothing is their only expense, and to enable them to purchase this, we give them six weeks vacation during the harvest, when they can earn the highest wages. Brother Adams and myself work four hours, except when we are teaching or doing Missionary labor. We must all work for our board. That is the only way in which they will feel it their duty to labor and to study, and the only way in which our people will feel their duty to the Church, and to ourselves as clergy of the same. We rise at 5am, Matins at 6. The Morning Service of the Church at 9. On Wednesdays and Fridays, the Litany at 12. On Thursdays, the Holy Eucharist at the same hour of 12. The Evening service of the Church at 3, and Family Prayer or Vespers at 6:30 or 7pm. Our students labor between 7 and 9 in the morning, and 1 and 3 in the afternoon. In 1850, Breck moved on to Minnesota, where he founded schools for boys and girls, and the Seabury Divinity School at Faribault (now part of Seabury-Western Seminary in Chicago). He also began mission work among the Chippewa Indians, and laid the foundation for work among them by Christian priests from their own people. In 1867 he moved on to California to build another seminary. He died there in 1876. by James Kiefer

US, 1839-1898, ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR, goes to Liberia, for black christian republic
US, 1839-1898, ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR, Diocese of Massachusets (Boston Common, Charles River 11), ordained Diocese MA, but excluded priests' meeting, goes to Cambridge, goes to Liberia, for black christian republic, returned to US, opposed separate black missionary district; Diocese of Massachusets is in the Cathedral Church of Saint Paul, Boston ; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898); Crummell was born in New York City in 1819, and wished to study for the priesthood, but received many rebuffs because he was black. was ordained in the Diocese of Massachusets in 1844, when he was 25 years old, was excluded from a meeting of priests of the diocese, and decided to go to England. graduating from Cambridge, he went to Liberia, an African country founded under American auspices for the repatriation of freed slaves. hoped to see established in Liberia a black Christian republic, combining the best of European and African culture, and led by a Western-educated black bishop. visited the United States and urged blacks to join him in Liberia and and swell the ranks of the church there. work in Liberia ran into opposition and indifference, and he returned to the United States, he undertook the founding and strengthening of urban black congregations that would provide worship, education, and social services for their communities. some bishops proposed a separate missionary district for black parishes, he organized a group, now known as the Union of Black Episcopalians, to fight the proposal. by James Kiefer [More information can be found on a site devoted to Black history; also available is a profile on him, from WEB DuBois' The Souls of Black Folk.]

US, 1840-1902, ENMEGAHBOWH, Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough), first Native American Episcopal priest
US, 1840-1902, ENMEGAHBOWH, Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough), first Native American Episcopal priest, Dakota War 1862, warned Ft Ripley, prevented Gull Lake band to join War; Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough); ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12; (c. 1820 – June 12, 1902; from Enami'egaabaw, meaning "He that prays [for his people while] standing"; also known as John Johnson) the first Native American to be ordained a priest in the Episcopal Church. around 1820, Enmegahbowh (pronounced En-meh-GAH-boe), was the only child of the chief of an Ojibwe Band on Rice Lake near Peterborough, Canada. He was raised in a Christian village near Petersburg which was affiliated with the Methodists. July 4, 1841 Enmegahbowh married Biwabikogeshigequay (a/k/a Iron Sky Woman and baptized Charlotte), niece of Hole-in-the-Day. met the Rev. Ezekiel Gilbert Gear, chaplain at Fort Snelling at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers, and became an Episcopalian. eventually introduced Enmegahbowh to the Rev. James Lloyd Breck, a missionary who had arrived in Minnesota in 1851, and who baptised Enmegahbowh. Jackson Kemper ordained the youth a deacon in 1859, and Enmegahbowh went to Crow Wing, Minnesota to assist in founding St. Columba Mission. the Dakota War of 1862, which began as treaty payments were due for distribution to the starving Sioux at Fort Ridgely, the Gull Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa rose to attack near-by Fort Ripley. prevented other Ojibwa bands from joining the Gull Lake Band, for which the rebels imprisoned him. Enmegahbowh escaped and traveled thirty miles at night to warn Fort Ripley. This discouraged the Gull Lake Band from attacking the fort. 1867 Bishop Whipple ordained Enmegahbowh a priest. In 1869 he encouraged Chief White Cloud's mission to establish peace between the Ojibwe and the Sioux in 1869. died at the White Earth Indian Reservation in northern Minnesota on June 12, 1902 at the age of 95, and is buried in St. Columba's churchyard. more at Wikipedia

US, 1840-1915, FANNY CROSBY oBrewster, NY, was an American mission worker, poet, lyricist, and composer, and prolific hymnist
US, 1840-1915, FANNY CROSBY, HYMNWRITER, oBrewster, NY (Croton River Source, Hudson River 17) was an American mission worker, poet, lyricist, and composer. She was a prolific hymnist, writing more than 8,000 hymns and gospel songs,[a] with more than 100 million copies printed.[1] She is also known for her teaching and her rescue mission work. By the end of the 19th century, she was a household name; Brewster, NY ; Fanny Crosby early life and education; Jane van Alstyne (née Crosby; March 24, 1820 – February 12, 1915), commonly known as Fanny J. Crosby, an American mission worker, poet, lyricist, and composer. She was a prolific hymnist, writing more than 8,000 hymns and gospel songs,[a] with more than 100 million copies printed.[1] She is also known for her teaching and her rescue mission work. By the end of the 19th century, she was a household name.[2] was known as the "Queen of Gospel Song Writers"[3] and as the "Mother of modern congregational singing in America",[4] most American hymnals containing her work.[5] gospel songs were "paradigmatic of all revival music",[6] Ira Sankey attributed the success of the Moody and Sankey evangelical campaigns largely to Crosby's hymns.[7] of Crosby's best-known songs include "Pass Me Not, O Gentle Saviour", "Blessed Assurance", "Jesus Is Tenderly Calling You Home", "Praise Him, Praise Him", "Rescue the Perishing", and "To God Be the Glory". publishers were hesitant to have so many hymns by one person in their hymnals, Crosby used nearly 200 different pseudonyms during her career.[8][b] also wrote more than 1,000 secular poems[9] and had four books of poetry published, well as two best-selling autobiographies. she co-wrote popular secular songs, as well as political and patriotic songs and at least five cantatas on biblical and patriotic themes, including The Flower Queen, the first secular cantata by an American composer. was committed to Christian rescue missions and was known for her public speaking. life and education[edit] Birthplace of Fanny Crosby Jane Crosby was born on March 24, 1820, in the village of Brewster, about 50 miles (80 km) north of New York City.[10][11] was the only child of John Crosby and his second wife Mercy Crosby, both of whom were relatives of Revolutionary War spy Enoch Crosby. was a widower who had a daughter from his first marriage.[12] to C. Bernard Ruffin, John and Mercy were possibly first cousins; "by the time Fanny Crosby came to write her memoirs [in 1906], the fact that her mother and father were related... had become a source of embarrassment, and she maintained that she did not know anything about his lineage".[13] (l to r) Mercy, Julia, and Caroline Morris and Fanny Crosby was proud of her Puritan heritage.[14] traced her ancestry from Anna Brigham and Simon Crosby who arrived in Boston in 1635[15][16] (and were among the founders of Harvard College);[17] their descendants married into Mayflower families,[14] making Crosby a descendant of Elder William Brewster, Edward Winslow, and Thomas Prence, and a member of the exclusive Daughters of the Mayflower.[18] was also a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution in Bridgeport, Connecticut,[19] writing the verses of the state song of the Connecticut branch.[20] Simon Crosby, Fanny was also a relative of Presbyterian minister Howard Crosby and his neoabolitionist son Ernest Howard Crosby,[21] as well as singers Bing and Bob Crosby.[22] six weeks old, Crosby caught a cold and developed inflammation of the eyes. Mustard poultices were applied to treat the discharges.[23] to Crosby, this procedure damaged her optic nerves and blinded her, but modern physicians think that her blindness was more likely congenital and, given her age, may simply not have been noticed by her parents.[24][25] father died in November 1820 when Fanny was only six months old, so she was raised by her mother and maternal grandmother Eunice Paddock Crosby (born about 1778; died about 1831).[26] women grounded her in Christian principles, helping her memorize long passages from the Bible, and she became an active member of the John Street Methodist Episcopal Church in Manhattan. Peach Pond Meeting House, North Salem, New York Crosby was three, the family moved to North Salem, New York, where Eunice had been raised.[27] April 1825, she was examined by the surgeon Valentine Mott, who concluded that her condition was inoperable and that her blindness was permanent.[28] age eight, Crosby wrote her first poem which described her condition.[29] She later stated: "It seemed intended by the blessed providence of God that I should be blind all my life, and I thank him for the dispensation. perfect earthly sight were offered me tomorrow I would not accept it. I might not have sung hymns to the praise of God if I had been distracted by the beautiful and interesting things about me."[30] also once said, "when I get to heaven, the first face that shall ever gladden my sight will be that of my Savior".[31] to biographer Annie Willis, "had it not been for her affliction she might not have so good an education or have so great an influence, and certainly not so fine a memory".[32] 1828, Mercy and Fanny moved to the home of a Mrs. Hawley in Ridgefield, Connecticut.[33] residing in Ridgefield, they attended the Presbyterian church on the village green.[34] Edith L. Blumhofer described the Crosby home environment as sustained by "an abiding Christian faith".[35] memorized five chapters of the Bible each week from age 10, with the encouragement of her grandmother and later Mrs. Hawley; by age 15, she had memorized the four gospels, the Pentateuch,[32] the Book of Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and many of the Psalms.[36] From 1832, a music teacher came to Ridgefield twice a week to give singing lessons to her and some of the other children.[37] Around the same time, she attended her first Methodist church services at the Methodist Episcopal Church, and she was delighted by their hymns.[38] enrolled at the New York Institution for the Blind (NYIB) in 1835, just before her 15th birthday.[39] remained there for eight years as a student, and another two years as a graduate pupil,[40] which time she learned to play the piano, organ, harp, and guitar, and became a good soprano singer. she was studying at NYIB in 1838, her mother Mercy remarried and the couple had three children together.[41] husband abandoned her in 1844.[42] FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; Jane Crosby (March 24 1820 – February 12 1915) known as Fanny Crosby, an American lyricist best known for her Protestant Christian hymns. lifelong Methodist, she was one of the most prolific hymnists in history, writing over 8,000 despite being blind since infancy. known for her preaching and speaking, her lifetime Fanny Crosby was one of the best known women in the United States. this day, the vast majority of American hymnals contain her work [but not the 1982 Episcopal Church Hymnal]. of her best known songs include "Blessed Assurance", "Jesus Is Tenderly Calling You Home", "Praise Him, Praise Him", and "To God Be the Glory". some publishers were hesitant to have so many hymns by one person in their hymnals, Crosby used nearly 100 different pseudonyms during her career. wrote her first hymn in 1863 for the composer William B. Bradbury, a respected musician and publisher. was called "There's a Cry from Macedonia". the years she wrote for Bradbury and for other composers, including Philip Phillips, Hubert P. Main, Robert Lowry, W. H. Doane, Ira D. Sankey, Philip P. Bliss, Mr. W. F. Sherwin, and Phoebe Knapp. was very well known during her time and often met with presidents, generals, and other dignitaries. played the hymn "Safe in the Arms of Jesus" at President Grant's funeral in 1885. her later years, she also became a popular public speaker. she died, her tombstone carried the words, "Aunt Fanny" and "Blessed assurance, Jesus is mine. Oh, what a foretaste of glory divine." - more at Wikipedia

US Presidents Folder, 1841-1893

US, 1840-1915, Fanny Crosby, Brewster, NY, American lyricist best known for her (8,000) Protestant Christian hymns
US, 1840-1915, Fanny Crosby, Brewster, NY (Croton River Source, Hudson River 17), American lyricist best known for her (8,000) Protestant Christian hymns; Brewster, NY ; Fanny Crosby early life and education; Jane Crosby was born on March 24, 1820, in the village of Brewster, about 50 miles (80 km) north of New York City.[10][11] was the only child of John Crosby and his second wife Mercy Crosby, both of whom were relatives of Revolutionary War spy Enoch Crosby. was a widower who had a daughter from his first marriage.[12] According to C. Bernard Ruffin, John and Mercy were possibly first cousins; however, "by the time Fanny Crosby came to write her memoirs [in 1906], the fact that her mother and father were related... had become a source of embarrassment, and she maintained that she did not know anything about his lineage".[13] (l to r) Mercy, Julia, and Caroline Morris and Fanny Crosby was proud of her Puritan heritage.[14] She traced her ancestry from Anna Brigham and Simon Crosby who arrived in Boston in 1635[15][16] (and were among the founders of Harvard College);[17] their descendants married into Mayflower families,[14] making Crosby a descendant of Elder William Brewster, Edward Winslow, and Thomas Prence, and a member of the exclusive Daughters of the Mayflower.[18] was also a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution in Bridgeport, Connecticut,[19] writing the verses of the state song of the Connecticut branch.[20] Through Simon Crosby, Fanny was also a relative of Presbyterian minister Howard Crosby and his neoabolitionist son Ernest Howard Crosby,[21] as well as singers Bing and Bob Crosby.[22] six weeks old, Crosby caught a cold and developed inflammation of the eyes. Mustard poultices were applied to treat the discharges.[23] According to Crosby, this procedure damaged her optic nerves and blinded her, but modern physicians think that her blindness was more likely congenital and, given her age, may simply not have been noticed by her parents.[24][25] father died in November 1820 when Fanny was only six months old, so she was raised by her mother and maternal grandmother Eunice Paddock Crosby (born about 1778; died about 1831).[26] These women grounded her in Christian principles, helping her memorize long passages from the Bible, and she became an active member of the John Street Methodist Episcopal Church in Manhattan. Peach Pond Meeting House, North Salem, New York Crosby was three, the family moved to North Salem, New York where Eunice had been raised.[27] In April 1825, she was examined by the surgeon Valentine Mott, who concluded that her condition was inoperable and that her blindness was permanent.[28] age eight, Crosby wrote her first poem which described her condition.[29] She later stated: "It seemed intended by the blessed providence of God that I should be blind all my life, and I thank him for the dispensation. If perfect earthly sight were offered me tomorrow I would not accept it. I might not have sung hymns to the praise of God if I had been distracted by the beautiful and interesting things about me."[30] She also once said, "when I get to heaven, the first face that shall ever gladden my sight will be that of my Savior".[31] According to biographer Annie Willis, "had it not been for her affliction she might not have so good an education or have so great an influence, and certainly not so fine a memory".[32] 1828, Mercy and Fanny moved to the home of a Mrs. Hawley in Ridgefield, Connecticut.[33] While residing in Ridgefield, they attended the Presbyterian church on the village green.[34] Historian Edith L. Blumhofer described the Crosby home environment as sustained by "an abiding Christian faith".[35] Crosby memorized five chapters of the Bible each week from age 10, with the encouragement of her grandmother and later Mrs. Hawley; by age 15, she had memorized the four gospels, the Pentateuch,[32] the Book of Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and many of the Psalms.[36] From 1832, a music teacher came to Ridgefield twice a week to give singing lessons to her and some of the other children.[37] Around the same time, she attended her first Methodist church services at the Methodist Episcopal Church, and she was delighted by their hymns.[38] enrolled at the New York Institution for the Blind (NYIB) in 1835, just before her 15th birthday.[39] She remained there for eight years as a student, and another two years as a graduate pupil,[40] during which time she learned to play the piano, organ, harp, and guitar, and became a good soprano singer. While she was studying at NYIB in 1838, her mother Mercy remarried and the couple had three children together.[41] Mercy's husband abandoned her in 1844.[42] FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; Jane Crosby (March 24 1820 – February 12 1915) usually known as Fanny Crosby, was an American lyricist best known for her Protestant Christian hymns. lifelong Methodist, she was one of the most prolific hymnists in history, writing over 8,000 despite being blind since infancy. Also known for her preaching and speaking, during her lifetime Fanny Crosby was one of the best known women in the United States. this day, the vast majority of American hymnals contain her work [but not the 1982 Episcopal Church Hymnal]. Some of her best known songs include "Blessed Assurance", "Jesus Is Tenderly Calling You Home", "Praise Him, Praise Him", and "To God Be the Glory". Because some publishers were hesitant to have so many hymns by one person in their hymnals, Crosby used nearly 100 different pseudonyms during her career. wrote her first hymn in 1863 for the composer William B. Bradbury, a respected musician and publisher. It was called "There's a Cry from Macedonia". Over the years she wrote for Bradbury and for other composers, including Philip Phillips, Hubert P. Main, Robert Lowry, W. H. Doane, Ira D. Sankey, Philip P. Bliss, Mr. W. F. Sherwin, and Phoebe Knapp. was very well known during her time and often met with presidents, generals, and other dignitaries. She played the hymn "Safe in the Arms of Jesus" at President Grant's funeral in 1885. In her later years, she also became a popular public speaker. she died, her tombstone carried the words, "Aunt Fanny" and "Blessed assurance, Jesus is mine. Oh, what a foretaste of glory divine." Selected Works: "All the Way My Savior Leads Me"—bef. 1875, music by Robert Wadsworth Lowry "Blessed Assurance"—1873, music by Phoebe Knapp "The Bright Forever"—1871, music by Hubert P. Main "Close to Thee"—1874, music by Silas J. Vail "Jesus Is Tenderly Calling You Home"—1883, music by George C. Stebbins "I Am Thine, O Lord"—bef. 1875, music by W. Howard Doane "My Savior First of All"—1891, music by John R. Sweney "Near the Cross"—bef. 1869, music by W. Howard Doane "Pass Me Not, O Gentle Saviour"—1868, music by W. Howard Doane "Praise Him, Praise Him"—bef. 1869, music by Chester G. Allen "Redeemed, How I Love to Proclaim It"—bef. 1882, William J. Kirkpatrick "Rescue the Perishing"—1869, music by W. Howard Doane "Safe in the Arms of Jesus"—1878, music by W. Howard Doane "Saviour, More Than Life to Me"—1875, music by W. Howard Doane "Tell Me the Story of Jesus"—bef. 1880, music by John R. Sweney "To God Be the Glory"—1875, music by W. Howard Doane "Draw me Nearer"—1875, words by Fanny Crosby [Words and music for these and some 500 more of her hymns may be found at the Cyberhymnal.] - more at Wikipedia

US, 1841-1845, President, John Tyler, VP, states rights, nationalist, manifest destiny, Texas annexation
US President, 1841-1845, John Tyler ; Tyler (March 29, 1790 - January 18, 1862)[1] was the tenth president of the United States, serving from 1841 to 1845 after briefly holding office as the tenth vice president in 1841; he was elected vice president on the 1840 Whig ticket with President William Henry Harrison. succeeded to the presidency after Harrison's death in April 1841, only a month after the start of the new administration. was a stalwart supporter and advocate of states' rights, and he adopted nationalistic policies as president only when they did not infringe on the powers of the states. unexpected rise to the presidency posed a threat to the presidential ambitions of Henry Clay and other politicians, and left Tyler estranged from both major political parties. was born to a prominent Virginia family. His family, like many prominent white Southern families in the U.S. at the time, were slaveholders. became a national figure at a time of political upheaval. In the 1820s, the nation's only political party was the Democratic-Republican Party, and it split into factions. was initially a Democrat, but he opposed Andrew Jackson during the Nullification Crisis, seeing Jackson's actions as infringing on states' rights, and he criticized Jackson's expansion of executive power during the Bank War. This led Tyler to ally with the Whig Party. served as a Virginia state legislator, governor, U.S. representative, and U.S. senator. He was put on the 1840 presidential ticket to attract states' rights Southerners to a Whig coalition to defeat Martin Van Buren's re-election bid. Harrison died just one month after taking office, and Tyler became the first vice president to succeed to the presidency without election. He served longer than any other president in U.S. history not elected to the office. forestall constitutional uncertainty, Tyler immediately took the oath of office, moved into the White House, and assumed full presidential powers—a precedent that governed future successions and was codified in the Twenty-fifth Amendment. signed into law some of the Whig-controlled Congress's bills, but he was a strict constructionist and vetoed the party's bills to create a national bank and raise the tariff rates. believed that the president should set policy rather than Congress, and he sought to bypass the Whig establishment, led by Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky. of Tyler's Cabinet resigned soon into his term, and the Whigs dubbed him His Accidency and expelled him from the party. was the first president to see his veto of legislation overridden by Congress. He faced a stalemate on domestic policy, although he had several foreign-policy achievements, including the Webster–Ashburton Treaty with Britain and the Treaty of Wanghia with Qing China. Republic of Texas separated from Mexico in 1836. Tyler was a firm believer in manifest destiny and saw its annexation as providing an economic advantage to the United States, so he worked diligently to make it happen. initially sought election to a full term as president, but failed to gain the support of either Whigs or Democrats and withdrew in support of Democrat James K. Polk, who also favored the annexation of Texas. Polk won the election, and when Tyler signed a bill to annex Texas three days before leaving office, Polk completed the process. the American Civil War began in 1861, Tyler sided with the Confederacy and won election to the Confederate House of Representatives shortly before his death. Some scholars have praised Tyler's political resolve, but historians have generally given his presidency a low ranking. Today, he is seldom remembered in comparison to other presidents and maintains only a limited presence in American cultural memory.[2] PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30;

US, 1841-1894, WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, noted fDeaconess Movement iUS, largest social program US
US, 1841-1894, WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, noted fDeaconess Movement iUS, fZelienople, PA, Gfather Basse arived fFrankfurt 1802, founded Zelienople, named for his mother Zelie, attended Jefferson College&Gettesburg Seminary, tBaltimore, MD 1842, published Lutheran Almanac & 1845 The Missionary, The Lutheran oPhilidelphia 1861, where he was co-editor many yrs, Pastor Christ Lutheran Baden PA 1858-1879, founded administered benevolent institutions, deaconesses 1849, Thiel College 1866, many other missions, hospitals, orphanages colleges seminaries in US, which became Lutheran Services iAmerica, largest church social program iUS; Zelienople, Pennsylvania; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated January 3 ; A. Passavant (October 9, 1821 - January 3, 1894) a Lutheran minister noted for bringing the Lutheran Deaconess movement to the United States. is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on November 24 with Justus Falckner and Jehu Jones. was born in Zelienople, Pennsylvania, the youngest son of Phillipe Louis Passavant and Fredericka Wilhelmina Basse. mother, known as Zelie Passavant, was the daughter of Baron Dettmar Basse. Basse, a former diplomat, arrived during 1802 from Frankfurt, Germany to become the founder of the city of Zelienople, Pennsylvania. attended Jefferson College and later Gettysburg Seminary in preparation for a career in the ministry. Passavant began his ministry in Baltimore, Maryland in 1842. became a publisher of the first Lutheran Almanac and in 1845 The Missionary, which in 1861 was merged into The Lutheran of Philadelphia, where he remained for many years as coeditor. Passavant was pastor of Christ Lutheran Church of Baden, Pennsylvania from 1858 until 1879, a period of 21 years. life of William Passavant was devoted principally to the founding and administration of benevolent institutions. Passavant is credited with bringing the first deaconesses to the United States. a trip to Germany he came in contact with Pastor Theodore Fliedner who, as founder of the modern diaconate, had opened a hospital and training school for deaconesses in Kaiserswerth. Passavant's request, in 1849, Fliedner brought four German deaconesses to Pittsburgh to work in the Pittsburgh Infirmary (now Passavant Hospital). College, an independent institution related to the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America started in 1866 followed a meeting between the Rev. Dr. William A. Passavant and A. Louis Thiel. the Pittsburgh Synod convention in Greensburg, Pennsylvania in 1869, it was decided that Thiel Hall would become a college and serve western Pennsylvania. College began its corporate existence on September 1, 1870 would go on to found many other missions, hospitals, orphanages, colleges, and seminaries throughout the country. of the institutions he founded would later join together to help found the Lutheran Services in America, the largest church social program in the United States. from Wikipedia

US, 1842-1902, THOMAS GALLAUDET, Hartford, CT, deaf mother, father's school for deaf, GALLAUDET college f deaf, married deaf girl, ordained, deaf congregation
US, 1842-1902, THOMAS GALLAUDET, Hartford, CT, deaf mother, father's school for deaf, GALLAUDET college f deaf, married deaf girl, ordained, deaf congregation; Hartford, Connecticut; Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Gallaudet was born in 1822, in Hartford, Connecticut. mother, Sophia was deaf, and his father, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, was the founder of the West Hartford School for the deaf, which was the principal institution for the education of the deaf in America from 1806 to 1857 (the year of the founding of Gallaudet College in Washington, DC). father had intended to become a priest, but had become an educator of the deaf instead. son also intended to seek ordination, but was persuaded by his father to work for a while first as a teacher of the deaf. did, and so met and married Miss Elizabeth Budd, who was deaf. was ordained in 1851, and the next year established St. Ann's Church in New York, especially for deaf persons, with services primarily in sign language. a result of his work, congregations for the deaf were established in many cities. (Alternatively, some congregations that are mostly hearing will have someone standing near the front and signing the service for the benefit of deaf parishioners.) died 27 August 1902. Photo of Henry Winter Syle (Photo courtesy Episcopal Conference of the Deaf) of Gallaudet's students and parishioners was Henry Winter Syle, deaf from an early age, who had attended Trinity College (Hartford, Conn), St John's (Cambridge, England), and Yale. encouraged him to become a priest, and in 1876 he became the first deaf person to be ordained by the Episcopal Church in the United States. He established a congregation for the deaf in 1888, and died 6 January 1890. HW Syle signature by James Kiefer Henry Winter Syle of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ;

US, 1843, Oregon Trail Folder

Oregon Trail - Independence, MO to Oregon City, OR

Oregon Trail - Independence, MO to Little Blue River Mouth

Oregon Trail - Little Blue River to Kearny, NB

Oregon Trail - Platte River Section Kearney, NB to North Platte Mouth

Oregon Trail - North Platte River to Laramie, WY

Oregon Trail - Laramie-Casper-Sweetwater Valley-Blacks Fork-Fort Bridger

Oregon Trail - Bear River Section - Fort Bridger, UT to Soda Springs, ID

Oregon Trail - Big Hill Portion - Soda Springs, ID to Fort Hall (Pocatello, ID)

Oregon Trail - Snake River Section

Oregon Trail - Columbia River Section

Oregon Trail Points Folder

Oregon Trail 1 (Independence, Missouri River 23)

Oregon Trail 1b (St. Joseph, Missouri River 22)

Oregon Trail 2 (crossing Mt Oread, Lawarence, KS)

Oregon Trail 3 (Topeka, KS river crossing)

Oregon Trail 4 (Ash Hollow with Windlass Hill, North Platte River 5)
Oregon Trail (Ash Hollow with Windlass Hill);

Oregon Trail (Courthouse and Jail Rocks)
Oregon Trail (Courthouse and Jail Rocks);

Oregon Trail - Scotts Bluff National Monument
Scotts Bluff National Monument;

Oregon Trail (Scottsbluff)
Scotts Bluff National Monument;

Oregon Trail - Chimney Rock, NB
Oregon Trail - Chimney Rock, NB;

Oregon Trail 5 (Fort Laramie, WY)

Oregon Trail - Fort Laramie
Oregon Trail - Fort Laramie;

Oregon Trail 6 - Casper, WY

Oregon Trail - Sweetwater River Mouth (North Palatte River 4, Casper, WY )

Oregon Trail - Sweetwater River Valley 1

Oregon Trail - Independence Rock, Sweetwater River Valley 2

Oregon Trail - Sweetwater River Valley 3

Oregon Trail 7 - South Pass, Sweetwater River Valley 4

Oregon Trail (Fort Bridger)
Oregon Trail (Fort Bridger);

Oregon Trail (Fort Hall)
Oregon Trail (Fort Hall);

Oregon Trail Terminus (Oregon City, Oregon)

US, 1844-1898, CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, Memphis Medical College, Civil War Surgeon and Chaplin
US, 1844-1898, CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, Sewanee, Tennessee, University of the South, from Connecticut, Hugenot, NYU and Bellevue Hospital, Memphis Medical College, Civil War Surgeon and Chaplin; Sewanee: The University of the South ; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16 ; Todd Quintard (1824-1898) was the second bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Tennessee and the first Vice-Chancellor of the University of the South at Sewanee. was born in Connecticut to a Huguenot family, studied medicine at University Medical College, New York University and Bellevue Hospital, and moved to Memphis to teach physiology and pathological anatomy at Memphis Medical College. Under the influence of Bishop James Hervey Otey, Quintard studied for holy orders and entered the priesthood in the 1850s. the American Civil War, he was a chaplain and a surgeon in Tennessee's Confederate army. — from Wikipedia

US, 1844-1912, RICHARD MEUX BENSON, founder Society oSt John tEvangelist 1866, Anglican monasteries, Cowley, Oxfordshire
England, 1844-1912, RICHARD MEUX BENSON, founder Society oSt John tEvangelist 1866, Cowley, Oxfordshire, Society of St. John the Evangelist, Anglican monasteries, wealthy family, private tutor, t Christ Church Oxford, a school, degree, ordination, curacy aSubiton, 1850 vicar aCrowley Oxford, High Church, 1858 priest retreat, 1859 built new parish church, planned mission tIndia but bishop declined, time of English convents, 2 priests joined him to begin community, not purely contemplative, external ministries, devine office daily, hour meditation, summer retreat 4wks, later 2wks, other retreat days&silence days, concentrated oEssentials like life-vows, regular confession, choir office, prayer&meditation, priestly ministry, recognized bishop's authority but not to private life together, 1870-93 Society spread tUS, India, South Africa, American mission tour, 1884 Benson drafted Constitution & Rule, 1886 resigned Parish Vicar, 1890 resigned Superior, 1yr in India, 8yrs Boston, last 16yrs back at Home, celebrated Eucharist as long as he could stand, then weeled in chair every morning, died 1915; Society of St. John the Evangelist; RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, Commemorated January 16 ; Meux Benson (1824–1915) was a priest in the Church of England founder of the Society of St. John the Evangelist, the first religious order of monks in the Anglican Communion since the Reformation. into a wealthy family of London in 1824, was taught at home by a private tutor and entered Christ Church, Oxford. his degree and ordination and a curacy at Surbiton, in 1850 he became vicar of Cowley, Oxford. was considered High Church. 1858 Benson conducted a retreat for priests using material taken in part from the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola. 1859, having erected a new parish church dedicated to St. John the Evangelist, planned a mission to India but abandoned the plan at the request of his bishop. the time there were convents of Anglican women in England, and in 1865 two priests joined Benson in Cowley to begin community life under the name of Mission Priests of St. John the Evangelist with Benson as Superior. form of religious life instituted by Benson was not purely contemplative — its members engaged in active external ministry — they recited the Divine Office together daily in choir, and Benson emphasized contemplation. brothers were to get an hour's meditation daily if possible, he gave the community a summer retreat of four weeks, later reduced to fortnight. He prescribed other retreat days and silence days. a religious founder, he concentrated on essentials, which he reckoned life-vows, taken with precautions as to maturity; confession; office, and meditation; priestly ministry. fully recognized the authority of his bishop over the priests of the community, who were clergy of the diocese, not as extending to their private life together. 1870 to 1883 the Society spread to the United States, India, and South Africa. himself made an American mission tour. 1884 the society adopted a Constitution and Rule drafted by Benson. the creation of the Society, Benson had maintained his duties as a parish vicar. 1886 he resigned this charge to devote all his attention to the Society and its mission. 1890 Benson stepped aside for another to be elected Superior. spent one year in India, eight years at the American house in Boston. last sixteen years of Benson's life were lived at home again. celebrated the Holy Eucharist as long as he could stand at the altar, then was wheeled in a chair to his Communion every morning. He died on January 14, 1915. Wikipedia More information on Richard Benson is available from Project Canterbury.

US, 1845-1849, President, James K. Polk, expansion, Oregon c, Mexican SW, independent treasury, tariff rates
US President, 1845-1849, James K. Polk Knox Polk (November 2, 1795 – June 15, 1849) was the 11th president of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849. He previously was the Speaker of the House of Representatives (1835–1839) and Governor of Tennessee (1839–1841). A protégé of Andrew Jackson, he was a member of the Democratic Party and an advocate of Jacksonian democracy. Polk is chiefly known for extending the territory of the United States through the Mexican–American War; during his presidency, the United States expanded significantly with the annexation of the Republic of Texas, the Oregon Territory, and the Mexican Cession following the American victory in the Mexican–American War. building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to the state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Andrew Jackson. serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only president to have been speaker. left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee; he won in 1839 but lost in 1841 and 1843. was a dark horse candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in 1844; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could secure the necessary two-thirds majority. the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party. have praised Polk for having met during his four-year term every major domestic and foreign policy goal he had set. After a negotiation fraught with the risk of war, he reached a settlement with Great Britain over the disputed Oregon Country, the territory, for the most part, being divided along the 49th parallel. He provoked a war with Mexico in an attempt to expand the nation and succeeded in doing so, as it resulted in Mexico's cession of nearly all the American Southwest. He secured a substantial reduction of tariff rates with the Walker tariff of 1846. The same year, he achieved his other major goal, re-establishment of the Independent Treasury system. True to his campaign pledge to serve only one term, Polk left office in 1849 and returned to Tennessee, where he died three months after leaving the White House. relatively obscure today, scholars have ranked Polk favorably for his ability to promote and achieve the major items on his presidential agenda, despite limiting himself to a single term. He has also been criticized for leading the country into an aggressive war against Mexico and thus exacerbating divides between free and slave states. A property owner who used slave labor for most of his adult life, he kept a plantation in Mississippi and increased his slave ownership while president. The legacy of Polk's presidency of territorial expansion – with the United States reaching the Pacific coast and, roughly, its present contiguous borders – was a nation poised to become a world power, but with sectional divisions gravely exacerbated, setting the stage for the Civil War. PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1849, California Trail Folder

California Trail (City of Rocks to Wells and the down Humboldt River)

Salt Lake Cutoff (for both Oregon Trail and California Trail)

California Trail (Raft River Section)

California Trail 1 (Independence, Missouri River 23)

California Trail 1 (Fort Bridger)

California Trail 2 (Salt Lake City)

California Trail 3 (Bear River 10, Malad River Mouth)

California Trail 4 (City of Rocks)

California Trail 5 (Wells, Nevada and Humboldt River)

California Trail 6 (Elko, Nevada)

California Trail 7 (Battle Mountain)

California Trail 8 (Winnemucca, Nevada)

California Trail 9 (Humboldt River Mouth (Humbolt Sink))

California Trail (Nevada City, CA Route from Emigrant Gap, CA)
Nevada City Road;

California Trail - South Fork American River Section, Hwy 50

California Trail (Sonora Road, Carson River, West Walker River, Sonora Pass, Hwy 108)

US, 1849-1850, President, Zachary Taylor, war hero, preserving union when he died. issue was slavery in new mex & cal
US President, 1849-1850, Zachary Taylor ; Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850) was an American military leader who served as the 12th president of the United States from 1849 until his death in 1850. previously was a career officer in the United States Army, rose to the rank of major general and became a national hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican–American War. a result, he won election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union. He died sixteen months into his term, having made no progress on the most divisive issue in Congress, slavery. was born into a prominent family of plantation owners who moved westward from Virginia to Louisville, Kentucky, in his youth; he was the last president born before the adoption of the Constitution. was commissioned as an officer in the U.S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks, establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and entered the Black Hawk War as a colonel in 1832. His success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname "Old Rough and Ready". 1845, during the annexation of Texas, President James K. Polk dispatched Taylor to the Rio Grande in anticipation of a battle with Mexico over the disputed Texas–Mexico border. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, and Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma and drove his troops out of Texas. Taylor then led his troops into Mexico, where they defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey. Defying orders, Taylor led his troops further south and, despite being severely outnumbered, dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna at the Battle of Buena Vista. Taylor's troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, but Taylor retained his popularity. Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political tenets and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination. He won the general election alongside New York politician Millard Fillmore, defeating Democratic Party candidates Lewis Cass and William Orlando Butler, as well as a third-party effort led by former president Martin Van Buren and Charles Francis Adams, Sr. of the Free Soil Party. Taylor became the first president to be elected without having served in a prior political office. president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even though partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda and led to threats of secession from Southerners. Despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, setting the stage for the Compromise of 1850. Taylor died suddenly of a stomach disease on July 9, 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of his term. Historians and scholars have ranked Taylor in the bottom quartile of U.S. presidents, owing in part to his short term of office (16 months), though he has been described as "more a forgettable president than a failed one".[1] PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ;

US, 1849-1910, CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, missionary to Asia, first China, then Japan, St Paul's Tokyo
US, 1849-1910, CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, missionary to Asia, first China, then Japan, St Paul's Tokyo, fRichmond, VA, ordained iChina 1857, tNagasaki, Japan 1959, 1868 Japan opened tWest, 1874 Samuel I J Schereschewski tChina, 1877 CW tTokyo&founded St Pauls University, 1878 united Holy Catholic Church iJapan, 1889 bad health request relief, 1893 sucessor but CW stayed on helping new mission stations, 1908 returned US, died 1910; Richmond, Virginia; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910) ; was born in Richmond, Virginia, in 1829, and ordained deacon in 1855. Episcopal Church sent him to China, where he was ordained priest in 1857. 1859 he was sent to Nagasaki, Japan, and in 1866 was consecrated Bishop of China and Japan. 1868 Japan was opened to far greater contact with the West than before, and he determined that he could achieve best results by concentrating his efforts on Japan. 1874 (or is that 1877?) a new bishop (Samuel Isaac Joseph Schereschewski, see October 14) was consecrated for China, Williams went to Tokyo (then called Edo or Yedo), where he founded what is now St Paul's University. 1878 he helped unite several mission efforts in the formation of the Nippon Sei Ko Kai, the Holy Catholic Church in Japan. 1889 his health began to fail, and he asked to be relieved. In 1893 a successor was appointed, and Williams stayed on, living in Kyoto and helping to open new mission stations. returned to America in 1908 and died 2 December 1910. by James Kiefer

US, 1849-1911, JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLICi, Hispanola, Masonic Lodge leader
US, 1849-1911, JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLICi, Hispanola, 1st African American Episcopal Bishop, descendent of freed slaves, black abolitionist, shoemaker, teacher, principal, built Church in Haiti, Masonic Lodge leader ; Haiti, Republic of Haiti; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911), Commemorated November 8 ; Theodore Holly was tBp. James Holly he First African American Bishop in the Episcopal Church and Bishop of Haiti. in 1829 in Washington, DC, James Theodore Holly was the descendent of freed slaves. grandfather James Theodore Holly was a Scotsman in Maryland. He was master of several Holly slaves whom he freed in 1772, including his son and namesake James Theodore Holly. son married the daughter of an Irish Catholic whose last name was Butler, and they were the great grandparents of Bishop James Theodore Holly. Their son Rueben was Bishop Holly's grandfather. was baptized and raised a Catholic yet gradually he moved away from the Catholic Church. spent his early years in Washington, D. C. and Brooklyn, NY where he connected with Frederick Douglass and other Black abolitionists. was active in anti-slavery conventions in the free states, participating in abolitionist activities. Holly left the Roman Catholic Church over a dispute about ordaining local black clergy and joined the Episcopal Church in 1852. was a shoemaker, then a teacher and school principal before his own ordination at the age of 27. served as rector at St Luke’s Church in New Haven, Connecticut was one of the founders of the Protestant Episcopal Society for Promoting the Extension of the Church Among Colored People (a forerunner of UBE) in 1856. This group challenged the Church to take a position against slavery at General Convention. 1861 he left the United States with his family and a group of African Americans to settle in Haiti---the world’s first black republic. July 1863 Holly organized the Holy Trinity Church. He lost his family and other settlers to disease and poor living conditions but was successful in establishing schools and building the Church. trained young priests and started congregations and medical programs in the countryside. this time Haiti was split with the Vatican and most men of Haiti supported their religious sentiment through the symbolism and observance of the Masonic Lodge. an experienced Masonic leader and scholar, Holly visited the Masonic temples and made friends among their members. He was also willing to perform Masonic burial services. 1874 he was ordained bishop at Grace Church, New York City, by the mainstream Episcopal Church, who refused to ordain a black missionary bishop, but by the American Church Missionary Society, an Evangelical Episcopal branch of the Church. was named Bishop of the Anglican Orthodox Episcopal Church of Haiti. attended the Lambeth Convention as a bishop of the Church. Holly was also given charge of the Episcopal Church in the Dominican Republic from 1897-1911. died in Haiti in on March 13, 1911. adapted from St. Phillip's Episcopal Church, Buffalo, NY (reprinted with permission) Project Canterbury has a short Autobiography of Bp. Holly online.

US, 1850-1853, President, Millard Fillmore, for Kans-Nebr act, abandoned by dem party, northern dem, Lincoln critic
US President, 1850-1853, Millard Fillmore ; Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869) was the 14th president of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857. A northern Democrat who believed that the abolitionist movement was a fundamental threat to the unity of the nation, he alienated anti-slavery groups by supporting and signing the Kansas–Nebraska Act and enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act, yet these efforts failed to stem conflict between North and South. The South eventually seceded and the American Civil War began in 1861. Pierce was born in New Hampshire. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate until his resignation in 1842. His private law practice was a success, and he was appointed New Hampshire's U.S. Attorney in 1845. He took part in the Mexican–American War as a brigadier general in the Army. He was seen by Democrats as a compromise candidate uniting Northern and Southern interests and was nominated as the party's candidate for president on the 49th ballot at the 1852 Democratic National Convention. He and running mate William R. King easily defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham in the 1852 presidential election. president, Pierce simultaneously attempted to enforce neutral standards for civil service while also satisfying the diverse elements of the Democratic Party with patronage, an effort which largely failed and turned many in his party against him. was a Young America expansionist who signed the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico and led a failed attempt to acquire Cuba from Spain. signed trade treaties with Britain and Japan, while his Cabinet reformed their departments and improved accountability, but these successes were overshadowed by political strife during his presidency. popularity declined sharply in the Northern states after he supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which nullified the Missouri Compromise, while many whites in the South continued to support him. Passage of the act led to violent conflict over the expansion of slavery in the American West. administration was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto calling for the annexation of Cuba, a document which was roundly criticized. He fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats in the 1856 presidential election, but was abandoned by his party and his bid failed. His reputation in the North suffered further during the American Civil War as he became a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln. was popular and outgoing, but his family life was difficult. His wife Jane suffered from illness and depression for much of her life and their three children died young.[1] Their last surviving son was killed in a train accident while the family was traveling, shortly before Pierce's inauguration. A heavy drinker for much of his life, Pierce died in 1869 of cirrhosis of the liver. Historians and scholars generally rank Pierce as one of the worst and least memorable U.S. presidents. PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; JAMES CHISHOLM, PRIEST, 15 Sept. 1855 ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1850-1912, CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC, WI, Oxford Movement, High Church, expanded Fond Du Lac diocese
US, 1850-1912, CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC, WI (Lake Winnebago, bottom of the lake), from Boston, Oxford Movement, High Church, Philips Academy, Andover MA, Harvard Law 1853, SSJE Cowley Fathers in England, controversial picture of priests, expanded diocese of Fond Du Lac; Fond du Lac; CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912; Chapman Grafton SSJE (April 12, 1830 – August 30, 1912) was the second Episcopal Bishop of Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. life and education on April 12, 1830, in Boston, Massachusetts,[1] he became an ardent supporter of the Oxford Movement, an affiliation of High Church Anglicans that led to Anglo-Catholicism in The Episcopal Church. graduate of Phillips Academy, Andover in 1846, in 1853 Grafton graduated from Harvard University with a degree in law,[1] but he found himself drawn toward the ordained ministry. Grafton studied theology under William Whittingham, Bishop of Maryland, and was ordained deacon on Dec. 23, 1855. began his ordained ministry as assistant at Reisterstown, Maryland.[1] On May 30, 1858, he was ordained priest.[1] He then served as curate at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Baltimore and chaplain of the deaconesses of the Episcopal Diocese of Maryland. the close of the Civil War, Grafton went to Britain. With Richard Meux Benson and Simeon Wilberforce O'Neill he co-founded the Society of St. John the Evangelist (SSJE), also known as the Cowley Fathers. returned to the United States and, in 1872, became fourth rector of the Church of the Advent in Boston. A jurisdictional dispute concerning Grafton's overseas religious superior led to his withdrawal from the SSJE. Grafton also helped establish the American Congregation of Saint Benedict; and in 1888 he was a founder of the Sisterhood of the Holy Nativity, along with Mother Ruth Margaret. was consecrated bishop on April 25, 1889, at the Cathedral Church of St. Paul the Apostle, Fond du Lac, Wisconsin by William E. McLaren, Bishop of Chicago; Alexander Burgess, Bishop of Quincy; and George F. Seymour, Bishop of Springfield. his tenure as bishop, Grafton spearheaded a great expansion the Episcopal Diocese of Fond du Lac, much of it driven by contributing much of his own personal wealth and soliciting contributions from many of his wealthy friends back east. also left behind a legacy of printed works, sermons and essays. 1900 Grafton was chief consecrator of Reginald Heber Weller as bishop coadjutor of Fond Du Lac. liturgy of the consecration was controversial. The Russian Orthodox bishop of Alaska, Saint Tikhon was present as well as Antoni Kozlowski [pl] of the Polish National Catholic Church. Grafton was photographed with these other bishops wearing copes and miters (which was not widely accepted in the Episcopal Church at that time). The photo became known as the "Fond du Lac Circus". grave in the Cathedral of Saint Paul the Apostle in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin Grafton is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on August 30. Bibliography C. C. Grafton, The Works of the Rt Rev Charles C. Grafton, ed. B. T. Rogers (8 vols., 1914)

US, 1853-1857, President, Franklin Pierce, northern dem, against abolition, for Kans-Nebr Act, for fugitive slave act
US President, 1853-1857, Franklin Pierce; Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869) was the 14th president of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857. A northern Democrat who believed that the abolitionist movement was a fundamental threat to the unity of the nation, he alienated anti-slavery groups by supporting and signing the Kansas–Nebraska Act and enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act, yet these efforts failed to stem conflict between North and South. The South eventually seceded and the American Civil War began in 1861. was born in New Hampshire. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate until his resignation in 1842. His private law practice was a success, and he was appointed New Hampshire's U.S. Attorney in 1845. He took part in the Mexican–American War as a brigadier general in the Army. He was seen by Democrats as a compromise candidate uniting Northern and Southern interests and was nominated as the party's candidate for president on the 49th ballot at the 1852 Democratic National Convention. He and running mate William R. King easily defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham in the 1852 presidential election. president, Pierce simultaneously attempted to enforce neutral standards for civil service while also satisfying the diverse elements of the Democratic Party with patronage, an effort which largely failed and turned many in his party against him. He was a Young America expansionist who signed the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico and led a failed attempt to acquire Cuba from Spain. He signed trade treaties with Britain and Japan, while his Cabinet reformed their departments and improved accountability, but these successes were overshadowed by political strife during his presidency. His popularity declined sharply in the Northern states after he supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which nullified the Missouri Compromise, while many whites in the South continued to support him. Passage of the act led to violent conflict over the expansion of slavery in the American West. Pierce's administration was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto calling for the annexation of Cuba, a document which was roundly criticized. He fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats in the 1856 presidential election, but was abandoned by his party and his bid failed. His reputation in the North suffered further during the American Civil War as he became a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln. was popular and outgoing, but his family life was difficult. His wife Jane suffered from illness and depression for much of her life and their three children died young.[1] Their last surviving son was killed in a train accident while the family was traveling, shortly before Pierce's inauguration. A heavy drinker for much of his life, Pierce died in 1869 of cirrhosis of the liver. Historians and scholars generally rank Pierce as one of the worst and least memorable U.S. presidents. WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; JAMES CHISHOLM, PRIEST, 15 Sept. 1855 ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1853-1907, CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST & CHIEF, lifelong Episcopalian, fought preserve Oneida lands, rights, moves further west
US, 1853-1907, CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, lifelong Episcopalian, fought to preserve indian lands, rights, attempts to move them further west; Nashota House; CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; Hill (November 13, 1834 – January 25, 1907) or Onangwatgo (“Big Medicine”) the last hereditary chief of the Oneida Nation, and fought to preserve his people's lands and rights under various treaties with the United States government. lifelong Episcopalian, he was ordained a priest at age 69, and ministered to his people until shortly before his death. Hill was born on tribal lands in Wisconsin and baptised by missionary bishop Jackson Kemper. 1843, Episcopal missionary the Rev. James Lloyd Breck escorted the ten-year-old and two other boys to the newly established Nashotah House to learn English and be educated. a teenager, at a council of Oneida from New York, Canada and Wisconsin, Hill became a chief of his Bear Clan. settlers were moving into Wisconsin, and coveted tribal lands, which were held in common under an 1838 treaty. to the Dawes Act of 1887, the federal government allocated the tribe's Wisconsin land to individuals beginning in 1892, who were to be allowed to transfer that property after a 25-year waiting period. had happened in New York State, unscrupulous persons often tried to swindle tribal members out of their allocations. his life, Hill fought such dismemberment of tribal property, as well as government attempts to move his people further In 1893 after negotiations with the federal government, Hill, together with the Rev. Solomon S. Burleson (also a lawyer and doctor), secured a hospital and boarding school for the reservation. for years served as an organist and interpreter for Episcopal services by the Rev. Goodnough and his successors, as well as being his tribe's sachem and delegate to church councils, Hill thought ordination would bring additional authority among whites as well as help him become a bridge between the cultures. June 27, 1895, Bishop Charles C. Grafton ordained Hill a deacon. On June 24, 1903, Bishop Grafton ordained Hill as a priest, the first of his people; during the ceremony Hill repeated his vows in his native language. died on January 25, 1907, having fallen ill shortly before Christmas. After three requiems and funeral at the Church of the Holy Apostles attended by 800 persons, he was buried in the graveyard with other tribal members and the missionaries he assisted. information may be found at Wikipedia and in Chapter 25 of the book The Oneida, by Julia Keen Bloomfield.

US, 1855-1893, PHILLIPS BROOKS, author O Little Town of Bethlehem, greatest US Preacher o19th C, Bishop MA
US, 1855-1893, PHILLIPS BROOKS, Boston, MA (Boston Harbor, Charles River Mouth), author O Little Town of Bethlehem, greatest US Preacher o19th C, born 1835, Harvard, Virginia Tech Seminary, 2 Philidelphia Churches in 10 yrs, 1869-1891 Trinity Church Boston, Bishop of MA, died 1893; Boston; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893) ; Brooks is best known today as the author of “O Little Town of Bethlehem.” generations, however, accounted him the greatest American preacher of the nineteenth century (and not for lack of other candidates). sermons are still read. was born in Boston in 1835 educated at Harvard at Virginia Theological Seminary. ten years of ministry at two churches in Philadelphia, returned to Boston in 1869 was rector of Trinity Church there until 1891. was then elected Bishop of Massachusetts, and died two years later. by James Kiefer

US, 1855-1864, 1885, KING KAMEHAMEHA & QUEEN EMMA, spread c, English missionaries, t BCP & Hymns, Queen's Hospitl
Pacific Islands, 1855-1864, 1885, KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII, Christian rulers, built schools & hospitals, spread christianity, avoided US, to England for missionaries, personally translated BCP & Hymnal, Queen's Hospital; Hawaii; KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII, (28 NOV 1864) ; Kamehameha IV and his wife Emma were Christian rulers who encouraged the building of Christian schools and hospitals, and who contributed greatly to the spread of Christianity among the Hawaiian people. King was worried by the growth of American political influence, directly connected with the work of American missionaries, many of whom openly favored annexation of the islands by the United States. accordingly invited the Church of England to send missionaries and to establish a presence in Hawaii. touring England as a prince, he had attended worship services, and had been favorably impressed.) although the King's support of the Church of England was perhaps politically motivated, his support of Christianity was not. and his wife were earnest in their devotion to both the material and the spiritual welfare of their people. King personally translated the Book of Common Prayer and much of the Hymnal into Hawaiian. only son died in 1863, and the King died, apparently of grief, on 30 November 1864. Queen devoted the remainder of her life to charitable endeavors (Queen's Hospital, the largest civilian hospital in Hawaii, is largely her doing). She died in 1885. of the television program, MAGNUM, P I, will be disappointed to learn that the King Kamehameha Club was probably named for King Kamehameha I, who was a somewhat different sort of ruler.) NOTE: successor, Kamehameha V, suspended the constitution and announced his intention to rule in the traditional autocratic manner. the end of his life, he was too fat to walk unaided. He was the last of his dynasty. In 1893 Queen Liliuokalani was deposed and a republic proclaimed. 1894, the republic acquired its first president, Sanford B. Dole. (His family is in the pineapple business.) 1898, the United States, (having just acquired Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines in a brief war with Spain, and being in an expansionist mood) annexed the Republic of Hawaii at the request of the government thereof. US troops withdrew from Cuba (except for Guantanamo Naval Base) in 1902. The Philippines became independent in 1946. Puerto Rico, by vote of its inhabitants, has rejected both independence and becoming one of the United States, and has been since 1952 officially an "associated commonwealth," whose citizens are also citizens of the United States, free to travel between the two countries, voting in US elections when on the mainland, free of US taxes when on the island. Guam has been a self-governing unincorporated US territory since 1950. Since the 1970's, there has been talk of giving it the same status as Puerto Rico. Hawaii was made a territory in 1900 and a State in 1959. by James Kiefer

US, 1855-1910, JOHN LAFARGE, American painter, muralist, stained glass window maker, decorator, and writer
US, 1855-1910, JOHN LAFARGE, American painter, muralist, stained glass window maker, decorator, and writer, French & US honors, Mural Painter's President, ancient modern language knowledge, literature, art, cultured personality, reflective conversation, experimented w color problems, esp iStained glass, rivaled midieval windows& invented opalescent glass, original methods superimposing&welding, masterpiece list; Unity Church of North Easton, Massachusetts; North Easton, Massachusetts; Unity Church of North Easton John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; painter, muralist, stained glass window maker, decorator, and writer. labors in almost every type of art won for him from the French Government the Cross of the Legion of Honor and membership in the principal artistic societies of America, well as the presidency of the National Society of Mural Painters from 1899 through 1904. an extraordinary knowledge of languages (ancient and modern), literature, and art, by his cultured personality and reflective conversation he influenced many other people. naturally a questioner he venerated the traditions of religious art, and preserved always his Catholic faith and reverence. Farge experimented with color problems, especially in the medium of stained glass. succeeded not only in rivaling the gorgeousness of medieval windows, in adding new resources by his invention of opalescent glass his original methods of superimposing and welding his material. his many stained glass masterpieces are: LaFarge window at All Saints, Whitman, Mass. LaFarge window at the web author's former parish church, All Saints, Whitman, Mass.. two of his largest windows, the 1887 "Angel of Help" and the 1901 "Figure of Wisdom", in Unity Church in North Easton, Massachusetts. Sealing of the Twelve Tribes, Trinity Episcopal Church, Buffalo, New York, 1889 two windows at the Thomas Crane Public Library, Quincy, Massachusetts 14 windows at the Judson Memorial Church, Greenwich Village, New York City four windows at the Trinity Church, Boston windows at the St. Paul's Chapel, Columbia University, NYC rose window at the First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia

US, 1855-1931, Third Great Awakening, Social Gospel, worldwide missions, Holiness, JW's, Spiritualism, Christian Sci, revivals
US, 1855-1910, Third Great Awakening, Social Gospel, worldwide missions, Holiness, Nazarene, Pentecostal, JW's, Unitarians, Spiritualism, Christian Science, abolition, prohibition, revivals, child labor; Third Great Awakening refers to a historical period proposed by William G. McLoughlin that was marked by religious activism in American history and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century.[1] influenced pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism.[2] gathered strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. was affiliated with the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. groupings emerged, such as the Holiness movement and Nazarene and Pentecostal movements, and also Jehovah's Witnesses, Spiritualism, Theosophy, Thelema, and Christian Science.[3] era saw the adoption of a number of moral causes, such as the abolition of slavery and prohibition. Scott Latourette disputed the thesis that the United States had a Third Great Awakening.)[4][full citation needed] article focuses on the awakening that took place during the nineteenth century in America. far, it also includes material about Korea. A similar awakening took place in Britain, identified by J. Edwin Orr as starting in 1859 with its influence continuing through to the end of the century, impacting church growth, overseas mission, and social action.[5] American Protestant mainline churches were growing rapidly in numbers, wealth and educational levels, throwing off their frontier beginnings and becoming centered in towns and cities. and writers such as Josiah Strong advocated a muscular Christianity with systematic outreach to the unchurched in America and around the globe. Others built colleges and universities to train the next generation. denomination supported active missionary societies, and made the role of missionary one of high prestige.[6] names include Dwight L. Moody, Ira D. Sankey, William Booth and Catherine Booth (founders of the Salvation Army), Charles Spurgeon and James Caughey. Hudson Taylor began the China Inland Mission, and Thomas John Barnardo founded his famous orphanages. great majority of pietistic mainline Protestants (in the North) supported the Republican Party, and urged it to endorse prohibition and social reforms.[7] (See Third Party System). awakening in numerous cities in 1858 was interrupted by the American Civil War. the South, on the other hand, the Civil War stimulated revivals, especially the Confederate States Army revival in General Robert E. Lee's army.[8][full citation needed] the war, Dwight L. Moody made revivalism the centerpiece of his activities in Chicago, and founded the Moody Bible Institute. The hymns of Ira Sankey were especially influential.[9] the nation drys crusaded in the name of religion for the prohibition of alcohol. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union mobilized Protestant women for social crusades against liquor, pornography and prostitution, and sparked the demand for women's suffrage.[10] Gilded Age plutocracy came under sharp attack from Social Gospel preachers and reformers in the Progressive Era. historian Robert Fogel identifies numerous reforms, especially the battles involving child labor, compulsory elementary education, and the protection of women from exploitation in factories.[11] With Jane Addams's Hull House in Chicago as its center, the settlement house movement and the vocation of social work were deeply influenced by the Social Gospel.[12] 1880, the Salvation Army denomination arrived in America. Although its theology was based on ideals expressed during the Second Great Awakening, its focus on poverty was of the Third. the major denominations sponsored growing missionary activities, both inside the United States and around the world.[13][full citation needed] associated with churches rapidly expanded in number, size and quality of curriculum. promotion of "muscular Christianity" became popular among young men on campus and in urban YMCAs, well as in such denominational youth groups such as the Epworth League for Methodists and the Walther League for Lutherans.[14] baseball player Billy Sunday converted as a young man in the 1880s, became an evangelist, and is widely considered America's most influential evangelist of the first two decades in the 20th century. 1891, basketball was invented at the International Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts. religions[edit] 1879 Mary Baker Eddy invented Christian Science, which gained a national following.[15] Society for Ethical Culture was established in New York in 1876 by Felix Adler and attracted a Reform Jewish clientele. Taze Russell founded the Bible Students movement. In July 1879, Russell began publishing a monthly religious journal, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence. He and his group of fellow students first identified themselves as The People's Pulpit Association, then in 1910 as The International Bible Students Association. 1931, after schisms within the Bible Students and gaining control of the legal entity Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Joseph Franklin Rutherford along with former members of the Bible Student movement would go on to adopt the name Jehovah's Witnesses. New Thought movement, which began in the 1830s, expanded as Unity and Church of Divine Science were founded. Holiness and Pentecostal Movements[edit] goal of the Holiness Movement in the Methodist Church was to move beyond the one-time conversion experience that the revivals produced, and reach entire sanctification.[16] Pentecostals went one step further, seeking what they called a "baptism in the spirit" or "baptism of the Holy Ghost" that enabled those with this special gift to heal the sick, perform miracles, prophesy, and speak in tongues.[17] re-discovered Pentecostal movement can be traced to the Ocoee mountains, near North Carolina in the upper Tennessee River valley, when a group led by Methodist minister Richard Spurling met in 1886-96 and called for holy living. At that time they experienced what is known as the Baptism of the Holy Spirit, empowering Christians to live in holiness. is known of this movement because it happened in the mountains, compared to the Azusa street revival which happened in Los Angeles, California. the organization born from that group led by Spurling has grown to an international presence in over 200 countries around the world with a church membership of over 7 million Christians; it is known as the "Church of God", with headquarters in Cleveland, Tennessee. The organization owns Lee University and Pentecostal Theological Seminary. Parham in Topeka, Kansas, who was also a Methodist minister, resigned his ordination as a minister and began preaching about the Baptism of the Holy Spirit. During a service on December 31, 1899 Parham laid hands on a woman named Agnes Ozman; she is supposed to have received the Baptism of the Holy Spirit and to have begun speaking in tongues and prophesying. This is the root of the better known "Azusa Street Revival" in Los Angeles, California (1906) led by William J. Seymour, an African American student of Parham's. on Korea[edit] See also: Manchurian revival Beh Im compared the evangelistic method and results of the Third Great Awakening in America with the Korean revivals of 1884–1910. Many techniques of the Second and Third Great Awakenings were transposed from America to Korea, including the circuit-riding system of the Methodists, the Baptist farmer preachers, the campus revivals of the eastern seaboard, the camp meetings in the West, the new measures of Charles G. Finney, the Layman's Prayer Revival, urban mass revivalism of D. L. Moody, and the Student Volunteer Movement. Im discovered four areas of influence from a comparison and analysis of the two countries' revivals: the establishment of tradition, the adoption of similar emphases, the incorporation of evangelistic methodologies, and the observation of the results of the revivals. The American revivals had a major influence on the Korean revivals, and the American revival tradition and enthusiasm toward missions helped Korean Christians develop their own religious experience and tradition. This tradition has influenced Korean churches even into the 21st century.[18]

US, 1857-1861, President, James Buchanan, for state's rights, for Supreme Court pro slavery Dred Scott Decison
US President, 1857-1861, James Buchanan; Buchanan Jr. (April 23, 1791 - June 1, 1868) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 15th president of the United States from 1857 to 1861. previously served as secretary of state from 1845 to 1849 and represented Pennsylvania in both houses of the U.S. Congress. was a states' rights advocate, and minimized the role of the federal government in the nation's final years of slavery. was a prominent lawyer in Pennsylvania and won his first election to the state's House of Representatives as a Federalist. was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1820 and retained that post for 11 years, aligning with Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party. served as Jackson's minister to Russia (1832). He won election in 1834 as a U.S. senator from Pennsylvania and also held that position for 11 years. Buchanan was appointed to serve as President James K. Polk's secretary of state in 1845, and eight years later was named as President Franklin Pierce's minister to the United Kingdom. 1846, Buchanan was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.[3] in 1844, Buchanan became a regular contender for the Democratic party's presidential nomination. He was finally nominated in 1856, defeating incumbent Franklin Pierce and Senator Stephen A. Douglas at the Democratic National Convention; benefited from the fact that he had been out of the country (as ambassador in London) and thus had not been involved in slavery issues. Buchanan and running mate John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky carried every slave state except Maryland, defeating anti-slavery Republican John C. Frémont and Know-Nothing former president Millard Fillmore to win the 1856 presidential election. President, Buchanan intervened in the Supreme Court to gather majority support of the pro-slavery and anti-black decision in the Dred Scott case. He did what Southern leaders wanted in attempting to engineer Kansas coming into the Union as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution. He thereby angered not only the Republicans but also many Northern Democrats. honored his pledge to serve only one term, and supported Breckinridge's unsuccessful candidacy in the 1860 presidential election. He failed to reconcile the fractured Democratic party due to a simmering grudge against Stephen Douglas, leading to a four-way electoral split and the election of Republican and former Congressman Abraham Lincoln. weeks after Lincoln was elected as Buchanan's successor, Southern states began seceding from the Union, precipitating the American Civil War. Buchanan's bumbling leadership during his lame duck period was widely criticized. He simultaneously angered the North by not stopping secession, and the South by not acceding to their secession. He supported the ill-fated Corwin Amendment in an attempt to reconcile the country, but it was too little too late. He made an unsuccessful attempt to reinforce the defenders of Fort Sumter, but otherwise refrained from taking any action to prepare the military. His failure to forestall the Civil War has been described alternatively as incompetent inaction, or passive acceptance of the South. contemporaries blamed him for the war, and he was much reviled after his presidency. He spent his last years defending his reputation. In his personal life, Buchanan never married and as of 2021, he is the only U.S. president to remain a lifelong bachelor. Biographers have variously suggested that he was celibate, homosexual, or asexual. Buchanan died of respiratory failure in 1868, and was buried in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he had lived for nearly 60 years. historians and critics condemn him for not addressing the issue of slavery or forestalling the secession of the Southern states over it. Historians and scholars consistently rank Buchanan as one of the country's worst presidents. WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; HARRIET STARR CANNON, RELIGIOUS, 1896, Commemorated May 7; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1859-1860, Mullan Road - Fort Benton Missouri River Steamship Port to Walla Walla

Mullan Road - Fort Benton to Walla Walla

Mullan Road - Fort Benton, MT
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Fort Benton, MT;

Great Falls, Montana
Great Falls, Montana;

Mullan Road - Mullan Pass (west of Helena)
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Pass (west of Helena);

Mullan Road - Garrison, MT
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Garrison, Montana (I90 Hwy 12 Intersection);

Mullan Road - Bearmouth, Mt
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Bearmouth, Montana;

Mullan Road - Missoula, Mt
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - Missoula, Mt;

Fort Missoula, 1877
Fort Missoula, 1877;

Mullan Road - St. Regis, Mt
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - St. Regis, Montana;

Mullan Road - Henderson, MT
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - Henderson, MT'

Mullan Road - Taft, Mt
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - Taft, Montana;

Mullan Road -Sohon Pass aka St Regis Pass
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road -Sohon Pass aka St Regis Pass

Lookout Pass

Mullan Road - South End of Lake Coeur d'Alene
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - South End of Lake Coeur d'Alene;

Mullan Road - Benge, Washington
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - Benge, Washington;

Mullan Road - Washtucna, WA
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - Washtucna, Washington;

Mullan Road - Palouse River at Snake River
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - Palouse River at Snake River;

Mullan Road - Fort Walla Walla
Mullan Road, 1859-1860; Mullan Road - Fort Walla Walla;

US, 1859, Fort Colville to fort Walla Walla Military Road - 1859
Fort Walla Walla–Fort Colville Military Road -1859;

Fort Colville to Fort Walla Walla Military Road -1859

Fort Walla Walla–Fort Colville Military Road - Fort Colvile
Fort Walla Walla–Fort Colville Military Road -1859; Fort Walla Walla–Fort Colville Military Road - Fort Colvile;

Chewelah

Loon Lake

Reardan, WA

Medical Lake

Fort Spokane - 1880
Fort Spokane 1880

Fort Walla Walla–Fort Colville Military Road - Fort Walla Walla
Fort Walla Walla–Fort Colville Military Road -1859; Fort Walla Walla–Fort Colville Military Road - Fort Walla Walla;

US, 1859, Central Overland Route Folder

Central Overland Route (Salt Lake City, UT to Carson City, NV)
Central Overland Route ;

Central Overland Route 1 (Fairfield, UT)

Central Overland Route 2

Central Overland Route 3 (Callao, UT)

Central Overland Route 4 (Ibapah, UT)

Central Overland Route 5 (Ely, NV)

Central Overland Route 6

Central Overland Route 7

Central Overland Route 21 (Fallon, NV)

Central Overland Route 22 (Fernley, NV)

Central Overland Route 23 (Silver Springs, NV)

Central Overland Route 24 (Dayton, NV)

Central Overland Route 25 (Carson City, NV)

US, 1859, John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
Harpers Ferry, West Virginia; Harriet Ross Tubman of ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, AMELIA BLOOMER, SOJOURNER TRUTH, HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN: FOUR AMERICAN PIONEERS OF BLACK RIGHTS AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS, Commemorated July 20; 1849, Tubman escaped to Philadelphia, only to return to Maryland to rescue her family soon after. Slowly, one group at a time, she brought relatives with her out of the state, and eventually guided dozens of other enslaved people to freedom. Traveling by night and in extreme secrecy, Tubman (or "Moses", as she was called) "never lost a passenger".[3] After the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed, she helped guide fugitives farther north into British North America (Canada), and helped newly freed enslaved people find work. Tubman met John Brown in 1858, and helped him plan and recruit supporters for his 1859 raid on Harpers Ferry. Elizabeth Cady Stanton of ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, AMELIA BLOOMER, SOJOURNER TRUTH, HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN: FOUR AMERICAN PIONEERS OF BLACK RIGHTS AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS, Commemorated July 20; Cady Stanton (November 12, 1815 - October 26, 1902) was a leader of the women's rights movement in the U.S. during the mid- to late-1800s. and family Cady Stanton and her daughter, Harriot a young woman, Stanton traveled often to the home of her cousin, Gerrit Smith, who also lived in upstate New York. His views were very different from those of her conservative father. was an abolitionist and a member of the "Secret Six," a group of men who financed John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in an effort to spark an armed uprising of enslaved African Americans.[11] At Smith's home, she met Henry Brewster Stanton, a prominent abolitionist agent. her father's reservations, the couple married in 1840, omitting the word "obey" from the marriage ceremony. Stanton later wrote, "I obstinately refused to obey one with whom I supposed I was entering into an equal relation."[12] uncommon, this practice was not unheard of; Quakers had been omitting "obey" from the marriage ceremony for some time.[13] took her husband's surname as part of her own, signing herself Elizabeth Cady Stanton or E. Cady Stanton, but not Mrs. Henry B. Stanton. after returning from their European honeymoon, the Stantons moved into the Cady household in Johnstown. Henry Stanton studied law under his father-in-law until 1843, when the Stantons moved to Boston (Chelsea), Massachusetts, where Henry joined a law firm. While living in Boston, Elizabeth enjoyed the social, political, and intellectual stimulation that came with a constant round of abolitionist gatherings. Here, she was influenced by such people as Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison and Ralph Waldo Emerson.[14] In 1847, the Stantons moved to Seneca Falls, New York, in the Finger Lakes region. Their house, which is now a part of the Women's Rights National Historical Park, was purchased for them by Elizabeth's father.[15] Stanton house in Seneca Falls couple had seven children. At that time, child-bearing was considered to be a subject that should be handled with great delicacy. Stanton took a different approach, raising a flag in front of her house after giving birth, a red flag for a boy and a white one for a girl.[16] One of her daughters, Harriot Stanton Blatch, became, like her mother, a leader of the women's suffrage movement. Because of the spacing of their children's births, one historian has concluded that the Stantons must have used birth control methods. Stanton herself said her children were conceived by what she called "voluntary motherhood." In an era when it was commonly held that a wife must submit to her husband's sexual demands, Stanton believed that women should have command over their sexual relationships and childbearing.[17] She also said, however, that "a healthy woman has as much passion as a man."[18] encouraged both her sons and daughters to pursue a broad range of interests, activities, and learning.[19] She was remembered by her daughter Margaret as being "cheerful, sunny and indulgent."[20] She enjoyed motherhood and running a large household, but she found herself unsatisfied and even depressed by the lack of intellectual companionship and stimulation in Seneca Falls.[21] the 1850s, Henry's work as a lawyer and politician kept him away from home for nearly 10 months out of every year. This frustrated Elizabeth when the children were small, because it made it difficult for her to travel.[22] The pattern continued in later years, with husband and wife living apart more often than together, maintaining separate households for several years. Their marriage, which lasted 47 years, ended with Henry Stanton's death in 1887.[23] Henry and Elizabeth were staunch abolitionists, but Henry, like Elizabeth's father, disagreed with the idea of female suffrage.[24] One biographer described Henry as, "at best a halfhearted 'women's rights man.'"[25]

US, 1860-1918, DAMIEN and MARIANNE of MOLOKAI Island, Hawaii, Leprosy isolation, organized Ls, Marianne replaced D
Belgium, 1816-1918, DAMIEN and MARIANNE of MOLOKAI Island, Hawaii, Leprosy isolation, organized burial, grow crops, choir, medical, built chapel, Marianne from Germany, replaced D, miraculously did not get Leprosy; Molokai; DAMIEN and MARIANNE of MOLOKAI, PRIEST AND LEPER, 1889; RELIGIOUS 1918, Commemorated April 15 ; the 1800's, the Hawaiian Islands suffered a severe leprosy epidemic, which was dealt with largely by isolating lepers on the island of Molokai. were simply dumped there and left to fend for themselves. The crews of the boats carrying them there were afraid to land, so they simply came in close and forced the lepers to jump overboard and scramble through the surf as best they could. Ashore, they found no law and no organized society, simply desperate persons waiting for death. Belgian missionary priest, Joseph Van Veuster (Damien of the Fathers of the Sacred Heart), born in 1840, came to Hawaii in 1863, and in 1873 was sent at his own request to Molokai to work among the lepers. organized burial details and funeral services, so that death might have some dignity. He taught the people how to grow crops and feed themselves better. He organized a choir, and got persons to sing who had not sung in years. He gave them medical attention. doctors had been making regular visits, but they were afraid of contagion, and would not come close to the patients. They inspected their sores from a distance and then left medicines on a table and fled. Damien personally washed and anointed and bandaged their sores.) was already a small chapel on the island. It proved too small, and with the aid of patients he built a larger one, which soon overflowed every Sunday. Damien contracted leprosy himself in 1885, and continued to work there until his death on 15 April 1889. — by James Kiefer; more at Wikipedia Marianne Cope Marianne Cope (January 23, 1838 – August 9, 1918), was a Franciscan nun of the Sisters of the Third Order of Saint Francis, a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church. in Heppenheim (Germany) and entered religious life in Syracuse, New York, she worked, lived and died for the lepers on the island of Moloka'i in Hawai'i. She was not herself afflicted by the disease, a fact arguably declared to be miraculous considering her close contact with the patients over the course of several years. the age of three her family moved from Germany to the United States, settling in Utica, New York. After joining the Franciscans, she spent nearly a decade as a teacher and then principal in newly established schools for German immigrants. She was also a founding member of two of the first Catholic hospitals in the United States. November 1883, Mother Marianne, then Provincial Mother, traveled from Syracuse to Honolulu with six other nuns to answer a call for aid to the Hansen's disease sufferers. In 1888, she moved to Kalaupapa to help the ailing Father Damien of Moloka'i. When the famed priest died, Mother Marianne Cope took over the care of the patients of Kalaupapa. She remained there until her death in 1918. — more at Wikipedia

US, 1860-1912, LOTTIE MOON, direct evangelism, woman to w, china missionary 40 years, Chinese culture and clothes helped
Virginia, 1860-1912, LOTTIE MOON, Viewmont, in Albemarle County, Virginia (Rivanna River 1), direct evangelism, woman to woman, southern slave plantation, master of Arts 1861, china missionary 40 years 1873-1912, taking on Chinese culture and clothes helped; Viewmont, in Albemarle County, Virgini; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ; Digges "Lottie" Moon (December 12, 1840 – December 24 , 1912) was a Southern Baptist missionary to China with the Foreign Mission Board who spent nearly forty years (1873-1912) helping the Chinese. As a teacher and evangelist she laid a foundation for traditionally solid support for missions among Baptists in America. was born to affluent parents who were staunch Baptists, on the family's ancestral fifteen-hundred-acre slave-labor tobacco plantation called Viewmont, in Albemarle County, Virginia. Moon family valued education, and at age fourteen Lottie went to school at the Baptist-affiliated Virginia Female Seminary (high school, later Hollins Institute) and Albemarle Female Institute in Charlottesville, Virginia. 1861 Moon received one of the first Master of Arts degrees awarded to a woman by a southern institution. underwent a spiritual awakening at the age of 18, after a series of revival meetings on the college campus. On July 7, 1873, the Foreign Mission Board officially appointed Lottie as a missionary to China. joined her sister Edmonia at the North China Mission Station in the treaty port of Dengzhou, and began her ministry by teaching in a girls school. (Edmonia had to return home a short time later for health reasons.) accompanying some of the seasoned missionary wives on “country visits” to outlying villages, Lottie discovered her passion: direct evangelism. mission work at that time was done by married men, but the wives of China missionaries Tarleton Perry Crawford and Landrum Holmes had discovered an important reality: women could reach Chinese women. Lottie soon became frustrated, convinced that her talent was being wasted and could be better put to use in evangelism and church planting. Lottie wrote: we wonder at the mortal weariness and disgust, the sense of wasted powers and the conviction that her life is a failure, that comes over a woman when, instead of the ever broadening activities that she had planned, she finds herself tied down to the petty work of teaching a few girls? in a family “of culture and means,” Lottie at first thought of the Chinese as an inferior people, and insisted on wearing American clothes to maintain a degree of distance from the “heathen” people. gradually she came to realize that the more she shed her westernized trappings and identified with the Chinese people, the more their simple curiosity about foreigners (and sometimes rejection) turned into genuine interest in the Gospel. began wearing Chinese clothes, adopted Chinese customs, learned to be sensitive to Chinese culture, and came to respect and admire Chinese culture and learning. In turn she gained love and respect from many Chinese people. Moon has come to personify the missionary spirit for Southern Baptists and many other Christians, as well. The annual Lottie Moon Christmas Offering for Missions has raised a total of $1.5 billion for missions since 1888, and finances half the entire Southern Baptist missions budget every year. more from Wikipedia

US, 1861-1865, President, Abraham Lincoln, preserved Union, abolished slavery, modernized economy, killed
US President, 1861-1865, Abraham Lincoln ; Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil War, the country's greatest moral, cultural, constitutional, and political crisis. He succeeded in preserving the Union, abolishing slavery, bolstering the federal government, and modernizing the U.S. economy. was born into poverty in a log cabin and was raised on the frontier primarily in Indiana. was self-educated and became a lawyer, Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator, and U.S. Congressman from Illinois. 1849, he returned to his law practice but became vexed by the opening of additional lands to slavery as a result of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. reentered politics in 1854, becoming a leader in the new Republican Party, and he reached a national audience in the 1858 debates against Stephen Douglas. ran for President in 1860, sweeping the North in victory. Pro-slavery elements in the South equated his success with the North's rejection of their right to practice slavery, and southern states began seceding from the Union. secure its independence, the new Confederate States fired on Fort Sumter, a U.S. fort in the South, and Lincoln called up forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the Union. a moderate Republican, had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from both the Democratic and Republican parties. His allies, the War Democrats and the Radical Republicans, demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. Anti-war Democrats (called "Copperheads") despised Lincoln, and irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements plotted his assassination. He managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. His Gettysburg Address appealed to nationalistic, republican, egalitarian, libertarian, and democratic sentiments. scrutinized the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals and the naval blockade of the South's trade. He suspended habeas corpus in Maryland, and he averted British intervention by defusing the Trent Affair. engineered the end to slavery with his Emancipation Proclamation, including his order that the Army and Navy liberate, protect, and recruit former slaves. He also encouraged border states to outlaw slavery, and promoted the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which outlawed slavery across the country. managed his own successful re-election campaign. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just days after the war's end at Appomattox, he was attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., with his wife Mary when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. is remembered as a martyr and hero of the United States and is consistently ranked as one of the greatest presidents in American history. SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; HARRIET STARR CANNON, RELIGIOUS, 1896, Commemorated May 7; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1863-1869,Transcontinental Railroad, Alameda, CA, Council Bluffs, IA, New York, NY
US, 1863-1869,Transcontinental Railroad

Transcontinental Railroad, I80, Alameda, CA, Council Bluffs, IA, New York, NY

Alameda,Transcontinental Railroad, CA to Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB and on, Interstate 80
Alameda,Transcontinental Railroad, CA to Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB and on, Interstate 80 America's first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the "Pacific Railroad" and later as the "Overland Route") was a 1,911-mile (3,075 km) continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay.[1] The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants.[2] Construction was financed by both state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds.[3][4][5][N 1] The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi (212 km) of track from the road's western terminus at Alameda/Oakland to Sacramento, California. The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California (CPRR) constructed 690 mi (1,110 km) east wm Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. The Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR) built 1,085 mi (1,746 km) from the road's eastern terminus at the Missouri River settlements of Council Bluffs and Omaha, Nebraska westward to Promontory Summit.[7][8][9] railroad opened for through traffic between Sacramento and Omaha on May 10, 1869, when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially tapped the gold "Last Spike" (later often referred to as the "Golden Spike") with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit.[10][11] [N 2] In the following six months, the last leg from Sacramento to San Francisco Bay was completed. The resulting coast-to-coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West.[N 3][N 4] It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker, safer and less expensive. first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus at the Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf, about a mile to the north, when its expansion was completed and opened for passengers on November 8, 1869.[15][16][N 5] Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry. CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles (85 km) of UPRR-built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, Utah Territory (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line became popularly known as the Overland Route after the name of the principal passenger rail service to Chicago that operated over the length of the line until 1962.[19]

Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, Transcontinental Railroad from Alameda, CA, on Interstate 80
Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, Transcontinental Railroad from Alameda, CA, on Interstate 80 Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, Transcontinental Railroad from Alameda, CA, on Interstate 80 America's first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the "Pacific Railroad" and later as the "Overland Route") was a 1,911-mile (3,075 km) continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay.[1] The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants.[2] Construction was financed by both state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds.[3][4][5][N 1] The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi (212 km) of track from the road's western terminus at Alameda/Oakland to Sacramento, California. The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California (CPRR) constructed 690 mi (1,110 km) east wm Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. The Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR) built 1,085 mi (1,746 km) from the road's eastern terminus at the Missouri River settlements of Council Bluffs and Omaha, Nebraska westward to Promontory Summit.[7][8][9] railroad opened for through traffic between Sacramento and Omaha on May 10, 1869, when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially tapped the gold "Last Spike" (later often referred to as the "Golden Spike") with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit.[10][11] [N 2] In the following six months, the last leg from Sacramento to San Francisco Bay was completed. The resulting coast-to-coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West.[N 3][N 4] It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker, safer and less expensive. first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus at the Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf, about a mile to the north, when its expansion was completed and opened for passengers on November 8, 1869.[15][16][N 5] Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry. CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles (85 km) of UPRR-built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, Utah Territory (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line became popularly known as the Overland Route after the name of the principal passenger rail service to Chicago that operated over the length of the line until 1962.[19]

New York, NY,Transcontinentla RWY, to Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, to Alameda, CA, I80
New York, NY,Transcontinentla RWY, to Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, to Alameda, CA, I80 America's first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the "Pacific Railroad" and later as the "Overland Route") was a 1,911-mile (3,075 km) continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay.[1] The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants.[2] Construction was financed by both state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds.[3][4][5][N 1] The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi (212 km) of track from the road's western terminus at Alameda/Oakland to Sacramento, California. The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California (CPRR) constructed 690 mi (1,110 km) east wm Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. The Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR) built 1,085 mi (1,746 km) from the road's eastern terminus at the Missouri River settlements of Council Bluffs and Omaha, Nebraska westward to Promontory Summit.[7][8][9] railroad opened for through traffic between Sacramento and Omaha on May 10, 1869, when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially tapped the gold "Last Spike" (later often referred to as the "Golden Spike") with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit.[10][11] [N 2] In the following six months, the last leg from Sacramento to San Francisco Bay was completed. The resulting coast-to-coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West.[N 3][N 4] It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker, safer and less expensive. first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus at the Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf, about a mile to the north, when its expansion was completed and opened for passengers on November 8, 1869.[15][16][N 5] Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry. CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles (85 km) of UPRR-built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, Utah Territory (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line became popularly known as the Overland Route after the name of the principal passenger rail service to Chicago that operated over the length of the line until 1962.[19]

US, 1863-1885, Central Pacific Railroad, western transcontinental, acquired by Southern Pacific 1885
Southern Pacific Railroad; Central Pacific Railroad

Chicago, IL Southern Pacific Railroad

St. Louis, MO, SPCSL, Souther Pacific Railroad

Chicago, St Louis, Kansas City, Southern Pacific Railroad

Kansas City, MO, SSW, Southern Pacific Railroad

Kansas City, Tucumcari, Southern Pacific Railroad

Tucumcari, NM, SSW, Southern Pacific Railroad

El Paso Tocumcari, Southern Pacific Railroad

El Paso, TX, SSW, Southern Pacific Railroad

Nogales, AZ, Southern Pacific Railroad

Nogales Loop, Southern Pacific Railroad

Tucson, AZ, Southern Pacific Railroad

Phoenix, AZ, Souther Pacific Railroad

El Paso to Yuma, Southern Pacific Railroad

Yuma, AZ, Southern Pacific Railroad

Yuma to Los Angeles, Southern Pacific Railroad

Los Angeles, CA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Yuma to San Diego Spur, Southern Pacific Railroad

San Diego, CA, Souther Pacific Railroad Spur

LA to Watsonville near Fresno, Southern Pacific Railroad

Watsonville to Willis, Southern Pacific Railway

Oakland, CA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Watsonville, Oakland, Sacramento to Klamath Falls, Southern Pacific Railroad

Sacramento, CA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Mount Shasta, CA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Klamath Falls, OR, Southern Pacific Railroad

Eugene, OR, Southern Pacific Railroad

Klamath, Eugene, Salem Beaverton to Portland, South Pacific Railroad

Portland, OR, Southern Pacific Railroad

New Orleans, LA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Baton Rouge, LA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Sabine River

Houston, TX, Southern Pacific Railroad

Brazos River

Colorado River (Texas)

San Antonio to New Orleans, Southern Pacific Railroad

San Antonio, TX, Southern Pacific Railroad

Continental Divide - Llano Escatado

Devils River (Texas)

Pecos River

El Paso to San Antonio, Southern Pacific Railroad

El Paso, TX, Sunset Route, Southern Pacific Railroad

US, 1864-1924, Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, evangelism and healing hand in hand, trance-like spiritual experiences
US, 1864-1924, Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, New Lisbon, OH (Mahoning River Source), evangelism and healing hand in hand, trance-like spiritual experiences; New Lisbon, OH; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Buelah Woodworth-Etter (July 22, 1844–September 16, 1924) was an American healing evangelist. Her ministry style was a model for Pentecostalism.[1] was born in New Lisbon, Columbiana County, Ohio, as Mariah Beulah Underwood. was born again at the beginning of the Third Great Awakening at the age of thirteen. immediately heard the call of God and dedicated her life to the Lord. her calling she would later write, "I heard the voice of Jesus calling me to go out in the highways and hedges and gather in the lost sheep." 1863, she married Philo Horace Woodworth, whom she divorced for infidelity in 1891. had six children with Woodworth, five of whom died young. 1902, she married Samuel Etter, who died in 1914.[2] studied the scriptures and began preaching the Lord's divine will in healing. It didn't take long to see that evangelism and healing went hand in hand as thousands were won to Christ as a result of seeing others healed. Sister Etter pioneered the way for Pentecostal manifestations that are so common in Charismatic and Pentecostal groups today. earliest exposure to religion was through a local Disciples of Christ congregation. After her marriage, she chose to enter evangelistic ministry. Prohibited from public preaching among the Disciples, she found support in a local Quaker meeting. was while associating with the Quakers that she received the baptism in the Holy Spirit while praying for an "anointing for service".[1] this experience, she began to preach. hundreds of conversions, her campaigns attracted reporters from across the country. She was briefly affiliated with the Brethren in Christ but eventually joined the Church of God of the General Eldership founded by John Winebrenner. was dismissed from the Church of God in 1904.[1] began to pray for the sick in 1885, believing that those with sufficient faith would be healed. Her meetings also became known for people falling to the floor in trance-like states. people would later report profound spiritual experiences while in such a state. she preached throughout the nation, her reputation grew, leading her to purchase an 8,000-seat tent in which to conduct her services. 1912 she joined the young Pentecostal movement and preached widely in Pentecostal circles until her death, helping found the Assemblies of God in 1914.[1][3] 1918 she founded what is today Lakeview Church (Temple) of Indianapolis, Indiana.[2]

US, 1865-1869, President, Andrew Johnson, southern democrat, chosen VP for national unity, tried to reverse reconstruction
US President, 1865-1869, Andrew Johnson ; Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 17th president of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. He assumed the presidency as he was vice president at the time of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. was a Democrat who ran with Lincoln on the National Union ticket, coming to office as the Civil War concluded. He favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union without protection for the former slaves. This led to conflict with the Republican-dominated Congress, culminating in his impeachment by the House of Representatives in 1868. He was acquitted in the Senate by one vote. was born into poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina, and he never attended school. He was apprenticed as a tailor and worked in several frontier towns before settling in Greeneville, Tennessee. served as alderman and mayor there before being elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1835. brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the House of Representatives in 1843, where he served five two-year terms. became governor of Tennessee for four years, and was elected by the legislature to the Senate in 1857. his congressional service, he sought passage of the Homestead Bill which was enacted soon after he left his Senate seat in 1862. slave states seceded to form the Confederate States of America, including Tennessee, but Johnson remained firmly with the Union. He was the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon learning of his state's secession. 1862, Lincoln appointed him as Military Governor of Tennessee after most of it had been retaken. In 1864, Johnson was a logical choice as running mate for Lincoln, who wished to send a message of national unity in his re-election campaign; and became vice president after a victorious election in 1864. implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction, a series of proclamations directing the seceded states to hold conventions and elections to reform their civil governments. Southern states returned many of their old leaders and passed Black Codes to deprive the freedmen of many civil liberties, Congressional Republicans refused to seat legislators from those states and advanced legislation to overrule the Southern actions. Johnson vetoed their bills, and Congressional Republicans overrode him, setting a pattern for the remainder of his presidency.[1] opposed the Fourteenth Amendment which gave citizenship to former slaves. In 1866, he went on an unprecedented national tour promoting his executive policies, seeking to break Republican opposition.[2] the conflict grew between the branches of government, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act restricting Johnson's ability to fire Cabinet officials. He persisted in trying to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, but ended up being impeached by the House of Representatives and narrowly avoided conviction in the Senate. He did not win the 1868 Democratic presidential nomination and left office the following year. returned to Tennessee after his presidency and gained some vindication when he was elected to the Senate in 1875, making him the only former president to serve in the Senate. He died five months into his term. strong opposition to federally guaranteed rights for black Americans is widely criticized; he is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in American history. SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3 ; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1869-1877, President, Ulysses S. Grant, stabilized post-war economy, supported black vote right, crushed Ku Klux Klan
US President, 1869-1877, Ulysses S. Grant ; S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant; /ˈhaɪrəm juːˈlɪsiːz/ HY-rəm yoo-LIS-eez; April 27, 1822 – July 23, 1885) was an American military leader who served as the 18th president of the United States from 1869 to 1877. As president, Grant was an effective civil rights executive who created the Justice Department and worked with the Radical Republicans to protect African Americans during Reconstruction. As Commanding General, he led the Union Army to victory in the American Civil War in 1865 and thereafter briefly served as Secretary of War. in Ohio, Grant possessed an exceptional ability with horses, which served him well through his military career. He was admitted to West Point, graduated 21st in the class of 1843 and served with distinction in the Mexican–American War. In 1848, he married Julia Dent, and together they had four children. Grant abruptly resigned his army commission in 1854 and returned to his family, but lived in poverty for seven years. joined the Union Army after the Civil War broke out in 1861 and rose to prominence after winning several early Union victories on the Western Theater. In 1863 he led the Vicksburg campaign, which gained control of the Mississippi River. Abraham Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general after his victory at Chattanooga. For thirteen months, Grant fought Robert E. Lee during the high-casualty Overland Campaign and at Petersburg. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox. A week later, Lincoln was assassinated and was succeeded by President Andrew Johnson, who promoted Grant to General of the Army in 1866. Grant openly broke with Johnson over Reconstruction policies; Grant used the Reconstruction Acts, which had been passed over Johnson's veto, to enforce civil rights for recently freed African Americans. war hero, drawn in by his sense of duty, Grant was unanimously nominated by the Republican Party and was elected president in 1868. president, Grant stabilized the post-war national economy, supported ratification of the 15th Amendment, and crushed the Ku Klux Klan. appointed African Americans and Jewish Americans to prominent federal offices. 1871, Grant created the first Civil Service Commission, advancing civil service more than any prior president. Liberal Republicans and Democrats united behind Grant's opponent in the presidential election of 1872, but Grant was handily re-elected. Native American policy was to assimilate Indians into the White culture; the Great Sioux War was fought during his term. foreign policy was mostly peaceful, without war, the Alabama claims against Great Britain skillfully resolved, but his prized Caribbean Dominican Republic annexation was rejected by the Senate. Grant administration is traditionally known for prevalent scandals, but modern scholarship has better appreciated Grant's appointed reformers and prosecutions. appointed reformers, such as John Brooks Henderson and David Dyer, who prosecuted the Whiskey Ring. Other reformers Grant appointed included Benjamin Bristow and Edwards Pierrepont, who served as Grant's anti-corruption team. Grant also prosecuted immoral Morman polygamists (1871) and abortionists (1873–1877). Panic of 1873 plunged the nation into a severe economic depression that allowed the Democrats to win the House majority. In the intensely disputed presidential election of 1876, Grant facilitated the approval by Congress of a peaceful compromise. his retirement, Grant was the first president to circumnavigate the world on his tour, dining with Queen Victoria and meeting many prominent foreign leaders. In 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term. In the final year of his life, facing severe financial reversals and dying of throat cancer, he wrote his memoirs, which proved to be a major critical and financial success. At the time of his death, he was memorialized as a symbol of national unity. Grant was a modern general and "a skillful leader who had a natural grasp of tactics and strategy". assessments of his presidency have improved over time; he was ranked 38th in 1994 and 1996 but ranked 21st in 2018 and 24th in 2021. Although critical of scandals and Grant's loyal defense of culprits, modern historians have emphasized his two-term presidential accomplishments. These included his protection of African American civil rights, prosecution of the Klan, innovative Native American policy, and the settlement of the Alabama claims. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3 ; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1869,Transcontinental Railroad, Alameda, CA, Council Bluffs, IA, New York, NY

US, 1870-1883, Northern Pacific Railway - from Midwest to Bozeman Pass
Northern Pacific Railway; Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly forty million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km2) of land grants, which it used to raise money in Europe for construction. began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific when former President Ulysses S. Grant drove in the final "golden spike" in western Montana on September 8, 1883. railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the NP had an international branch to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land. Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the NP merged with other lines in 1970 to form the Burlington Northern Railroad, which in turn merged with the Santa Fe Railway to become the BNSF Railway in 1996. Map of NPR Land Grant, c1890 chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864, with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the Pacific, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking Washington and Oregon to the rest of the country.[1] granted the railroad a potential 60 million acres (243,000 km2) of land in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864.[1] It could not use all the land and in the end took just under 40 million acres.[2] Cooke takes control[edit] the next six years, backers of the road struggled to find financing. Though John Gregory Smith succeeded Perham as president on January 5, 1865, groundbreaking did not take place until February 15, 1870, at Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota. backing and promotions of famed financier Jay Cooke in the summer of 1870 brought the first real momentum to the company. The Minnetonka. Over the course of 1871, the Northern Pacific pushed westward from Minnesota into present-day North Dakota. Surveyors and construction crews had to maneuver through swamps, bogs, and tamarack forests. The difficult terrain and insufficient funding delayed by six months the construction phase in Minnesota.[3] NP also began building its line north from Kalama, Washington Territory, on the Columbia River outside of Portland, Oregon, towards Puget Sound. small construction engines were purchased, the Minnetonka, Itaska, Ottertail and St. Cloud, the first of which was shipped to Kalama by ship around Cape Horn. Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad completed construction of its 155-mile (249 km) line stretching from Saint Paul to Lake Superior at Duluth in 1870. It was leased to the Northern Pacific in 1876, and was eventually absorbed by the Northern Pacific. The North Coast Limited was the Northern Pacific's flagship train and the Northern Pacific itself was built along the trail first blazed by Lewis and Clark.[4] Preferred Shares of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company, issued 28. November 1881 Northern Pacific reached Fargo, Dakota Territory (N.D.), early in June 1872. The following year, in June 1873, the N.P. reached the shores of the Missouri River, at Edwinton (Bismarck) D.T. In the west, the track extended 25 miles (40 km) north from Kalama. Surveys were carried out in North Dakota protected by 600 troops under General Winfield Scott Hancock. Headquarters and shops were established in Brainerd, Minnesota, a town named for the President John Gregory Smith's wife Anna Elizabeth Brainerd. A severe stock market crash and financial collapse after 1873, led by the Credit Mobilier Scandal and the Union Pacific Railroad fraud, stopped further railroad building for twelve years. 1886, the company put down 164 miles (264 km) of main line across North Dakota, with an additional 45 miles (72 km) in Washington. November 1, General George Washington Cass became the third president of the company. Cass had been a vice-president and director of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and would lead the Northern Pacific through some of its most difficult times. on survey parties and construction crews by Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa warriors in North Dakota and Minnesota became so prevalent that the company received protection from units of the U.S. Army.[5] 1886, the Northern Pacific also opened colonization offices in Germany and Scandinavia, attracting farmers with cheap package transportation and purchase deals. The success of the NP was based on the abundant crops of wheat and other grains and the attraction to settlers of the Red River Valley along the Minnesota-North Dakota border between 1881 and 1890.[6] Northern Pacific reached Dakota Territory at Fargo in 1872, and began its career as one of the central factors in the economic growth of North Dakota. The climate, although very cold, was suitable for wheat, which was in high demand in the cities of the United States and Europe. Most of the settlers were German and Scandinavian immigrants who bought the land cheaply, and raised large families. They shipped huge quantities of wheat to Minneapolis, while buying all sorts of equipment and home supplies to be shipped in by rail.[7] NP used its federal land grants as security to borrow money to build its system.[8] federal government kept every other section of land, and gave it away free to homesteaders. first the railroad sold much of its holdings at low prices to land speculators in order to realize quick cash profits, and also to eliminate sizable annual tax bills. 1905 the railroad company's land policies changed, after it was judged a costly mistake to have sold much of the land at wholesale prices. better railroad service and improved methods of farming the Northern Pacific easily sold what had been heretofore "worthless" land directly to farmers at good prices. 1910 the railroad's holdings in North Dakota had been greatly reduced.[9][10] of 1873 and first bankruptcy[edit] 1873, Northern Pacific made impressive strides before a terrible stumble. Rails from the east reached the Missouri River on June 4. After several years of study, Tacoma, Washington, was selected as the road's western terminus on July 14, 1873. the previous three years the financial house of Jay Cooke and Company had been throwing money into the construction of the Northern Pacific. As with many western transcontinentals, the staggering costs of building a railroad into a vast wilderness had been drastically underestimated. Cooke had little success in marketing the bonds in Europe and overextended his house in meeting overdrafts of the mounting construction costs. Cooke overestimated his managerial skills and failed to appreciate the limits of a banker's ability to be also a promoter, and the danger of freezing his assets in the bonds of the Northern Pacific.[11] and Company went bankrupt on September 18, 1873. Soon the Panic of 1873 engulfed the United States, beginning an economic depression that ruined or nearly paralyzed newer railroads. Northern Pacific survived bankruptcy that year, due to austerity measures put in place by President Cass. In fact, working with last-minute loans from Director John C. Ainsworth of Portland, the Northern Pacific completed the line from Kalama to Tacoma (110 miles (180 km)) before the end of 1873. On December 16, the first steam train arrived in Tacoma. But in 1874 the company was moribund.[clarification needed] Pacific slipped into its first bankruptcy on June 30, 1875. Cass resigned to become receiver of the company, and Charles Barstow Wright became its fourth president. Frederick Billings, namesake of Billings, Montana, formulated a reorganization plan which was put into effect. 1874 to 1876, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer operating out of Forts Abraham Lincoln and Rice in Dakota Territory conducted expeditions to protect the railroad survey and construction crews in Dakota and Montana Territories.[citation needed] Billings and first reorganization[edit] 1877, construction resumed in a small way. Northern Pacific pushed a branch line southeast from Tacoma to Puyallup, Washington and on to the coal fields around Wilkeson, Washington. Much of the coal was destined for export through Tacoma to San Francisco, California, where it would be thrown into the fireboxes of Central Pacific Railroad steam engines. small amount of construction was one of the largest projects the company would undertake in the years between 1874 and 1880. That same year the company built a large shop complex at Edison, Washington (now part of south Tacoma). For many years the shops at Brainerd and Edison would carry out heavy repairs and build equipment for the railroad. May 24, 1879, Frederick H. Billings became the president of the company. Billings' tenure would be short but ferocious. Reorganization, bond sales, and improvement in the U.S. economy allowed Northern Pacific to strike out across the Missouri River by letting a contract to build 100 miles (160 km) of railroad west of the river. The railroad's new-found strength, however, would be seen as a threat in certain quarters. Henry Villard, Gold Creek, Gold Spike[edit] Yellowstone Park Line Brochure 1904 and Transcontinental stock owned by Henry Villard. journalist Henry Villard had raised capital for western railroads in Europe from 1871 to 1873. After returning to New York in 1874 he invested on behalf of his clients in railroads in Oregon. Through Villard's work, most of these lines became properties of the European creditors' holding company, the Oregon and Transcontinental Company. the lines held by the Oregon and Transcontinental, the most important was the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which ran east from Portland along the left bank of the Columbia River to a connection with the Union Pacific Railroad's Oregon Short Line at the confluence of the Columbia River and the Snake River near Wallula, Washington. a decade of his return, Villard was head of a transportation empire in the Pacific Northwest that had but one real competitor, the Northern Pacific. The Northern Pacific's completion threatened the holdings of Villard in the Northwest, and especially in Portland. Portland would become a second-class city if the Puget Sound ports at Tacoma and Seattle, Washington, were connected to the East by rail. who had been building a monopoly of river and rail transportation in Oregon for several years, now launched a daring raid. Using his European connections and a reputation for having "bested" Jay Gould in a battle for control of the Kansas Pacific years before, Villard solicited – and raised – $8,000,000 from his associates. This was his famous "Blind Pool," Villard's associates were not told what the money would be used for. In this case, the funds were used to purchase control of the Northern Pacific. a tough fight, Billings and his backers were forced to capitulate; he resigned the presidency June 9, 1881. Ashbel H. Barney, former President of Wells Fargo & Company, served briefly as interim caretaker of the railroad from June 19 to September 15, when Villard was elected president by the stockholders. For the next two years, Villard and the Northern Pacific rode the whirlwind. 1882, 360 miles (580 km) of main line and 368 miles (592 km) of branch line were completed, bringing totals to 1,347 miles (2,168 km) and 731 miles (1,176 km), respectively. October 10, 1882, the line from Wadena, Minnesota, to Fergus Falls, Minnesota, opened for service. The Missouri River was bridged with a million-dollar span on October 21, 1883. Until then, crossing of the Missouri had had to be managed with a ferry service for most of the year; in winter, when ice was thick enough, rails were laid across the river itself. Herman Haupt, another veteran of the Civil War and the Pennsylvania Railroad, organized the Northern Pacific Beneficial Association in 1881. A forerunner of the modern health maintenance organization, the NPBA ultimately established a series of four hospitals across the system in Saint Paul, Minnesota; Glendive, Montana; Missoula, Montana; and Tacoma, Washington, to care for employees, retirees, and their families. January 15, 1883, the first train reached Livingston, Montana, at the eastern foot of Bozeman Pass. Livingston, like Brainerd and South Tacoma before it, would grow to encompass a large backshop handling heavy repairs for the railroad. It would also mark the east–west dividing line on the Northern Pacific system. pushed hard for the completion of the Northern Pacific in 1883. His crews laid an average of a mile and half (2.4 km) of track each day. In early September, the line neared completion. celebrate, and to gain national publicity for investment opportunities in his region, Villard chartered four trains to carry guests from the East to Gold Creek in western Montana. No expense was spared and the list of dignitaries included Frederick Billings, Ulysses S. Grant, and Villard's in-laws, the family of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. On September 8, the Gold Spike was driven near Gold Creek.[12] to Puget Sound[edit] fall was swifter than his ascendancy. Like Jay Cooke, he was now consumed by the enormous costs of constructing the railroad. Street bears attacked the stock shortly after the Golden Spike, after the realization that the Northern Pacific was a very long road with very little business. himself suffered a nervous breakdown in the days after the driving of the Golden Spike, and he left the presidency of the Northern Pacific in January 1884. the presidency of the Northern Pacific was handed to a professional railroader, Robert Harris, former head of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. For the next four years, until the return of the Villard group, Harris worked at improving the property and ending its tangled relationship with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. the mid-1880s, the Northern Pacific pushed to reach Puget Sound directly, rather than by means of a roundabout route that followed the Columbia River. of the Cascade Mountains, carried out intermittently since the 1870s, began anew. Virgil Bogue, a veteran civil engineer, was sent to explore the Cascades again. On March 19, 1881, he discovered Stampede Pass. 1883, John W. Sprague, the head of the new Pacific Division, drove the Golden Spike to mark the beginning of the railroad from what would become Kalama, Washington. He resigned a months later due to impaired health. 1884, after the departure of Villard, the Northern Pacific began building toward Stampede Pass from Wallula in the east and the area of Wilkeson in the west. By the end of the year, rails had reached Yakima, Washington in the east. A 77-mile (124 km) gap remained in 1886. January of that year, Nelson Bennett was given a contract to construct a 9,850-foot (1.866 mi; 3.00 km) tunnel under Stampede Pass. The contract specified a short amount of time for completion, and a large penalty if the deadline were missed. While crews worked on the tunnel, the railroad built a temporary switchback route across the pass. With numerous timber trestles and grades which approached six percent, the temporary line required two M class 2-10-0s — the two largest locomotives in the world (at that time) — to handle a tiny five-car train. On May 3, 1888, crews holed through the tunnel, and on May 27 the first train passed through directly to Puget Sound. and the Panic of 1893[edit] this success, the Northern Pacific, like many U.S. roads, was living on borrowed time. From 1887 until 1893, Henry Villard returned to the board of directors. Though offered the presidency, he refused. An associate of Villard dating back to his time on the Kansas Pacific, Thomas Fletcher Oakes, assumed the presidency on September 20, 1888. an effort to garner business, Oakes pursued an aggressive policy of branch line expansion. addition, the Northern Pacific experienced the first competition in the form of James Jerome Hill and his Great Northern Railway. The Great Northern, like the Northern Pacific before it, was pushing west from the Twin Cities towards Puget Sound, and would be completed in 1893. sparse traffic, and the Panic of 1893 sounded the death knell for the Northern Pacific and Villard's interest in railroading. The company slipped into its second bankruptcy on October 20, 1893. Oakes was named receiver and Brayton Ives, a former chairman of the New York Stock Exchange, became president. labor dispute[edit] 1894, the 10th Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army was involved in protecting property of the Northern Pacific Railroad from striking workers.[13] Villard to Morganization[edit] the next three years, the Villard-Oakes interests and the Ives interest feuded for control of the Northern Pacific. Oakes was eventually forced out as receiver, but not before three separate courts were claiming jurisdiction over the Northern Pacific's bankruptcy. Things came to a head in 1896, when first Edward Dean Adams was appointed president, then less than two months later, Edwin Winter. the task of straightening out the muddle of the Northern Pacific was turned over to J. P. Morgan. Morganization of the Northern Pacific, a process which befell many U.S. roads in the wake of the Panic of 1893, was handed to Morgan lieutenant Charles Henry Coster. The new president, beginning September 1, 1897, was Charles Sanger Mellen.[14] James J. Hill had purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific during the troubled days of 1896, Coster and Mellen would advocate, and follow, a staunchly independent line for the Northern Pacific for the next four years. Only the early death of Coster from overwork, and the promotion of Mellen to head the Morgan-controlled New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1903, would bring the Northern Pacific closer to the orbit of James J. Hill.[15] Map of Northern Pacific's route circa 1900. Hill, Harriman and the Northern Pacific Corner[edit] the late 1880s, the Villard regime, in another one of its costly missteps, attempted to stretch the Northern Pacific from the Twin Cities to the all-important rail hub of Chicago, Illinois. A costly project was begun in creating a union station and terminal facilities for a Northern Pacific which had yet to arrive. than build directly down to Chicago, perhaps following the Mississippi River as the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy had done, Villard chose to lease the Wisconsin Central. Some backers of the Wisconsin Central had long associations with Villard, and an expensive lease was worked out between the two companies which was only undone by the Northern Pacific's second bankruptcy. ultimate result was that the Northern Pacific was left without a direct connection to Chicago, the primary interchange point for most of the large U.S. railroads. Fortunately, the Northern Pacific was not alone. James J. Hill, controller of the Great Northern Railway, which was completed between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound in 1893, also lacked a direct connection to Chicago. Hill went looking for a road with an existing route between the Twin Cities and Chicago which could be rolled into his holdings and give him a stable path to that important interchange. the same time, E. H. Harriman, head of the Union Pacific Railroad, was also looking for a road which could connect his company to Chicago. The road both Harriman and Hill looked at was the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. Harriman, the Burlington was a road which paralleled much of his own, and offered tantalizing direct access to Chicago. For Hill as well, there was the possibility of a high-speed link directly with Chicago. Though the Burlington did not parallel the Great Northern or the Northern Pacific, it would give them a powerful railroad in the central West. was the first to approach the Burlington's aging leader, the irascible Charles Elliott Perkins. The price for control of the Burlington, as set by Perkins, was $200 a share, more than Harriman was willing to pay. met the price, and control of the Burlington was divided equally at about 48.5 percent each between the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific. to be outdone, Harriman now came up with a crafty plan: Buy a controlling interest in the Northern Pacific and use its power on the Burlington to place friendly directors upon its board. On May 3, 1901, Harriman began his stock raid which would become known as the Northern Pacific Corner. the end of the day he was short just 40,000 shares of common stock. Harriman placed an order to cover this, but was overridden by his broker, Jacob Schiff, of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. on the other hand, reached the vacationing Morgan in Italy and managed to place an order for 150,000 shares of common stock. Though Harriman might be able to control the preferred stock, Hill knew the company bylaws allowed for the holders of the common stock to vote to retire the preferred. three days the Harriman-Hill imbroglio managed to wreak havoc on the stock market. Northern Pacific stock was quoted at $150 a share on May 6, and is reported to have traded as much as $1,000 a share behind the scenes. Harriman and Hill now worked to settle the issue for brokers to avoid panic. Hill, for his part, attempted to avoid future stock raids by placing his holdings in the Northern Securities Company, a move which would be undone by the Supreme Court in 1904 under the auspices of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. was not immune either; he was forced to break up his holdings in the Union Pacific Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad a few years later. Hill to Howard Elliott[edit] 1903, Hill finally got his way with the House of Morgan. Howard Elliott, another veteran of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, became president of the Northern Pacific on October 23. Elliott was a relative of the Burlington's crusty chieftain Charles Elliott Perkins, and more distantly the Burlington's great backer, John Murray Forbes. He had spent 20 years in the trenches of Midwest railroading, where rebates, pooling, expansion and rate wars had brought ruinous competition. Having seen the effects of having multiple railroads attempt to serve the same destination, he was very much in tune with James J. Hill's philosophy of "community of interest," a loose affiliation or collusion among roads in an attempt to avoid duplicating routes, rate wars, weak finances and ultimately bankruptcies and reorganizations. would be left to make peace with the Hill-controlled Great Northern; the Harriman-controlled Union Pacific; and, between 1907 and 1909, the last of the northern transcontinentals, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, more commonly known as the Milwaukee Road. A Northern Pacific train travels over Bozeman Pass in June 1939 the twentieth century[edit] the turn of the century the Northern Pacific had a record of steady improvement. Together with the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific also gained control of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, gaining important access to Chicago, the central Middle West and Texas, as well as the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway, an important route through eastern and southern Washington. physical plant was upgraded continuously, with double-tracking in key areas, and automatic block signaling along its entire main line. This in turn gave way to centralized traffic control, microwave and radio communications as time progressed.[citation needed] Northern Pacific maintained and continuously upgraded its equipment and service. The road helped pioneer the 4-8-4 Northern type steam engine and the 2-8-8-4 Yellowstone. was among the first railroads in the country to adopt diesel power beginning with General Motors’ FTs in 1944.[citation needed] Despite this, with cheap (albeit low-quality) coal reserves in Wyoming it was among the last US railroads to complete dieselization, in 1960. NP depot at Wallace, Idaho, 2007 Northern Pacific's premier passenger train, the North Coast Limited was among the safest and finest in the nation, suffering only one passenger fatality in nearly seventy years of operation.[citation needed] 1900, most of the remaining land-grant holdings were located west of Montana, in the "western district." railroad still hoped to sell this land, both to provide operating funds and to populate the region to provide new markets to sustain the railroad. Nearly all the good farm land had been sold, leaving large tracts of grazing land or timber. The grazing acreage was poor quality, and difficult to sell. However, the timber lands were of high quality; much of these were sold to Frederick Weyerhaeuser.[16] of the Hill Lines[edit] later years, Louis W. Menk became president of the Northern Pacific, and then he brought it together with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 2, 1970, to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. The merger was allowed despite a challenge in the Supreme Court, essentially reversing the outcome of the 1904 Northern Securities ruling. A 900 mi (1,400 km) portion of the former Northern Pacific mainline in Montana was spun off and is now operated by Montana Rail Link. Revenue freight traffic, in millions of net ton-miles (including M&I, G&P) Year Traffic 1925 6852 1933 3600 1944 14679 1960 11360 1967 13629 Source: ICC annual reports 1949, the Northern Pacific's headquarters in Saint Paul presided over a system of 6,889 miles (11,087 km), which 2,831 miles (4,556 km) of main line, 4,057 miles (6,529 km) of branch line under seven operating divisions. Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches. Paul[edit] in St. Paul, Minnesota in the company's Railroad and Bank Building, the St. Paul Division's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches. in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches. in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches. Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana. in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches. in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17] the railroad expanded, immigrants, families, and single men moved to the Pacific Northwest. Tacoma's population grew rapidly: in 1880 there were 1,098 residents, and in 1889 there were 36,000.[18] service[edit] line encouraged people to make their homes in the Pacific Northwest by having an "immigration agent" and offering special excursion trains for prospective buyers during the winter months. North Coast Limited was the premier passenger train operated by the Northern Pacific Railway between Chicago and Seattle via Butte, Montana and Homestake Pass. It commenced service on April 29, 1900, served briefly as a Burlington Northern train after the merger on March 2, 1970, and ceased operation on April 30, 1971, the day before Amtrak began service. The Chicago Union Station to Saint Paul leg of the train's route was operated by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad along its Mississippi River mainline through Wisconsin. Northern Pacific's secondary transcontinental passenger train was the Alaskan, until it was replaced by the Mainstreeter on November 16, 1952.[19][page needed] Mainstreeter, which operated via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, continued in service through the Burlington Northern merger until Amtrak Day (May 1, 1971). It had been reduced to a Saint Paul to Seattle train after the last run of the former Burlington Route Black Hawk on April 12–13, 1970. Northern Pacific also participated in the Coast Pool Train service between Portland and Seattle with the Great Northern Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. NP and GN Coast Pool Trains lasted until Amtrak. were several other passenger trains which were discontinued before the Burlington Northern merger. These included: Saint Paul to International Falls, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Duluth, Minnesota (which at one time was also a pool operation, with Great Northern Railway and the Soo Line); Duluth to Staples, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Jamestown, North Dakota (the last remnant of the Alaskan); Fargo, North Dakota to Winnipeg, Manitoba; The Route of "the Great Big Baked Potato"[edit] Actress Lillian Russell and other Hollywood stars were hired to promote the railroad's potatoes. comic postcard circa 1910 to 1920 promoting "The Great Big Baked Potato". Hazen Titus was appointed as the line's dining car superintendent in 1908. He learned that Yakima Valley farmers were unable to sell their potato crops because the potatoes they were growing were simply too large; they fed them to the hogs. Titus learned that a single potato could weigh from two to five pounds, but that smaller potatoes were preferred by the end buyers of the vegetable because many people considered large potatoes inedible due to their thick, rough skin.[20] and his staff discovered the "inedible" potatoes were delicious after baking in a slow oven. He contracted to purchase as many potatoes as the farmers could produce that were more than two pounds in weight. Soon after the first delivery of "Netted Gem Bakers", they were offered to diners on the North Coast Limited beginning in early 1909. Word of the line's specialty offering traveled quickly, and before long it was using "the Great Big Baked Potato" as a slogan to promote the railroad's passenger service. Hollywood stars were hired to promote it.[21] When an addition was built for the Northern Pacific's Seattle commissary in 1914, a Railway Age reporter wrote, "A large trade mark, in the shape of a baked potato, 40 ft. long and 18 ft. in diameter, surmounts the roof. The potato is electric lighted and its eyes, through the electric mechanism, are made to wink constantly. A cube of butter thrust into its split top glows intermittently." Premiums such as postcards, letter openers, and spoons were also produced to promote "The Route of the Great Big Baked Potato"; the slogan served the Northern Pacific for about 50 years.[20]

Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota
Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota;

Kalama, Washington (just south of Longview)
Kalama, Washington;

NP St Paul to Deluth thru White Bear Lake, Lake Superior Division, NP Railroad
White Bear Lake
Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches.

Saint Paul, MN, St Paul Division, NP Railroad, to Staples and Dillworth from White Bear Lake
Saint Paul, Minnesota; Paul[edit] in St. Paul, Minnesota in the company's Railroad and Bank Building, the St. Paul Division's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches.

St Paul Division, NP Railroad, St Paul to Staples and Dillman near Fargo

Duluth, Minnesota
Duluth, Minnesota;

Red River Valley
Red River Valley;

Red River

Wadena, Minnesota

Detroit Lakes

Lake Park

Winnipeg Junction

Dillworth, MN
in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.

Mandan, ND
in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.
in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches.

NP Railroad Fargo and Yellowstone River Divisions - Dillworth, MN to Livingston, MT
NP Railroad Yellowstone River Division
in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.
in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches.

Fargo, North Dakota
Fargo, North Dakota; in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.

Bismarck, North Dakota (Missouri River)
Bismarck, North Dakota;

Glendive, Montana, Northern Pacific Beneficial Association (NPBA) Hospital
Glendive, Montana;

Yellowstone River

Billings, MT

Big Timber, MT

Livingston, Montana, large backshop for NP Repairs
Livingston, Montana; Rocky Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.

Fergus Falls, Minnesota
Fergus Falls, Minnesota;

Bozeman Pass
Bozeman Pass;

Bozeman, MT

Missouri River

Deluth, MN Deluth Division of Northern Pacific RWY, to Ashland, to Staples, to White Bear Lake, MN
Deluth, MN
Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches.

Ashland, WN, Lake Superior Division
Ashland, WN
Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches.

Brainerd, Minnesota, NP Headquarters and Shops, Crow Wing County
Brainerd, Minnesota;

Staples, MN, Lake Superior Division, NP Railroad
Staples, MN

Deluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Lake Superior Division, NP Railroad, HWY 2

Deluth to Staples, MN thru Brainerd, NP Railroad Headquarters. Lake Superior Division

White Bear Lake, MN

Deluth to White Bear Lake, MN, and Saint Paul, Lake Superior Division, NP Railroad

St Croix River (WI MN Border)

US, 1872-1922, JULIA CHESTER EMERY, New York City, Womens Auxiliary of the Board of Missions, United Thank Offering UTO
US, 1872-1922, JULIA CHESTER EMERY, New York City, Womens Auxiliary of the Board of Missions, United Thank Offering UTO; New York City; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; father was a New England sea captain. Two of her brothers became priests. One sister, Helen, cared for another sister who was ill, and made a project of providing hospitality in her New York City home for missionaries on leave. Another sister, Mary, was National Secretary of the Women's Auxiliary of the Board of Missions for its first four years, from 1872 to 1876. At this point, Julia took over, and was National Secretary of the Auxiliary for forty years, from 1876 to 1916. visited every diocese in the United States, co-ordinating and encouraging work in support of missions. traveled to London as a delegate to the Pan-Anglican Congress. traveled to Japan, inland China, Hong Kong, and the Philippines to advance missionary work there, and to be able to report on it to the Episcopal women in the United States. was Julia who invented the United Thank Offering (UTO). This works (or used to work -- my political instincts tell me that not everyone today would be comfortable with the original arrangement) by giving each woman a small box with a slit in the top (a cardboard piggy bank), and encouraging her to drop a small contribution into it whenever she feels thankful about something. Once a year, the women of the parish present these at the Sunday service, and the money is sent to national headquarters to be used for missions. by James Kiefer

US, 1873-1949, JOHN ROBERTS, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming, Missionary, f Wales, Shoshone, Arapaho and Bannock Indians
US, 1873-1949, JOHN ROBERTS, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming (Bighorn River 1), Welsh Anglican Priest, writer, and missionary in Bahamas and Wyoming, fLlewerilyd farm near Dyserth, north Wales, educated St David's College, Oxford U, graduated 1878, deacon by George Selwyn iLitchfield Cathedral, curate aDawley Magna, Shopshire, yearned tbMissionary, sailed tNassau, Bahamas, 1878, priest, chaplain St Matthew's Anglican, colored people and Lepers, but already christian, so American Indians, 1880 tNew York, wanted Shoshone and Bannock at Wind River the most difficult, but needed experience at Greeley, CO, coal miners first, then mixed community at Pueblo, smallpox epidemic, then dream job 1883, Shoshone and Arapaho tribes within 150 miles oFort Washakie, govt employee also as school principal, supported traditional customs, translated Bible into the languages, 1888 boarding school for girls, estab several churches still operating, from Satucket and Wyoming U: started by learning customs and beliefs, native languages, eventually translated New Testament, object of his work to make them self supporting, estab 2 schools, Indian Boarding school aFort Washakie and Shoshone Mission Boarding School, friendships wIndian leaders, later baptized Chief Washakie, Chief Black Coal, helped them negotiate with US Govt, gave him name Elder Brother, retired 1921, lived on Reservation till 1949, died 97 yrold ; Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming; Eastern Shoshone; Northern Arapaho; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; to minister to the Shoshone and Arapahos on the Wind River Reservation, set about his work by learning all he could about Native American customs and beliefs, that by knowing the people he hoped to minister to he would be more effective. also learned the native languages, eventually translating the gospel for his Native American congregates. often said the object of his work among the Indians was to make them self supporting. this in mind he established two schools, Indian Boarding School at Ft. Washakie the Shoshone Indian Mission Boarding School. cultivated friendships with tribal leaders, including Chief Black Coal and Chief Washakie, whom he later baptized. earned the trust of the tribal leadership and was often involved in their negotiations with the agents of the federal government. Indians rewarded Roberts for his fairness in dealing with them by giving him the name "Elder Brother." also ministered to the non-natives of the state, Episcopal churches in towns across Wyoming. retired from active missionary work in 1921 continued to live on the reservation until his death in 1949 at the age of ninety-seven. — from the Univ. of Wyoming translation of the Gospel of Luke into Arapahoe is online at Project Gutenberg. Translations of the Lord's Prayer, Apostles' Creed, Ten Commandments, etc., into Arapaho and Shoshone are also online. Further information may be found on a page devoted to him and at Wikipedia. John Roberts (missionary); Roberts (31 March 1853 – 22 January 1949)[1] was a Welsh Anglican priest, writer and missionary in the Bahamas and Wyoming. was born in 1853 at Llewerllyd, a farm near the village of Dyserth, which was then in Flintshire but was later placed in Denbighshire, in north Wales. at Ruthin grammar school and St David's College, Lampeter (then affiliated with Oxford University), graduated in 1878. He was ordained a deacon by the Right Rev. George Augustus Selwyn in Lichfield Cathedral, briefly served as a curate at Dawley Magna in Shropshire. Roberts yearned to become a missionary, possibly because of Selwyn's work in New Zealand. year's end, Roberts had sailed to Nassau, Bahamas, he was ordained a priest and made chaplain of St. Matthew's Anglican Church. concentrated his ministry among "coloured people" and lepers. those were already Christian, and the priest wanted greater challenges, particularly among American Indians.[2] years later, Roberts sailed to New York and applied for the mission he always wanted, among American Indians. met Bishop John Spalding of Wyoming and Colorado, and asked for missionary work in the diocese's most difficult field. was told that was at the Shoshone and Bannock Indian Agency in Wyoming Territory (in what later became the Wind River Indian Reservation).[3] However, Bishop Spalding wanted the young priest to first gain experience, so sent him first to tend to the spiritual needs of coal miners in Greeley, Colorado, then to the mixed community in Pueblo. Roberts established Trinity mission in South Pueblo. a smallpox epidemic caused the community to be quarantined, Roberts worked at the hospital. that experience, Roberts secured his dream job in 1883, to the Shoshone and Arapahoe tribes and other people within 150 miles of Fort Washakie. was also a government employee, serving as the first principal of the reservation's school. became known for his interest in, and support for, traditional customs. also translated the Bible into the local languages. boarding school for girls that Chief Washakie and Roberts established in 1888 placed on the National Register of Historic Places, though it has not operated as a school since 1949. also established several churches in his territory, many of which still function. flag was presented to be flown in Washington National Cathedral in his honor.

US, 1874-1935, JAMES O S HUNTINGTON, Boston, MA, religious order founder, lower ease side, labor union movement, Henry George, land tax,
US, 1874-1935, JAMES O S HUNTINGTON, Boston, MA, religious order founder, lower ease side, labor union movement, Henry George, land tax; Boston; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935) ; Huntington was born in Boston in 1854, studied at Harvard and at St Andrew's Divinity School in Syracuse, was ordained to the priesthood around 1880, and served a working-class congregation. a few years, he felt called to found a monastic order for priests of the Episcopal Church, and with two companions he began working among poor immigrants on New York's Lower East Side. a slow start, he with others became the Order of the Holy Cross, which now has a monastery in West Park, New York, and priests involved in parish work and social work scattered elsewhere. was Superior of the order for several non-consecutive terms, but devoted himself chiefly to preaching, teaching, and counselling until his death on 28 June 1935. this is the feast of Irenaeus of Lyons, he is commemorated on the anniversary of the receiving of his monastic vows by the Bishop of New York on 25 November 1884. the course of his work, he became involved in the labor-union movement and the land-tax movement. The latter of these may require some explanation. (Those who have no interest in proposals for social reform may wish to skip to the closing prayer.) George, author of Progress and Poverty, argued that, while some forms of wealth are produced by human activity, and are rightly the property of the producers (or those who have obtained them from the previous owners by voluntary gift or exchange), land and natural resources are bestowed by God on the human race, and that every one of the N inhabitants of the earth has a claim to 1/Nth of the coal beds, 1/Nth of the oil wells, 1/Nth of the mines, and 1/Nth of the fertile soil. God wills a society where everyone may sit in peace under his own vine and his own fig tree. The Law of Moses undertook to implement this by making the ownership of land hereditary, with a man's land divided among his sons (or, in the absence of sons, his daughters), and prohibiting the permanent sale of land. (See Leviticus 25:13-17,23.) The most a man might do with his land is sell the use of it until the next Jubilee year, an amnesty declared once every fifty years, when all debts were cancelled and all land returned to its hereditary owner. Henry George's proposed implementation is to tax all land at about 99.99% of its rental value, leaving the owner of record enough to cover his bookkeeping expenses. The resulting revenues would be divided equally among the natural owners of the land, viz. the people of the country, with everyone receiving a dividend check regularly for the use of his share of the earth (here I am anticipating what I think George would have suggested if he had written in the 1990's rather than the 1870's). This procedure would have the effect of making the sale price of a piece of land, not including the price of buildings and other improvements on it, practically zero. The cost of being a landholder would be, not the original sale price, but the tax, equivalent to rent. A man who chose to hold his "fair share," or 1/Nth of all the land, would pay a land tax about equal to his dividend check, and so would break even. By 1/Nth of the land is meant land with a value equal to 1/Nth of the value of all the land in the country. Naturally, an acre in the business district of a great city would be worth as much as many square miles in the open country. Some would prefer to hold more than one N'th of the land and pay for the privilege. Some would prefer to hold less land, or no land at all, and get a small annual check representing the dividend on their inheritance from their father Adam. Note that, at least for the able-bodied, this solves the problem of poverty at a stroke. If the total land and total labor of the world are enough to feed and clothe the existing population, then 1/Nth of the land and 1/Nth of the labor are enough to feed and clothe 1/Nth of the population. A family of 4 occupying 4/Nths of the land (which is what their dividend checks will enable them to pay the tax on) will find that their labor applied to that land is enough to enable them to feed and clothe themselves. Of course, they may prefer to apply their labor elsewhere more profitably, but the situation from which we start is one in which everyone has his own plot of ground from which to wrest a living by the strength of his own back, and any deviation from this is the result of voluntary exchanges agreed to by the parties directly involved, who judge themselves to be better off as the result of the exchanges. Some readers may think this a very radical proposal. In fact, it is extremely conservative, in the sense of being in agreement with historic ideas about land ownership as opposed to ownership of, say, tools or vehicles or gold or domestic animals or other movables. The laws of English-speaking countries uniformly distinguish between real property (land) and personal property (everything else). In this context, "real" is not the opposite of "imaginary." It is a form of the word "royal," and means that the ultimate owner of the land is the king, as symbol of the people. Note that English-derived law does not recognize "landowners." The term is "landholders." The concept of eminent domain is that the landholder may be forced to surrender his landholdings to the government for a public purpose. Historically, eminent domain does not apply to property other than land, although complications arise when there are buildings on the land that is being seized. I will mention in passing that the proposals of Henry George have attracted support from persons as diverse as Felix Morley, Aldous Huxley, Woodrow Wilson, Helen Keller, Winston Churchill, Leo Tolstoy, William F Buckley Jr, and Sun Yat-sen. To the Five Nobel Prizes authorized by Alfred Nobel himself there has been added a sixth, in Economics, and the Henry George Foundation claims eight of the Economics Laureates as supporters, in whole or in part, of the proposals of Henry George (Paul Samuelson, 1970; Milton Friedman, 1976; Herbert A Simon, 1978; James Tobin, 1981; Franco Modigliani, 1985; James M Buchanan, 1986; Robert M Solow, 1987; William S Vickrey, 1996). The immediate concrete proposal favored by most Georgists today is that cities shall tax land within their boundaries at a higher rate than they tax buildings and other improvements on the land. (In case anyone is about to ask, "How can we possibly distinguish between the value of the land and the value of the buildings on it?" let me assure you that real estate assessors do it all the time. It is standard practice to make the two assessments separately, and a parcel of land in the business district of a large city very often has a different owner from the building on it.) Many cities have moved to a system of taxing land more heavily than improvements, and most have been pleased with the results, finding that landholders are more likely to use their land productively -- to their own benefit and that of the public -- if their taxes do not automatically go up when they improve their land by constructing or maintaining buildings on it. An advantage of this proposal in the eyes of many is that it is a Fabian proposal, "evolution, not revolution," that it is incremental and reversible. If a city or other jurisdiction does not like the results of a two-level tax system, it can repeal the arrangement or reduce the difference in levels with no great upheaval. It is not like some other proposals of the form, "Distribute all wealth justly, and make me absolute dictator of the world so that I can supervise the distribution, and if it doesn't work, I promise to resign." The problem is that absolute dictators seldom resign. For those who wish to inquire further, I recommend reading the book Progress and Poverty, by Henry George. It is available from the Robert Schalkenbach Foundation or from your local bookstore or library. It should be on every list of Great Books of the Western World, or of books that every educated person is assumed to have read. Ask for their catalog, and make a similar request of the Henry George Foundation of America, 2000 Century Plaza, Suite 238, Columbia, MD 21044-3210 (Tel 1-410-740-1177). I repeat, this is not an argument for a political or economic proposal, but simply background material on the founder of a religious order. You did not expect me to tell you that James Huntington was a disciple of Henry George and leave you wondering who Henry George was, did you? by James Kiefer

US, 1875-1890, Henry Winter Syle, Hartford, CT, deaf f early age, became first deaf ordained, estab congregation f deaf 1888
US, 1875-1890, Henry Winter Syle, Hartford, CT (Connecticut River 24), deaf from early age, became first deaf ordained, estab congregation for deaf 1888, died 1890; Hartford, Connecticut; Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Henry Winter Syle of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Gallaudet was born in 1822, in Hartford, Connecticut. mother, Sophia was deaf, and his father, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, was the founder of the West Hartford School for the deaf, which was the principal institution for the education of the deaf in America from 1806 to 1857 (the year of the founding of Gallaudet College in Washington, DC). father had intended to become a priest, but had become an educator of the deaf instead. son also intended to seek ordination, but was persuaded by his father to work for a while first as a teacher of the deaf. did, and so met and married Miss Elizabeth Budd, who was deaf. was ordained in 1851, and the next year established St. Ann's Church in New York, especially for deaf persons, with services primarily in sign language. a result of his work, congregations for the deaf were established in many cities. (Alternatively, some congregations that are mostly hearing will have someone standing near the front and signing the service for the benefit of deaf parishioners.) died 27 August 1902. Photo of Henry Winter Syle (Photo courtesy Episcopal Conference of the Deaf) of Gallaudet's students and parishioners was Henry Winter Syle, deaf from an early age, who had attended Trinity College (Hartford, Conn), St John's (Cambridge, England), and Yale. encouraged him to become a priest, and in 1876 he became the first deaf person to be ordained by the Episcopal Church in the United States. He established a congregation for the deaf in 1888, and died 6 January 1890. HW Syle signature by James Kiefer

US, 1879-1964, ANNA J H COOPER, Educator, lived 105yrs, father wMother's master, academially gifted, PHD, A-A women&ed advocate
US, 1879-1964, ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER, Educator, fRaleigh, NC (on the fall line), lived 105yrs, father was mother's master, academially gifted, scholarship to St Augustine Normal School and Collegiate Institute, Episcopal School founded to educate African-American teachers and clergy, so became Episcopalian, forced her way into Greek class designed for male theology students, married the instructor, who was the second A-A Episcopal priest in North Carolina, after his death 1879 Anna received degrees in math from Oberlin, then principal otOnly A-A high school in Washington, DC, 1906 denied reappointment, because would not lower her ed standards, throughout career emphasized importance of ed for A-A, and critical lack support from Church, A-A women advocate, Colored Women's League, first Colored Settlement House in DC, wrote&spoke widely on race&gender, active role national international orgs founded tAdvance A-A's, at 55 (1914) she adopted nephew's children, 1925 (65yr) 4th A-A woman PHD, from Sprbpmme in Paris, 1030-1942 (70-82) president oFrelinghuysen U in DC; Raleigh, North Carolina, on the fall line between the Piedmont and the Atlantic Coastal Plain ; ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER, Educator (1964), Commemorated Febraury 28 ; Julia Haywood Cooper (August 10, c1859- February 27, 1964). Educator, advocate and scholar. in Raleigh, North Carolina to an enslaved woman and a white man, presumably her mother's master, Julia was an academically gifted child and received a scholarship to attend St. Augustine Normal School and Collegiate Institute, a school founded by the Episcopal Church to educate African-American teachers and clergy. she began her membership in the Episcopal Church. forcing her way into a Greek class designed for male theology students, Anna Julia later married the instructor, George A.C. Cooper, the second African-American ordained to the Episcopal priesthood in North Carolina. her husband's death in 1879, Cooper received degrees in mathematics from Oberlin College, was made principal of the only African American high school in Washington D.C.. was denied reappointment in 1906 because she refused to lower her educational standards. her career, Cooper emphasized the importance of education to the future of African Americans, was critical of the lack of support they received from the church. advocate for African-American women, Cooper assisted in organizing the Colored Women's League and the first Colored Settlement House in Washington, D.C. wrote and spoke widely on issues of race and gender, and took an active role in national and international organizations founded to advance African Americans. the age of fifty-five she adopted the five children of her nephew. 1925, Cooper became the fourth African-American woman to complete a Ph.D degree, granted from the Sorbonne when she was sixty-five years old. 1930-1942, Cooper served as president of Frelinghuysen University. from the Episcopal Women's History Project is also an extensive article in Wikipedia. Note that the spelling of "Haywood" is not consistent.

US, 1881-1885, President, Chester A. Arthur, Easterner, VP, Civil Service R, US Navy, failed to spend surplus, retired
US President, 1881-1885, Chester A. Arthur; Alan Arthur (October 5, 1829 – November 18, 1886) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 21st president of the United States from 1881 to 1885. Previously the 20th vice president, he succeeded to the presidency upon the death of President James A. Garfield in September 1881, two months after Garfield was shot by an assassin. was born in Fairfield, Vermont, grew up in upstate New York and practiced law in New York City. He served as quartermaster general of the New York Militia during the American Civil War. the war, he devoted more time to New York Republican politics and quickly rose in Senator Roscoe Conkling's political organization. Ulysses S. Grant appointed him to the post of Collector of the Port of New York in 1871, and he was an important supporter of Conkling and the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party. 1878, President Rutherford B. Hayes fired Arthur as part of a plan to reform the federal patronage system in New York. U.S Representative James Garfield won the Republican nomination for president in 1880, Arthur was nominated for vice president to balance the successful ticket as an Eastern Stalwart. Four months into his term, an assassin shot Garfield, who died 11 weeks later. Arthur then assumed the presidency. the outset, Arthur struggled to overcome a negative reputation as a Stalwart and product of Conkling's organization. the surprise of reformers, he advocated and enforced the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. He presided over the rebirth of the US Navy, but he was criticized for failing to alleviate the federal budget surplus which had been accumulating since the end of the Civil War. vetoed the first version of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, arguing that its twenty-year ban on Chinese immigrants to the United States violated the Burlingame Treaty, but he signed a second version, which included a ten-year ban.[2] from poor health, Arthur made only a limited effort to secure the Republican Party's nomination in 1884, and he retired at the end of his term. Journalist Alexander McClure wrote, "No man ever entered the Presidency so profoundly and widely distrusted as Chester Alan Arthur, and no one ever retired ... more generally respected, alike by political friend and foe."[3] Arthur's failing health and political temperament combined to make his administration less active than a modern presidency, yet he earned praise among contemporaries for his solid performance in office. The New York World summed up Arthur's presidency at his death in 1886: "No duty was neglected in his administration, and no adventurous project alarmed the nation."[4] Mark Twain wrote of him, "It would be hard indeed to better President Arthur's administration."[5] Despite this, modern historians generally rank Arthur as a mediocre president, as well as the least memorable. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; New Martyr Archpriest Vasily Martysz, Commemorated on May 4; HARRIET STARR CANNON, RELIGIOUS, 1896, Commemorated May 7; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1877-1881, President, Rutherford B. Hayes, abolitionist, electoral college win, compromise of 77 ends reconstruction
US President, 1877-1881, Rutherford B. Hayes; Birchard Hayes (October 4, 1822 – January 17, 1893) was an American politician and attorney who served as the 19th president of the United States from 1877 to 1881, after serving in the U.S. House of Representatives and as governor of Ohio. the U.S. Civil War, Hayes was a lawyer and staunch abolitionist who defended refugee slaves in court proceedings. He served in the Union Army and the House of Representatives before assuming the presidency.[1] presidency represents a turning point in U.S. history, as historians consider it the formal end of Reconstruction. To placate the Democrats, Hayes ended all federal efforts to bring racial equality to the South.[2] an attorney in Ohio, Hayes served as city solicitor of Cincinnati from 1858 to 1861. At the start of the Civil War, he left a fledgling political career to join the Union Army as an officer. Hayes was wounded five times, most seriously at the Battle of South Mountain in 1862. He earned a reputation for bravery in combat and was promoted to brevet major general. After the war, he served in Congress from 1865 to 1867 as a Republican. Hayes left Congress to run for governor of Ohio and was elected to two consecutive terms, from 1868 to 1872. He served half of a third two-year term from 1876 to 1877 before his swearing-in as president. 1877, the Electoral College made Hayes president after the 1876 United States presidential election, one of the most contentious in U.S. history. He lost the popular vote to Democrat Samuel J. Tilden, but narrowly won an intensely disputed electoral-college vote after a Congressional commission awarded him 20 contested electoral votes in the Compromise of 1877. The election was resolved with a backroom deal whereby the Democrats acquiesced to Hayes's election on the single condition that he withdraw direct federal support for Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. believed in meritocratic government and in equal treatment without regard to wealth, social standing or race. He used the military to resolve the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, which remains the deadliest confrontation between striking workers and strikebreakers in US history. As president, Hayes implemented modest civil-service reforms that laid the groundwork for further reform in the 1880s and 1890s. He vetoed the Bland–Allison Act of 1878, which put silver money into circulation and raised nominal prices; Hayes saw maintenance of the gold standard as essential to economic recovery. His policy toward western Indians anticipated the assimilationist program of the Dawes Act of 1887. kept his pledge not to run for reelection, retired to his home in Ohio, and became an advocate of social and educational reform. Biographer Ari Hoogenboom has written that Hayes's greatest achievement was to restore popular faith in the presidency and to reverse the deterioration of executive power that had established itself after Abraham Lincoln's assassination in 1865. Supporters have praised his commitment to civil-service reform. His critics deride his leniency toward the former Confederate states and his withdrawal of federal support for African Americans' voting and civil rights.[3] Historians and scholars generally rank Hayes as an average to slightly below-average president.[4][5] WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; CONSTANCE AND HER COMPANIONS, THE MARTYRS OF MEMPHIS (9 SEP 1878) ; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1880-1915, Raphael, Bishop oBrooklyn, Syrian Arab who worked with Russian Tikhon to bring Orthodox priests to America
US, 1880-1915, Raphael, Bishop oBrooklyn, NY, family fSyria, fled to Beruit, R born in B, no continuing city in life, 1861 family returned tDamascus, very well in Elementary school, 1874 father not able ed him, but future Met got him accepted in school fFuture priests, 1877 selected substitute teaching assistant, 1878 teacher oArabic and Turkish, tonsured 1879, and Patriarch's personal assistant, since Syrian Seminary closed 1840, selected to Constantinople's school oTheology aHalki, 1885 ordained deacon, 1886 Certificate oTheology & returned tSyria, Patriarch oAntioc Gerasimus impressed bR, took him on pastoral visits, substitute preacher for G, thirst more knowledge, asked G for graduate studies in Russia, promising return, to serve as russian language secretary, accepted Theological Academy Kiev, 1889 G ordered him head oAntiochian Church Moscow, ordained priest, same year raised rank oArchmandrite by Moscow Met, as head oAntiochian Representation Church iRussia, in 2yrs reduced their debt by 15k Rubles from 65k, also arranged 24 mor syrian students come to russia, hoping they return to teach others, When G (a Greek) resigned, Raphael saw a chance to have a Syrian as Patriarch oAntioch, freeing them from foreign hierarchs, campaign of letters to Antiochian bishops influentian laymen, but a Greek was elected, many arabs believed he had purchased the election distributing 10,000 lira to notable people iDamascus, R refused to commorate new patriarch, who suspended him, R accepted suispension but continued writing to Russian newspapers defending Antiochian cause, Antioch Constantinople Alexandria Jerusalem successfuylly petitioned Russian Tsar to forbid newspapers from printing the articles, so he published letters in book form, new Greek P then asked R's friend to persuade R to ask his forgiveness, He did so, suspension lifted, R allowed to transfer tChurch oRussia, he went tKazan fPosition instructor Arabic studies in K Theological Academy, til 1895 when invited tSyrian Orthodox Benevolent Society oNew York, come to be Pastor Arab Orthodox community, he set off on great missionary jouirney, chapel in Lower Manhattan in less than 2wks, furnished wEcclesiastical items he brought fRussia, soon learned oSmall communities Arab Christians throughout North America, concerned they turn away without Pastor, dialogue OK but clear distinction between Orthodox and heterodox, teachings o7Ecumenical Councils, spotless faith delivered to the saints, do not attend heterodox services, have household head read the hours, 1896 pastoral journeys across continent, 30 cities, preached where he stopped, marriages, baptisms, confessions, Divine Liturgy, 1898 produced Arab language service book, and used Isabell Hapgoods English Service book for the Children, 1898 2nd Pastoral tour, need for arabic speaking priests to Nicholas, brought qualified priests from Syria, sought educated laymen for ordination, only after blessing otRussian hierarch at American Mission, Raphael welcomed Tikhon when he replaced Nicholas, all orthodox united under Russian bishops omophorion, until Russian revolution, R ministered to Greeks, Russians, Arabs, weddings baptisms, regularizing weddings performed by non-orthodox, charismating children baptized by Catholic priests, restored calm in Johnstown ending bitter fued, while there received call than Syrian Arab had been elected Antioch Partiarch, first time in 168 yrs, refused to succeed him in Latakia, important work in America, 1901 same for Beruit, wanted build Church and Cemetery in New York, Olivet cemetery Long Island, declined bishopric Zahleh, need build Syrian temple in NY, 190 bought existing church in Brooklin and remodeled, Tikhon concecrated it, Reorganized diocese, too many parishes, Tikhon submitted plan to move See from San Francisco to New York, Tikhon made Archbishop Raphael his 2nd vicar bishop, Bishop oAlaska his 1st, 1903 Russians made Raphael bishop oBrooklyn, while remaining head Syro-Arab mission in North America, Antiochian Met Meletios pleased, Raphael accepted, meanwhile Father Innocent Pustynsky consecrated Bishop by Tikhon in St Petersburg, 1904 Raphael became 1st Orthodox Bishop consecrated on American soil, by Tikhon and Pustynsky, St Nicholas Cathedral Brooklyn, his new Bishop's vestments a gift from Russian Tsar Nicholas II, at end of 1904 R announced plans to publish magazine called The Wiord, Syro-Arab Mission's official pub, to link people and parishes closely gogether, needed this because he could not visit all parishes, so he could preach salvation to those he would never meet, first issue 1905, considered this equal to acquisition of cathedral and parish cemetery, 1905 consecrated St Tikhon's Monastery and blessed orphanage both in South Canaan, PA, 3 days later presided over conference Old Forge, PA becuase Tikhon in San Fran, with 3 saints, 2 of which Martyrs in Russia, growin flock, increase of children needing services in English, evening school for children, 1907 Tikhon returned to Russia, replaced by Platon, and honored, could not understand honor for doing his job, 1912 fell,. heart trouble that will eventually cause death, 1913-14 continued pastoral visits, 1915 fell ill again, several months at home, patiently bearing illness, died Feb 15, 1915; Brooklyn, NY; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Raphael, Bishop of Brooklyn (+1915) on the Glorification of Our Holy Father Bishop RAPHAEL (30-Apr-2000) holy Father Raphael was born in Syria in 1860 to pious Orthodox parents, Michael Hawaweeny and his second wife Mariam, the daughter of a priest of Damascus. exact date of Raphael’s birth is not known, but he estimated it to be on or near his Name Day, Synaxis of the Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel and all the Bodiless Powers of Heaven (November 8). to the violent persecution of Christians, at which time their parish priest, Saint Joseph of Damascus (July 10) and his companions were martyred, Hawaweeny family was forced to flee to Beirut for their safety. was here that the future saint first saw the light of day, and not in the city of his parents. as the child’s life unfolded, it was evident that he would have no continuing city in this world, but would seek the city which is to come (Heb 13:14). the Feast of Theophany in 1861, he was baptized with the name Rafla, and later that spring the family was able to return to Damascus. child attended elementary school, where he did very well, in 1874 it appeared that Michael Hawaweeny would no longer be able to afford his son’s tuition. help came from Deacon Athanasius Atallah (later Metropolitan of Homs), recommended to Patriarch Hierotheus of Antioch that Rafla be accepted as a student of the Patriarchate in preparation for the priesthood. was such a good student that he was selected to be a substitute teaching assistant in 1877. following year he was appointed as a teacher of Arabic and Turkish. March 28, 1879 he was tonsured as a monk by Patriarch Hierotheus, served as His Beatitude’s personal attendant. the Balamand Seminary had been closed in 1840, JOACHIM III of Constantinople invited the Patriarch of Antioch to send at least one deserving student to study on scholarship at the School of Theology at Halki, Saint Raphael was the one who was selected to go. December 8, 1885, he was ordained to the diaconate at the school chapel. July of 1886, the young deacon received his Certificate of Theology, and returned to his homeland in the hope of serving the Church there. Gerasimus of Antioch was impressed with Deacon Raphael, and often took him along on his pastoral visitations of his parishes. His Beatitude could not be present, Deacon Raphael was asked to preach the Word of God to the people. Raphael was not satisfied with the extent of his knowledge, and thirsted to learn even more. did not stem from personal pride or ambition, came from his fervent desire to benefit others. the words of King Solomon could be applied to Saint Raphael: “Give an opportunity to a wise man, and he will be wiser; instruct a just man, and he will receive more instruction” (Proverbs 9:9). he asked Patriarch Gerasimus to permit him to do graduate studies at a school in Russia, to return and serve as the Patriarch’s Russian-language secretary. Patriarch gave his blessing, and Deacon Raphael was accepted as a student at the Theological Academy of Kiev. 1889 Patriarch Gerasimus ordered the young deacon to take over as head of the Antiochian representation church in Moscow. was ordained to the holy priesthood by Bishop SYLVESTER, the rector of the Academy, at the request of Patriarch Gerasimus. month later, he was raised to the rank of archimandrite by Metropolitan IOANNIKII of Moscow, was confirmed as head of the Antiochian representation church. two years, Archimandrite Raphael was able to reduce the representation’s 65,000 ruble debt by 15,000 rubles. also arranged for twenty-four Syrian students to come to Russia to further their education, hoping that they would return to Syria and teach others. Patriarch Gerasimus resigned in order to accept the See of Jerusalem, Raphael regarded this as an opportunity to free the Church of Antioch from its domination by foreign hierarchs. with love for the Church of Antioch, and wishing to restore the administration of the church to its own native clergy and people, Raphael began a campaign of writing letters to some Antiochian bishops and influential laymen. also wrote articles in the Russian press, drawing attention to the plight of Antioch. courageous efforts did not meet with success, however, and there was a price to pay for his outspoken criticism. November of 1891 Metropolitan SPYRIDON, a Greek Cypriot, was elected as Patriarch of Antioch. Arabs believed that he had purchased the election by distributing 10,000 lira to several notable people in Damascus. Raphael refused to commemorate the new Patriarch during services at the representation church. a result, he was suspended from his priestly functions by Patriarch SPYRIDON. Raphael accepted his suspension, but continued to write articles in Russian newspapers in defense of the Antiochian cause. Patriarchs of Antioch, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem successfully petitioned the Tsar to forbid Russian newspapers from publishing his articles. this door closed to him, Saint Raphael began to publish his writings in book form. Patriarch SPYRIDON wrote to the Assistant Overprocurator of Russia, a friend of Saint Raphael’s, asking him to persuade Father Raphael to ask for the Patriarch’s forgiveness. did so, and the suspension was lifted. Raphael was allowed to transfer from the jurisdiction of Antioch to the Church of Russia, and to remain there. went to Kazan, taking a position as instructor in Arabic studies at the theological academy. remained there until 1895 he was invited by the Syrian Orthodox Benevolent Society of New York to come to that city to be the pastor of the Arab Orthodox community. the holy Apostle Paul had a vision of a man entreating him to come to Macedonia to help them (Acts 16:10), he set off on a great missionary journey. Saint Raphael heard of the needs of his countrymen who were scattered in a strange land, he crossed the ocean to labor in yet another foreign country. Raphael arrived in New York on November 2, 1895, was welcomed by a delegation of Arab Christians who were awaiting their leader from Russia. November 5, his first Sunday in America, he assisted Bishop NICHOLAS in serving the Divine Liturgy at the Russian church in New York city. than two weeks after his arrival, Archimandrite Raphael found a suitable place in lower Manhattan to set up a chapel, furnished it with ecclesiastical items that he had brought with him from Russia. NICHOLAS blessed the new chapel, which was dedicated to Saint Nicholas of Myra. zealous pastor remained in New York teaching, preaching, and celebrating the divine services for his parishioners. was not long, however, before he heard of smaller communities of Arab Christians scattered throughout the length and breadth of North America. these Arab immigrants had no pastor to care for them, it was not surprising that some should turn to other Christian traditions, or completely neglect their religious duties. was an ongoing concern for Saint Raphael throughout the course of his ministry. he was not opposed to dialogue with non-Orthodox Christians, nor to friendly relations based on shared beliefs, Raphael never lost sight of the clear line of distinction that exists between the Orthodox and the heterodox. always insisted that any church unity must be based on the teachings of the seven Ecumenical Councils. Orthodoxy of Saint Raphael’s life and teaching was demonstrated over and over again by his words and his actions. always upheld and defended the spotless Faith which was “delivered to the saints” (Jude 3). Although at first he did not understand the teachings of the heterodox, later discovered how far removed they were from Orthodox doctrine. he realized this, he took steps to protect his flock from harmful influences. directed his people not to attend heterodox services lest they become confused by “divers and strange doctrines” (Heb 13:9). believed it would be preferable for the head of the household to read the Hours at home from the Service Book when it was not possible to attend an Orthodox church. the summer of 1896, Saint Raphael undertook the first of several pastoral journeys across the continent. visited thirty cities between New York and San Francisco, out the Master’s lost sheep in cities, towns, and on isolated farms. fed the spiritually hungry people with the Word of God in each place where he stopped. performed marriages, baptisms, heard confessions, and celebrated the Divine Liturgy in the homes of the faithful where there was no church building. other words, he zealously fulfilled his ministry as a preacher of the Gospel, enduring many hardships and afflictions, and he was watchful in all things concerning the care of his flock (2 Tim 4:5). 1898, with the blessing of Bishop Nicholas, Saint Raphael produced his first book in the New World -- an Arabic language Service Book called The Book of True Consolation in the Divine Prayers. book of liturgical services and prayers was very useful to priests in celebrating the divine services, also to the people in their personal prayer life. English version published by Archimandrite Seraphim Nassar is still being used today. May-November 1898, Saint Raphael set off on his second pastoral tour. this trip he became convinced of the need for Arabic-speaking priests to serve in the new churches he had established. he returned to New York, he made a report to Bishop NICHOLAS expressing these concerns. Bishop NICHOLAS’s blessing Saint Raphael was able to bring qualified priests from Syria. also sought out educated laymen whom he could recommend for ordination. as an archimandrite and later as bishop, Saint Raphael would appoint pastors only after obtaining the blessing of the Russian hierarch who headed the American Mission. was the normal state of affairs in America at the time. Raphael welcomed Bishop Tikhon when the latter replaced Bishop NICHOLAS as the ruling bishop in America. December 15, Saint Tikhon came to serve the Liturgy at the Syrian church of Saint Nicholas. Raphael told his people that their new Archpastor was one who “has been sent here to tend the flock of Christ -- Russians, Slavs, Syro-Arabs, and Greeks -- which is scattered across the entire North American continent.” that time, of course, there were no parallel jurisdictions based on nationality. Church united those of diverse backgrounds under the omophorion of the Russian Archbishop. was the norm until the Russian Revolution disrupted church life in Russia, and also in America. March of 1899, Saint Raphael received permission from Bishop Tikhon to start collecting funds for a cemetery, and for building a new church to replace the chapel which was located in an old building on a dirty street. the spring he left on another pastoral tour of forty-three cities and towns. by land and sea, and undeterred by the obstacles and difficulties before him, he spent seven months in the northeastern, southern, and midwestern regions of the United States. Raphael ministered to Greeks and Russians as well as Arabs, weddings and baptisms, regularizing the weddings of Orthodox people who had been married by non-Orthodox clergy. also chrismated some children who had been baptized by Catholic priests. Johnstown, PA he reconciled those whose personal enmity threatened to divide the Arabic community. civil courts had been unable to make peace, Saint Raphael restored calm and put an end to the bitter feud. in Johnstown, he received a telegram informing him that Metropolitan Meletios (Doumani), had been elected Patriarch of Antioch. great joy Saint Raphael told his people that for the first time in 168 years, a native Arab had been chosen as primate of the Antiochian Church. the new Patriarch had been installed, Archimandrite Raphael was proposed to succeed Meletios as Metropolitan of Latakia. Patriarch, however, stated that the Holy Synod could not elect Father Raphael because of his important work in America. 1901, Metropolitan GABRIEL of Beirut wrote to Archimandrite Raphael asking him to be his auxiliary bishop, but he declined, saying that he could not leave his American flock. he wanted to build a permanent church, and to acquire a parish cemetery. The latter goal was achieved in August of 1901 when Father Raphael purchased a section of Mt Olivet cemetery on Long Island. December of 1901 Archimandrite Raphael was elected as Bishop of Zahleh. Meletios sent a telegram congratulating him and asking him to return. Raphael thanked the Patriarch, but again declined higher office. said that he wished to complete the project of building a temple for the Syrian community in New York. following year, he bought an existing church building on Pacific Street in Brooklyn, and had it remodeled for Orthodox worship. Tikhon consecrated the church to the great joy of the faithful in attendance. Thus, Saint Raphael’s second major project was finished. the number of parishes within the Diocese of North America was growing, Bishop Tikhon found it impossible to visit all of them. diocese had to be reorganized in order to administer it more efficiently. Bishop Tikhon submitted a plan to the Russian Holy Synod which would transfer the See from San Francisco to New York because most parishes and individuals were concentrated in the east. various ethnic groups required special attention and pastoral leadership, Bishop Tikhon proposed that Archimandrite Raphael be made his second vicar bishop (the Bishop of Alaska would be his first). 1903, the Holy Synod of Russia unanimously elected Archimandrite Raphael to be the Bishop of Brooklyn while retaining him as head of the Syro-Arab Orthodox Mission in North America. Holy Synod announced the election to Patriarch Meletios, who was pleased by their decision. Tikhon wrote to Saint Raphael to inform him of his election, and Father Raphael sent him a letter of acceptance. Father Innocent Pustynsky was consecrated as Tikhon’s first auxiliary bishop at Saint Petersburg’s cathedral of Our Lady of Kazan. the third Sunday of Lent in 1904, Saint Raphael became the first Orthodox bishop to be consecrated on American soil. Tikhon and Bishop Innocent performed the service at Saint Nicholas Cathedral in Brooklyn. new bishop’s vestments were a gift from Tsar Nicholas II. his consecration, Bishop Raphael continued his pastoral labors, ordaining priests and assigning them to parishes, and helping Bishop Tikhon in the administration of the diocese. the end of 1904, Bishop Raphael announced his intention to publish a magazine called Al-Kalimat (The Word) as the official publication of the Syro-Arab mission. would help to link the people and parishes of his diocese more closely together. Raphael knew that he could not visit all Orthodox Christians across North America in person, but through the ministry of the printed word, he could preach the word of salvation even to people he would never meet. content was to be spiritual, moral, and churchly so that the magazine could reinforce people in their Faith. Word would focus on five primary topics: truths, teaching, and contemporary ecclesiastical subjects, chronicle of baptisms, weddings, etc., official pronouncements. first issue was printed in January 1905, and Saint Raphael considered this milestone as one equal in importance to the acquisition of Saint Nicholas Cathedral and the parish cemetery. July of 1905 Bishop Raphael consecrated the grounds for Saint Tikhon’s Monastery and blessed the orphanage at South Canaan, PA. days later, he presided at a conference of diocesan clergy at Old Forge, PA, because Archbishop Tikhon was in San Francisco. the clergy in attendance were three who would also be numbered among the saints: Father ALEXIS Toth, Father Alexander Hotovitzky, and Father John Kochurov last two would die as martyrs in Russia). the next ten years Bishop Raphael tended his growing flock. the growth of his New York community came an increase in the number of children, and he was concerned about their future. wanted to establish an evening school to educate them in a Christian atmosphere, because the future of the Church in this country depended upon the instruction of the youth. who did not speak Arabic were already going to non-Orthodox churches where Sunday school classes were conducted in English. Raphael saw the absolute necessity for using English in worship and in education for the future progress of the Syro-Arab Mission. heed of Saint Paul’s words to pray in a language that people understood (1 Cor.14:15-19), Raphael recommended the use of the Service Book of the Holy Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Church (translated by Isabel Hapgood) in all of his parishes. March of 1907 Saint Tikhon returned to Russia and was replaced by Archbishop PLATON. again Saint Raphael was considered for episcopal office in Syria, being nominated to succeed Patriarch GREGORY as Metropolitan of Tripoli in 1908. Holy Synod of Antioch removed Bishop Raphael’s name from the list of candidates, citing various canons which forbid a bishop being transferred from one city to another. the Sunday of Orthodoxy in 1911, Bishop Raphael was honored for his fifteen years of pastoral ministry in America. PLATON presented him with a silver-covered icon of Christ and praised him for his work. his humility, Bishop Raphael could not understand why he should be honored merely for doing his duty (Luke 17:10). He considered himself an “unworthy servant,” yet he did perfectly the work that fell to him (Saint Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians). the end of 1912, Bishop Raphael became ill while working in his office. diagnosed him with a heart ailment that eventually caused his death. two weeks he felt strong enough to celebrate the Liturgy in his cathedral. 1913-1914 this missionary bishop continued to make pastoral visitations to various cities. 1915 he fell ill again and spent two months at home, bearing his illness with patience. 12:40 AM on February 14/27 he rested from his labors. They called him, but he did not answer. They shook him, but he was gone. his youth, Saint Raphael’s greatest joy was to serve the Church. When he came to America, he found his people scattered abroad, and he called them to unity. He never neglected his flock, but traveled throughout America, Canada, and Mexico in search of them so that he might care for them. He kept them from straying into strange pastures, and he protected them from spiritual harm. During twenty years of faithful ministry he nurtured them and helped them to grow. At the time of his death, the Syro-Arab Mission had thirty parishes with 25,000 faithful. was also a scholar, and the author of several books. He wrote many, if not most, of the articles that appeared in The Word. He served his own Arabic community, and also reached out to Greeks and Russians, speaking to them in their own language. He became fluent in English, and encouraged its use in church services and educational programs. Raphael came into contact with all sorts of people, and was a gentle father to them. He gained their love and respect by first loving them, and also through his charming personality and excellent character. He was always kind and merciful to others, but was strict with himself. He accomplished many good things during his earthly life, and now he joins the holy angels in offering ceaseless prayer and praise to God. the prayers of the holy Bishop Raphael, may we also be made worthy of the heavenly Kingdom. Amen.

US, 1880-1940, GREGORIO AGLIPAY, Illocos Sur, Luzon, Philippines, communist founder of Philipine Independent Church
Philipines, 1880-1940, GREGORIO AGLIPAY, Illocos Sur, Northern Luzon, Philippines, communist founder of Philipine Independent Church; Illocos Sur, Philippines; GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; Labayan Aglipay (May 8, 1860 – September 1, 1940) the first Filipino Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church. was an activist Catholic priest from Ilocos Norte who, despite his intercession and defense of some of the Spanish Catholic clergy from liberal-nationalist Filipino revolutionaries, was excommunicated by the Vatican for inciting rebellion within the Filipino clergy. the brief interlude between independence from the Spanish and the subsequent reoccupation by the Americans, Isabelo de los Reyes (also known as Don Belong) and Aglipay reformed the Filipino Catholic clergy into the Philippine Independent Church, officially established in 1902. at Wikipedia) for inciting patriotic rebellion among the Filipino clergy, he was also a political activist who became acquainted with Isabelo de los Reyes, who would start an Independent Christian Filipino Church named after Aglipay in 1902. was previously excommunicated by Archbishop Bernardino Norzaleda y Villa of Manila in May 1899, upon the expressed permission of Pope Leo XIII. later joined Freemasonry in May 1918, a society excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church. later married Pilar Jamias y Ver from Sarrat, Ilocos Norte in 1939 and then died one year later. Followers of Aglipay through the church colloquially sometimes refer to their membership as Aglipayans. life in Batac, Ilocos Norte, Aglipay was an orphan who grew up in the tobacco fields in the last volatile decades of the Spanish occupation of the Philippines. bore deep grievances against the colonial Spanish government of the islands, stemming from abuses within the agricultural system. at fourteen when a tobacco-picking worker for not meeting his tobacco quota, later moved to the capital of Manila to study law under the private tutelage of Julian Carpio.[1] two years of study under Carpio, Aglipay continued his studies at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran and at the University of Santo Tomas. obtaining his degree, he then entered the seminary in Ilocos Sur in 1883 and was ordained to the priesthood seven years later. began a career as an assistant priest in various parishes around the main northern island of Luzon. in Victoria, Tarlac, Aglipay gave aid to the revolutionaries and employed thirty carpenters who in reality were revolutionists in touch with the Katipunan group. Despite being a priest, Aglipay, like other revolutionaries, joined Freemasonry.[2] Revolution 1896, the Katipunan was led by the Supremo, Andrés Bonifacio. Bernardino Nozaleda asked Aglipay to confront the revolutionary leaders, offering them a level of autonomy in the future for the Philippines if they would end the rebellion. Aguinaldo, in turn, sent Colonel Luciano San Miguel to Aglipay with the intention of getting him to join the rebellion. the course of Aglipay's journey north, the Philippine–American War started. –American War Aglipay returned to Manila and discovered that the Americans had attacked, he joined the revolution. 20 October 1898, Gen. Aguinaldo appointed Aglipay Military Vicar General of the revolutionaries. Aglipay interpreted this as making him Ecclesiastical Superior to all Filipino priests who, as such, should all be appointed Military Chaplains for the duration of the war.[3] which broke out between the U.S. and Filipino forces on February 4, 1899 prompted Aglipay to withdraw to Ilocos Norte to organize an armed resistance. 29 April 1899, Aglipay was excommunicated for "usurpation of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.[4] the war the end of the war in 1902, Isabelo de los Reyes was working towards the formation of a national church, that is independent of Rome. 3 August he suggested that Aglipay be its first bishop. a devout Catholic at the time, was reluctant, but accepted de los Reyes' offer to establish an independent church. 18 January 1903, Aglipay was appointed Supreme Bishop of the "Philippine Independent Church". Supreme Bishop he allied himself with the nationalist and most radical political parties during his time like the Sakdalistas and later on even with the Socialist and Communist Parties.[4] the theological discussions while visiting other churches while travelling abroad, Aglipay rejected the belief in the Trinity, becoming theologically accepting of the main Unitarian belief however, his own church refused to accept his amended theology. unitarian and progressive theological ideas were evident in his "novena", "Pagsisiyam sa Birhen sa Balintawak", 1925[5] and its English translation, "Novenary of the Motherland", 1926.[6] Bishop Gregorio Aglipay bust (Samal, Bataan, "Iglesia Filipina Independiente" (Philippine Independent Church). life ran for elections as President of the Commonwealth along with the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas Norberto Nabong in a joined Republican-Communist Party ticket in 1935,[4] lost to Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party. married D. Pilar Jamias year in 1939 since his church permits married clergy, but Aglipay died the following year on 1 September 1940. is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States on 5 September.

US, 1881-1934, FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, PRISON REFORMER, Mississippi log cabin wGrandparents, tBro iNew Orleans, Straight College
US, 1881-1934, FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, Holmsville, MS and New Orleans, LA, born Mississippi log cabin, raised bGrandparents, tBro iNew Orleans, Straight College, widowed, dedicated tPrison reform, 1894 prayer meetings letters messages clothing for black&white prisoners, WCTU International delage tScotland 1900, first woman support juvenile offenders iLouisiana, founded juvenile court, founded Gaudet Norman&Industrial School/farm 105 acres, boarding school children wWorking mothers, donated school 1921 Episcopal Church, 1954 Gaudet Episcopal home African American children 4-16, St Lukes Community Center on North Dorgenious St; Holmsville, Mississippi; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER (30 December 1934) ; Joseph-Gaudet (1861- December 1934), reform worker and educator, born in a log cabin in Holmesville, Mississippi of African American and Native American descent. was raised by her grandparents. she went to live with a brother in New Orleans where she attended school and Straight College. early, she dedicated her life to prison reform. in 1894 she held prayer meetings, wrote letters, delivered messages, and secured clothing for black prisoners, and later for white prisoners as well. dedication to prisoners and prison reform won her the respect of prison officials, city authorities, the governor, and the Prison Reform Association. delegate to the Women’s Christian Temperance Union international convention in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1900, she worked for the reform of young blacks arrested for misdemeanor or vagrancy. was the first woman to support juvenile offenders in Louisiana, her efforts helped found the juvenile court. eventually purchased a farm and founded the Gaudet Normal and Industrial School. The school, which eventually expanded to 105 acres and numerous buildings, also served as a boarding school for children with working mothers. served as principal of the school until 1921 when she donated the school to the Episcopal Church of Lousiana. the school closed in 1950, the Gaudet Episcopal Home opened in the same location four years later to serve African American children ages four to sixteen. The endowment fund currently supports St. Luke’s Community Center on North Dorgenois Street, where a hall honors Frances Joseph-Gaudet. from the Episcopal Women's History Project

US, 1882-1953, CHARLES MENNINGER, PIONEER IN MEDICINE, Topeka, Kansas, Menninger Clinic 1925, first Psychiatric cures
US, 1882-1953, Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, Topeka, Kansas (Kansas River 2, Oregon Trail 3), Menninger Clinic w sons 1925, first Psychiatric cures, homwopath, saw Mayo Clinic collaborative group practice; Topeka, Kansas; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; F. Menninger (July 11, 1862 - Nov. 28, 1953), with his two sons, founded the Menninger Clinic in 1925 in Topeka, Kansas. This was one of the first places which sought to treat psychiatric maladies as illnesses which could be cured, rather than simply providing custodial care. was born in Tell City, Indiana, and received his initial medical degree from Hahnemann (homeopathic) Medical School in Chicago. He later moved to Kansas, teaching at Kansas Medical College. He set up a general medical practice in Topeka, gradually becoming interested in psychiatry. He sought collaboration with local Topeka doctors, who tended to reject him due to his homeopathic background. As a consequence, he became enamored of collaborative group practice, such as he saw at the Mayo Clinic. This would later strongly influence his own clinic.

US, 1882-1929, CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop, Luzon Island, Phillippines, helped non-christians
Phillippines, 1882-1929, CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop, Luzon Island, Phillippines, for non-christian muslims, chinese, Luzon Igorots, against opium traffic; Luzon Island, Phillippines; CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); the Spanish-American War (1898), arising from a dispute over Cuba and Puerto Rico, the United States also acquired Guam and the Philippines. (For a brief note on the subsequent history of these territories, see Kamehameha, 28 November.) 1902, the Episcopal Church appointed Charles Brent (at that time serving as priest in charge of a slum parish in Boston) as Missionary Bishop of the Philippines. He arrived on the same ship with the American Governor, William H. Taft, and carried with him the unofficial but very real prestige of the American establishment. could easily have confined himself to providing a kind of ecclesiastical "home away from home" for American officials and others stationed in the Islands. he could have devoted himself chiefly to efforts to convert the Roman Catholics, both of Spanish and of Filipino ancestry, whom the previous government had left behind. he directed his efforts toward the non-Christians of his diocese: the pagan Igorots of the mountains of Luzon, the Muslims of the southern islands, the Chinese settlements in Manila, all areas in which he made considerable inroads and established thriving Christian communities. began a campaign against the opium traffic, and served on several international commissions devoted to stamping out international traffic in narcotics. World War I, he was the Senior Chaplain for the American Armed Forces in Europe. He declined three elections to bishoprics in the United States in order to continue his work in the Philippines, but in 1918, he accepted the position of Bishop of Western New York. experiences in the Philippines had aroused in him a strong concern for the cause of visible Christian unity. wrote: The unity of Christendom is not a luxury, but a necessity. The world will go limping until Christ's prayer that all may be one is answered. We must have unity, not at all costs, but at all risks. A unified Church is the only offering we dare present to the coming Christ, for in it alone will He find room to dwell. helped to organize the first World Conference on Faith and Order, which met in Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1927. He died there in 1929, being 67 years minus 12 days old. following prayer, written by him, is widely used today: Lord Jesus Christ, who didst stretch out thine arms of love upon the hard wood of the Cross, that all men everywhere might come within the reach of thy saving embrace: So clothe us with thy Spirit that we, reaching forth our hands in love, may bring those who do not know thee to the knowledge and love of thee; for the honor of thy Name. writer James Thayer Addison called him "a saint of disciplined mental vigor, one whom soldiers were proud to salute and whom children were happy to play with, who could dominate a parliament and minister to an invalid, a priest and bishop who gloried in the heritage of his Church, yet who stood among all Christian brothers as one who served." by James Kiefer

US, 1882-1937, EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, founded SCHC Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross, offering retreat centers
US, 1882-1937, EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, fHartford, CT (Connecticut River 24), Founded Society otCompanions otHoly Cross, 1883 her friend Adelyn Howard became ill, and lonely invalid, no friends or family, next year Emily&Adalyn founded SCHC, allowing religious invalids to pray for others, work for social justice, simplicity oLife, part oDeaconess movement, 1889 she began her writing career 2yrs after moving tNew Haven, A Little White Shadow, proceeds to fund vacation homes for tired women, 1901 she purchased their headquarters and retreat center, Byfield, MA, named Alynrood, SCHC currently 800 members, offering retreat centers; Hartford, Connecticut; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Comemorated February 26 ; Emily Malbone Morgan [Dec. 10, 1862-Feb. 27, 1937] the founder of the Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross (SCHC). was born in Hartford, Connecticut, the youngest child and only daughter born to merchant Henry Kirke Morgan and the former Emily Malbone Brinley. 1883, Morgan's childhood friend, Adelyn Howard, fell ill with a hip disease, which made her a lonely invalid in a town in which she had no friends or family. following year, Morgan, with Howard and Harriet Hastings of Wellesley, Massachusetts the Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross, allow the shut-in Adelyn—and other religious women who valued thanksgiving, intercessory prayer, and simplicity of life—to pray and work for social justice. 1889, two years after moving to New Haven, began her writing career, A Little White Shadow, the proceeds of which she used to fund vacation homes for "tired women, girls and children." such, Morgan can be considered part of the Deaconess movement in which over 5000 Protestant women participated circa 1890. 1901, Morgan purchased what became their headquarters and retreat center, in Byfield, Massachusetts, was named Adelynrood upon its renovation in 1915 both Howard, who had died in 1898, and an old word for "cross"). Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross currently has approximately eight hundred members and continues to operate retreat centers. information may be found at Project Canterbury, and also at Wikipedia.

US, 1883-1889, Northern Pacific Railway - Pacific Expansion from Bozeman Pass West through Stampede Pass (I90)
Northern Pacific Railway; Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly forty million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km2) of land grants, which it used to raise money in Europe for construction. began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific when former President Ulysses S. Grant drove in the final "golden spike" in western Montana on September 8, 1883. railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the NP had an international branch to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land. Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the NP merged with other lines in 1970 to form the Burlington Northern Railroad, which in turn merged with the Santa Fe Railway to become the BNSF Railway in 1996. Map of NPR Land Grant, c1890 chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864, with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the Pacific, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking Washington and Oregon to the rest of the country.[1] granted the railroad a potential 60 million acres (243,000 km2) of land in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864.[1] It could not use all the land and in the end took just under 40 million acres.[2] Cooke takes control[edit] the next six years, backers of the road struggled to find financing. Though John Gregory Smith succeeded Perham as president on January 5, 1865, groundbreaking did not take place until February 15, 1870, at Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota. backing and promotions of famed financier Jay Cooke in the summer of 1870 brought the first real momentum to the company. The Minnetonka. Over the course of 1871, the Northern Pacific pushed westward from Minnesota into present-day North Dakota. Surveyors and construction crews had to maneuver through swamps, bogs, and tamarack forests. The difficult terrain and insufficient funding delayed by six months the construction phase in Minnesota.[3] NP also began building its line north from Kalama, Washington Territory, on the Columbia River outside of Portland, Oregon, towards Puget Sound. small construction engines were purchased, the Minnetonka, Itaska, Ottertail and St. Cloud, the first of which was shipped to Kalama by ship around Cape Horn. Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad completed construction of its 155-mile (249 km) line stretching from Saint Paul to Lake Superior at Duluth in 1870. It was leased to the Northern Pacific in 1876, and was eventually absorbed by the Northern Pacific. The North Coast Limited was the Northern Pacific's flagship train and the Northern Pacific itself was built along the trail first blazed by Lewis and Clark.[4] Preferred Shares of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company, issued 28. November 1881 Northern Pacific reached Fargo, Dakota Territory (N.D.), early in June 1872. The following year, in June 1873, the N.P. reached the shores of the Missouri River, at Edwinton (Bismarck) D.T. In the west, the track extended 25 miles (40 km) north from Kalama. Surveys were carried out in North Dakota protected by 600 troops under General Winfield Scott Hancock. Headquarters and shops were established in Brainerd, Minnesota, a town named for the President John Gregory Smith's wife Anna Elizabeth Brainerd. A severe stock market crash and financial collapse after 1873, led by the Credit Mobilier Scandal and the Union Pacific Railroad fraud, stopped further railroad building for twelve years. 1886, the company put down 164 miles (264 km) of main line across North Dakota, with an additional 45 miles (72 km) in Washington. November 1, General George Washington Cass became the third president of the company. Cass had been a vice-president and director of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and would lead the Northern Pacific through some of its most difficult times. on survey parties and construction crews by Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa warriors in North Dakota and Minnesota became so prevalent that the company received protection from units of the U.S. Army.[5] 1886, the Northern Pacific also opened colonization offices in Germany and Scandinavia, attracting farmers with cheap package transportation and purchase deals. The success of the NP was based on the abundant crops of wheat and other grains and the attraction to settlers of the Red River Valley along the Minnesota-North Dakota border between 1881 and 1890.[6] Northern Pacific reached Dakota Territory at Fargo in 1872, and began its career as one of the central factors in the economic growth of North Dakota. The climate, although very cold, was suitable for wheat, which was in high demand in the cities of the United States and Europe. Most of the settlers were German and Scandinavian immigrants who bought the land cheaply, and raised large families. They shipped huge quantities of wheat to Minneapolis, while buying all sorts of equipment and home supplies to be shipped in by rail.[7] NP used its federal land grants as security to borrow money to build its system.[8] federal government kept every other section of land, and gave it away free to homesteaders. first the railroad sold much of its holdings at low prices to land speculators in order to realize quick cash profits, and also to eliminate sizable annual tax bills. 1905 the railroad company's land policies changed, after it was judged a costly mistake to have sold much of the land at wholesale prices. better railroad service and improved methods of farming the Northern Pacific easily sold what had been heretofore "worthless" land directly to farmers at good prices. 1910 the railroad's holdings in North Dakota had been greatly reduced.[9][10] of 1873 and first bankruptcy[edit] 1873, Northern Pacific made impressive strides before a terrible stumble. Rails from the east reached the Missouri River on June 4. After several years of study, Tacoma, Washington, was selected as the road's western terminus on July 14, 1873. the previous three years the financial house of Jay Cooke and Company had been throwing money into the construction of the Northern Pacific. As with many western transcontinentals, the staggering costs of building a railroad into a vast wilderness had been drastically underestimated. Cooke had little success in marketing the bonds in Europe and overextended his house in meeting overdrafts of the mounting construction costs. Cooke overestimated his managerial skills and failed to appreciate the limits of a banker's ability to be also a promoter, and the danger of freezing his assets in the bonds of the Northern Pacific.[11] and Company went bankrupt on September 18, 1873. Soon the Panic of 1873 engulfed the United States, beginning an economic depression that ruined or nearly paralyzed newer railroads. Northern Pacific survived bankruptcy that year, due to austerity measures put in place by President Cass. In fact, working with last-minute loans from Director John C. Ainsworth of Portland, the Northern Pacific completed the line from Kalama to Tacoma (110 miles (180 km)) before the end of 1873. On December 16, the first steam train arrived in Tacoma. But in 1874 the company was moribund.[clarification needed] Pacific slipped into its first bankruptcy on June 30, 1875. Cass resigned to become receiver of the company, and Charles Barstow Wright became its fourth president. Frederick Billings, namesake of Billings, Montana, formulated a reorganization plan which was put into effect. 1874 to 1876, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer operating out of Forts Abraham Lincoln and Rice in Dakota Territory conducted expeditions to protect the railroad survey and construction crews in Dakota and Montana Territories.[citation needed] Billings and first reorganization[edit] 1877, construction resumed in a small way. Northern Pacific pushed a branch line southeast from Tacoma to Puyallup, Washington and on to the coal fields around Wilkeson, Washington. Much of the coal was destined for export through Tacoma to San Francisco, California, where it would be thrown into the fireboxes of Central Pacific Railroad steam engines. small amount of construction was one of the largest projects the company would undertake in the years between 1874 and 1880. That same year the company built a large shop complex at Edison, Washington (now part of south Tacoma). For many years the shops at Brainerd and Edison would carry out heavy repairs and build equipment for the railroad. May 24, 1879, Frederick H. Billings became the president of the company. Billings' tenure would be short but ferocious. Reorganization, bond sales, and improvement in the U.S. economy allowed Northern Pacific to strike out across the Missouri River by letting a contract to build 100 miles (160 km) of railroad west of the river. The railroad's new-found strength, however, would be seen as a threat in certain quarters. Henry Villard, Gold Creek, Gold Spike[edit] Yellowstone Park Line Brochure 1904 and Transcontinental stock owned by Henry Villard. journalist Henry Villard had raised capital for western railroads in Europe from 1871 to 1873. After returning to New York in 1874 he invested on behalf of his clients in railroads in Oregon. Through Villard's work, most of these lines became properties of the European creditors' holding company, the Oregon and Transcontinental Company. the lines held by the Oregon and Transcontinental, the most important was the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which ran east from Portland along the left bank of the Columbia River to a connection with the Union Pacific Railroad's Oregon Short Line at the confluence of the Columbia River and the Snake River near Wallula, Washington. a decade of his return, Villard was head of a transportation empire in the Pacific Northwest that had but one real competitor, the Northern Pacific. The Northern Pacific's completion threatened the holdings of Villard in the Northwest, and especially in Portland. Portland would become a second-class city if the Puget Sound ports at Tacoma and Seattle, Washington, were connected to the East by rail. who had been building a monopoly of river and rail transportation in Oregon for several years, now launched a daring raid. Using his European connections and a reputation for having "bested" Jay Gould in a battle for control of the Kansas Pacific years before, Villard solicited – and raised – $8,000,000 from his associates. This was his famous "Blind Pool," Villard's associates were not told what the money would be used for. In this case, the funds were used to purchase control of the Northern Pacific. a tough fight, Billings and his backers were forced to capitulate; he resigned the presidency June 9, 1881. Ashbel H. Barney, former President of Wells Fargo & Company, served briefly as interim caretaker of the railroad from June 19 to September 15, when Villard was elected president by the stockholders. For the next two years, Villard and the Northern Pacific rode the whirlwind. 1882, 360 miles (580 km) of main line and 368 miles (592 km) of branch line were completed, bringing totals to 1,347 miles (2,168 km) and 731 miles (1,176 km), respectively. October 10, 1882, the line from Wadena, Minnesota, to Fergus Falls, Minnesota, opened for service. The Missouri River was bridged with a million-dollar span on October 21, 1883. Until then, crossing of the Missouri had had to be managed with a ferry service for most of the year; in winter, when ice was thick enough, rails were laid across the river itself. Herman Haupt, another veteran of the Civil War and the Pennsylvania Railroad, organized the Northern Pacific Beneficial Association in 1881. A forerunner of the modern health maintenance organization, the NPBA ultimately established a series of four hospitals across the system in Saint Paul, Minnesota; Glendive, Montana; Missoula, Montana; and Tacoma, Washington, to care for employees, retirees, and their families. January 15, 1883, the first train reached Livingston, Montana, at the eastern foot of Bozeman Pass. Livingston, like Brainerd and South Tacoma before it, would grow to encompass a large backshop handling heavy repairs for the railroad. It would also mark the east–west dividing line on the Northern Pacific system. pushed hard for the completion of the Northern Pacific in 1883. His crews laid an average of a mile and half (2.4 km) of track each day. In early September, the line neared completion. celebrate, and to gain national publicity for investment opportunities in his region, Villard chartered four trains to carry guests from the East to Gold Creek in western Montana. No expense was spared and the list of dignitaries included Frederick Billings, Ulysses S. Grant, and Villard's in-laws, the family of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. On September 8, the Gold Spike was driven near Gold Creek.[12] to Puget Sound[edit] fall was swifter than his ascendancy. Like Jay Cooke, he was now consumed by the enormous costs of constructing the railroad. Street bears attacked the stock shortly after the Golden Spike, after the realization that the Northern Pacific was a very long road with very little business. himself suffered a nervous breakdown in the days after the driving of the Golden Spike, and he left the presidency of the Northern Pacific in January 1884. the presidency of the Northern Pacific was handed to a professional railroader, Robert Harris, former head of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. For the next four years, until the return of the Villard group, Harris worked at improving the property and ending its tangled relationship with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. the mid-1880s, the Northern Pacific pushed to reach Puget Sound directly, rather than by means of a roundabout route that followed the Columbia River. of the Cascade Mountains, carried out intermittently since the 1870s, began anew. Virgil Bogue, a veteran civil engineer, was sent to explore the Cascades again. On March 19, 1881, he discovered Stampede Pass. 1883, John W. Sprague, the head of the new Pacific Division, drove the Golden Spike to mark the beginning of the railroad from what would become Kalama, Washington. He resigned a months later due to impaired health. 1884, after the departure of Villard, the Northern Pacific began building toward Stampede Pass from Wallula in the east and the area of Wilkeson in the west. By the end of the year, rails had reached Yakima, Washington in the east. A 77-mile (124 km) gap remained in 1886. January of that year, Nelson Bennett was given a contract to construct a 9,850-foot (1.866 mi; 3.00 km) tunnel under Stampede Pass. The contract specified a short amount of time for completion, and a large penalty if the deadline were missed. While crews worked on the tunnel, the railroad built a temporary switchback route across the pass. With numerous timber trestles and grades which approached six percent, the temporary line required two M class 2-10-0s — the two largest locomotives in the world (at that time) — to handle a tiny five-car train. On May 3, 1888, crews holed through the tunnel, and on May 27 the first train passed through directly to Puget Sound. and the Panic of 1893[edit] this success, the Northern Pacific, like many U.S. roads, was living on borrowed time. From 1887 until 1893, Henry Villard returned to the board of directors. Though offered the presidency, he refused. An associate of Villard dating back to his time on the Kansas Pacific, Thomas Fletcher Oakes, assumed the presidency on September 20, 1888. an effort to garner business, Oakes pursued an aggressive policy of branch line expansion. addition, the Northern Pacific experienced the first competition in the form of James Jerome Hill and his Great Northern Railway. The Great Northern, like the Northern Pacific before it, was pushing west from the Twin Cities towards Puget Sound, and would be completed in 1893. sparse traffic, and the Panic of 1893 sounded the death knell for the Northern Pacific and Villard's interest in railroading. The company slipped into its second bankruptcy on October 20, 1893. Oakes was named receiver and Brayton Ives, a former chairman of the New York Stock Exchange, became president. labor dispute[edit] 1894, the 10th Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army was involved in protecting property of the Northern Pacific Railroad from striking workers.[13] Villard to Morganization[edit] the next three years, the Villard-Oakes interests and the Ives interest feuded for control of the Northern Pacific. Oakes was eventually forced out as receiver, but not before three separate courts were claiming jurisdiction over the Northern Pacific's bankruptcy. Things came to a head in 1896, when first Edward Dean Adams was appointed president, then less than two months later, Edwin Winter. the task of straightening out the muddle of the Northern Pacific was turned over to J. P. Morgan. Morganization of the Northern Pacific, a process which befell many U.S. roads in the wake of the Panic of 1893, was handed to Morgan lieutenant Charles Henry Coster. The new president, beginning September 1, 1897, was Charles Sanger Mellen.[14] James J. Hill had purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific during the troubled days of 1896, Coster and Mellen would advocate, and follow, a staunchly independent line for the Northern Pacific for the next four years. Only the early death of Coster from overwork, and the promotion of Mellen to head the Morgan-controlled New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1903, would bring the Northern Pacific closer to the orbit of James J. Hill.[15] Map of Northern Pacific's route circa 1900. Hill, Harriman and the Northern Pacific Corner[edit] the late 1880s, the Villard regime, in another one of its costly missteps, attempted to stretch the Northern Pacific from the Twin Cities to the all-important rail hub of Chicago, Illinois. A costly project was begun in creating a union station and terminal facilities for a Northern Pacific which had yet to arrive. than build directly down to Chicago, perhaps following the Mississippi River as the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy had done, Villard chose to lease the Wisconsin Central. Some backers of the Wisconsin Central had long associations with Villard, and an expensive lease was worked out between the two companies which was only undone by the Northern Pacific's second bankruptcy. ultimate result was that the Northern Pacific was left without a direct connection to Chicago, the primary interchange point for most of the large U.S. railroads. Fortunately, the Northern Pacific was not alone. James J. Hill, controller of the Great Northern Railway, which was completed between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound in 1893, also lacked a direct connection to Chicago. Hill went looking for a road with an existing route between the Twin Cities and Chicago which could be rolled into his holdings and give him a stable path to that important interchange. the same time, E. H. Harriman, head of the Union Pacific Railroad, was also looking for a road which could connect his company to Chicago. The road both Harriman and Hill looked at was the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. Harriman, the Burlington was a road which paralleled much of his own, and offered tantalizing direct access to Chicago. For Hill as well, there was the possibility of a high-speed link directly with Chicago. Though the Burlington did not parallel the Great Northern or the Northern Pacific, it would give them a powerful railroad in the central West. was the first to approach the Burlington's aging leader, the irascible Charles Elliott Perkins. The price for control of the Burlington, as set by Perkins, was $200 a share, more than Harriman was willing to pay. met the price, and control of the Burlington was divided equally at about 48.5 percent each between the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific. to be outdone, Harriman now came up with a crafty plan: Buy a controlling interest in the Northern Pacific and use its power on the Burlington to place friendly directors upon its board. On May 3, 1901, Harriman began his stock raid which would become known as the Northern Pacific Corner. the end of the day he was short just 40,000 shares of common stock. Harriman placed an order to cover this, but was overridden by his broker, Jacob Schiff, of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. on the other hand, reached the vacationing Morgan in Italy and managed to place an order for 150,000 shares of common stock. Though Harriman might be able to control the preferred stock, Hill knew the company bylaws allowed for the holders of the common stock to vote to retire the preferred. three days the Harriman-Hill imbroglio managed to wreak havoc on the stock market. Northern Pacific stock was quoted at $150 a share on May 6, and is reported to have traded as much as $1,000 a share behind the scenes. Harriman and Hill now worked to settle the issue for brokers to avoid panic. Hill, for his part, attempted to avoid future stock raids by placing his holdings in the Northern Securities Company, a move which would be undone by the Supreme Court in 1904 under the auspices of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. was not immune either; he was forced to break up his holdings in the Union Pacific Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad a few years later. Hill to Howard Elliott[edit] 1903, Hill finally got his way with the House of Morgan. Howard Elliott, another veteran of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, became president of the Northern Pacific on October 23. Elliott was a relative of the Burlington's crusty chieftain Charles Elliott Perkins, and more distantly the Burlington's great backer, John Murray Forbes. He had spent 20 years in the trenches of Midwest railroading, where rebates, pooling, expansion and rate wars had brought ruinous competition. Having seen the effects of having multiple railroads attempt to serve the same destination, he was very much in tune with James J. Hill's philosophy of "community of interest," a loose affiliation or collusion among roads in an attempt to avoid duplicating routes, rate wars, weak finances and ultimately bankruptcies and reorganizations. would be left to make peace with the Hill-controlled Great Northern; the Harriman-controlled Union Pacific; and, between 1907 and 1909, the last of the northern transcontinentals, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, more commonly known as the Milwaukee Road. A Northern Pacific train travels over Bozeman Pass in June 1939 the twentieth century[edit] the turn of the century the Northern Pacific had a record of steady improvement. Together with the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific also gained control of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, gaining important access to Chicago, the central Middle West and Texas, as well as the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway, an important route through eastern and southern Washington. physical plant was upgraded continuously, with double-tracking in key areas, and automatic block signaling along its entire main line. This in turn gave way to centralized traffic control, microwave and radio communications as time progressed.[citation needed] Northern Pacific maintained and continuously upgraded its equipment and service. The road helped pioneer the 4-8-4 Northern type steam engine and the 2-8-8-4 Yellowstone. was among the first railroads in the country to adopt diesel power beginning with General Motors’ FTs in 1944.[citation needed] Despite this, with cheap (albeit low-quality) coal reserves in Wyoming it was among the last US railroads to complete dieselization, in 1960. NP depot at Wallace, Idaho, 2007 Northern Pacific's premier passenger train, the North Coast Limited was among the safest and finest in the nation, suffering only one passenger fatality in nearly seventy years of operation.[citation needed] 1900, most of the remaining land-grant holdings were located west of Montana, in the "western district." railroad still hoped to sell this land, both to provide operating funds and to populate the region to provide new markets to sustain the railroad. Nearly all the good farm land had been sold, leaving large tracts of grazing land or timber. The grazing acreage was poor quality, and difficult to sell. However, the timber lands were of high quality; much of these were sold to Frederick Weyerhaeuser.[16] of the Hill Lines[edit] later years, Louis W. Menk became president of the Northern Pacific, and then he brought it together with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 2, 1970, to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. The merger was allowed despite a challenge in the Supreme Court, essentially reversing the outcome of the 1904 Northern Securities ruling. A 900 mi (1,400 km) portion of the former Northern Pacific mainline in Montana was spun off and is now operated by Montana Rail Link. Revenue freight traffic, in millions of net ton-miles (including M&I, G&P) Year Traffic 1925 6852 1933 3600 1944 14679 1960 11360 1967 13629 Source: ICC annual reports 1949, the Northern Pacific's headquarters in Saint Paul presided over a system of 6,889 miles (11,087 km), which 2,831 miles (4,556 km) of main line, 4,057 miles (6,529 km) of branch line under seven operating divisions. Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches. Paul[edit] in St. Paul, Minnesota in the company's Railroad and Bank Building, the St. Paul Division's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches. in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches. in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches. Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana. in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches. in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17] the railroad expanded, immigrants, families, and single men moved to the Pacific Northwest. Tacoma's population grew rapidly: in 1880 there were 1,098 residents, and in 1889 there were 36,000.[18] service[edit] line encouraged people to make their homes in the Pacific Northwest by having an "immigration agent" and offering special excursion trains for prospective buyers during the winter months. North Coast Limited was the premier passenger train operated by the Northern Pacific Railway between Chicago and Seattle via Butte, Montana and Homestake Pass. It commenced service on April 29, 1900, served briefly as a Burlington Northern train after the merger on March 2, 1970, and ceased operation on April 30, 1971, the day before Amtrak began service. The Chicago Union Station to Saint Paul leg of the train's route was operated by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad along its Mississippi River mainline through Wisconsin. Northern Pacific's secondary transcontinental passenger train was the Alaskan, until it was replaced by the Mainstreeter on November 16, 1952.[19][page needed] Mainstreeter, which operated via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, continued in service through the Burlington Northern merger until Amtrak Day (May 1, 1971). It had been reduced to a Saint Paul to Seattle train after the last run of the former Burlington Route Black Hawk on April 12–13, 1970. Northern Pacific also participated in the Coast Pool Train service between Portland and Seattle with the Great Northern Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. NP and GN Coast Pool Trains lasted until Amtrak. were several other passenger trains which were discontinued before the Burlington Northern merger. These included: Saint Paul to International Falls, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Duluth, Minnesota (which at one time was also a pool operation, with Great Northern Railway and the Soo Line); Duluth to Staples, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Jamestown, North Dakota (the last remnant of the Alaskan); Fargo, North Dakota to Winnipeg, Manitoba; The Route of "the Great Big Baked Potato"[edit] Actress Lillian Russell and other Hollywood stars were hired to promote the railroad's potatoes. comic postcard circa 1910 to 1920 promoting "The Great Big Baked Potato". Hazen Titus was appointed as the line's dining car superintendent in 1908. He learned that Yakima Valley farmers were unable to sell their potato crops because the potatoes they were growing were simply too large; they fed them to the hogs. Titus learned that a single potato could weigh from two to five pounds, but that smaller potatoes were preferred by the end buyers of the vegetable because many people considered large potatoes inedible due to their thick, rough skin.[20] and his staff discovered the "inedible" potatoes were delicious after baking in a slow oven. He contracted to purchase as many potatoes as the farmers could produce that were more than two pounds in weight. Soon after the first delivery of "Netted Gem Bakers", they were offered to diners on the North Coast Limited beginning in early 1909. Word of the line's specialty offering traveled quickly, and before long it was using "the Great Big Baked Potato" as a slogan to promote the railroad's passenger service. Hollywood stars were hired to promote it.[21] When an addition was built for the Northern Pacific's Seattle commissary in 1914, a Railway Age reporter wrote, "A large trade mark, in the shape of a baked potato, 40 ft. long and 18 ft. in diameter, surmounts the roof. The potato is electric lighted and its eyes, through the electric mechanism, are made to wink constantly. A cube of butter thrust into its split top glows intermittently." Premiums such as postcards, letter openers, and spoons were also produced to promote "The Route of the Great Big Baked Potato"; the slogan served the Northern Pacific for about 50 years.[20]

Tacoma, Washington, Headquarters Tacoma Division Northern Pacific RWY
Tacoma, Washington; in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17]

NP Railroad Tacoma Division Yakima to Tacoma over Stampede Pass through Auburn

Edison, Washington NP Repair Facility, Tacoma
Tacoma, Washington;

Puyallup, Washington

Puyallup River Folder

White River (Puyallup River, Stuck River) Mouth
White River (Puyallup River) Mouth;

White River Source, Mt Ranier
White River Source, Mt Ranier;

White River 1, Greenwater, WA
White River 1, Greenwater, WA;

White River 2, Buckley, WA
White River 2, Buckley, WA;

White River 2, Enumclaw, WA
White River 2, Enumclaw, WA;

White River 3, Pacific, WA
White River 3, Pacific, WA;

White River Source 2, Clearwater River

White River

Puyallup River Mouth, Commencement Bay Tacoma
Puyallup River Mouth, Commencement Bay Tacoma;

Puyallup River Source, Mt Ranier
Puyallup River Source, Mt Ranier;

Puyallup Glacier, North Puyallup River Source
Puyallup Glacier, North Puyallup River Source;

Tahoma Glacier, South Puyallup River Source
Tahoma Glacier, South Puyallup River Source;

Puyallup River Source 1 Tahoma Glacier, South Puyallup River

Puyallup River Source 1, Puyallup Glacier, North Puyallup River

Mowich River Mouth, Puyallup River 1
Mowich River Mouth, Puyallup River 1;

Mowich River Source, South Mowich Glacier
Mowich River Source, South Mowich Glacier;

Mowich River

Electron and Kapowsin, Puyallup River 2
Electron and Kapowsin, Puyallup River 2;

Orting, Washington, and Carbon River Mouth, Puyallup River 3
Orting, Washington, and Carbon River Mouth, Puyallup River 3; Carbon River;

Carbon River Source, Carbon Glacier, Mt Ranier
Carbon Glacier, Mt Ranier;

Carbon River

Puyallup River 4, White River Mouth, Sumner, WA
Puyallup River 4, White River Mouth, Sumner, WA;

Puyallup River 6, Fife, WA
Puyallup River 6, Fife, WA;

Puyallup River

Wilkeson, Washington, Coal Fields
Wilkeson, Washington

Wilkerson Coal Fields, Black Diamond to Meeker through Puyallup and Orting, NP Railroad

Missoula, Montana, Northern Pacific Beneficial Association (NPBA) Hospital
Missoula, Montana;

Gold Creek (Montana)
Gold Creek (Montana);

Stampede Pass
Stampede Pass;

Yakima, Washington
Yakima, Washington;

Clark Fork River

Arlee, MT

Missoula, Arlee, Jocko, Flathead River, Paradise, Spokane Divison, NP Railroad

Jocko, MT

Flathead River

Dixon, MT, Flathead River

Paradise, MT, Rocky Mt Division Livingston to Paradise Via Helena
Rocky Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.

Paradise, MT, East End Idaho Division Northern Pacific Railroad
Paradise, MT
in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches.

Plains, MT

Eddy, MT

Thompson Falls, MT

Belknap, MT

Noxon, MT

Heron, MT

Clark Fork, ID

Hope, ID

Kootenai, ID

Granite, ID

Rathdrum, ID

Spokane, WA

Columbia River

Spokane, WA, Idaho Division Headquarters Northern Pacific Railroad
Spokane, WA
in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches.

Idaho Division Parradise Mt to Yakima, WA throuth Spokane, WA, Northern Pacific RWY

Marshall, WA

Cheney, WA

Pasco, WA

Lind, WA

Sprague, WA

Ritzville, WA

Connell, WA

Ellensburg, WA

Prosser, WA

Status, WA

Yakima, WA

Yakima, WA, West End Idaho Division Norther Pacific Railroad
Yakima, WA
in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches.

Yakima River

Rosa, WA

Hatton, WA

Meeker, WA Puyallup, WA

Auburn, WA

Franklin Ghost Town, Black Diamond, WA

Cle Elum, WA

Ronald, WA

Stampede, WA

Eagle Gorge, WA

Logan, MT
Rocky Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.

NP Railroad - Rocky Mt Division - Logan to Garrison via Butte and Homestake Pass
Rocky Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.

Helena, MT

NP Railroad Rock Mt Division - Livingston to Paradise via Helena

NP Railroad, Rocky Mt Division - Phillipsburg Mines, Smelter and Rock Creek

Elliston, MT

Avon, MT

Garrison, MT

Whitehall, MT

Homestake, MT Homestake Pass
Homestake, MT

Butte, MT

Anaconda, MT

Rumsley, MT

Deer Lodge, MT

Drummond, MT

Clinton, MT

Clark Fork River (Butte, Deer Lodge, Anaconda, Silver Bow Creek)

Clark Fork River (Warm Springs Creek)

US, 1885-1889, President, Grover Cleveland, honest, moral, unpopular but successful leader, policy maker
US President, 1885-1889, Grover Cleveland ; Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American history to serve two nonconsecutive terms in office.[b] He won the popular vote for three presidential elections—in 1884, 1888, and 1892—and was one of two Democrats (followed by Woodrow Wilson in 1912) to be elected president during the era of Republican presidential domination dating from 1861 to 1933. Born to a Presbyterian minister and his wife, Cleveland grew up in upstate New York. In 1881, he was elected mayor of Buffalo and later, governor of New York. Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs; Free Silver; inflation; imperialism; and subsidies to business, farmers, or veterans. His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era.[1] Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism.[2] He fought political corruption, patronage, and bossism. As a reformer, Cleveland had such prestige that the like-minded wing of the Republican Party, called "Mugwumps", largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket and swung to his support in the 1884 election.[3] As his second administration began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a severe national depression. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. The result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era.[4] was a formidable policymaker, and he also drew corresponding criticism. intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 to keep the railroads moving angered labor unions nationwide in addition to the party in Illinois; his support of the gold standard and opposition to Free Silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party.[5] Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term.[5] so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term. Biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "[I]n Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have. He possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not."[6] By the end of his second term, public perception showed him to be one of the most unpopular U.S. presidents, and he was by then rejected even by most Democrats.[7] Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader, and has been praised for honesty, integrity, adherence to his morals and defying party boundaries, and effective leadership. He is generally ranked among the upper-mid tier of American presidents. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1885-1890, Southern Pacific Railroad
Southern Pacific Railroad; Central Pacific Railroad

US, 1886-1949, HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, first formal orchestral arrangements for more than 100 Negro spirituals
US, 1886-1949, HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, St. George's Episcopal church, Midtown, Manhattan, NYC, COMPOSER, first formal orchestral arrangements for more than 100 Negro spirituals; St. George's Episcopal church in New York City; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949 ; "Harry" Thacker Burleigh (December 2, 1866 – September 12, 1949), baritone, was an African American classical composer, arranger, and professional singer. 1894, he became a soloist for St. George's Episcopal church in New York City. was opposition to hiring Burleigh at the all-white church from some parishioners, because of his race, at a time when other white New York Episcopal churches were forbidding black people to worship. P. Morgan, a member of St. George's at that time, cast the deciding vote to hire Burleigh. spite of the initial problems obtaining the appointment, Burleigh became close to many of the members during his long tenure as a soloist at the church. also made the first formal orchestral arrangements for more than 100 Negro spirituals, including Nobody Knows (the Trouble I've Seen). best-known compositions are his arrangements of these spirituals, as art songs. were so popular during the late 1910s and 1920s, that almost no vocal recitalist gave a concert in a major city without occasionally singing them. many ways, the popularity of Burleigh's settings contributed to an explosion of popularity for the genre during the 1920s. the 1920s and 1930s, Burleigh continued to promote the spirituals through publications, lectures, and arrangements. life-long advocacy for the spiritual eclipsed his singing career, and his arrangements of art songs. was the first black composer to be instrumental in the development of a characteristically American music and he helped to make black music available to classically-trained artists both by introducing them to the music and by arranging the music in a more classical form. (more from Wikipedia)

US, 1885-1947, ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, first&only African American deaconess, mission founder, teacher, moral values
US, 1885-1947, ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, Butler plantation on St. Simons Island, Glynn Co., Georgia, African American deaconess, mission founder, teacher, moral values; Butler plantation on St. Simons Island, Glynn Co., Georgia; ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, EDUCATOR, 24 SEPT. 1947; Ellison Butler Alexander (circa 1865 – September 24, 1947) the first and only African-American consecrated a Deaconess in the Episcopal Church. She served in the Episcopal Diocese of Georgia during her entire career. Alexander was born in 1865 to recently-emancipated slaves on the Butler plantation on St. Simons Island, Glynn Co., Georgia. father had been taught to read by the English actress Fanny Kemble (who later wrote an influential book condemning slave life there). Perhaps this encouraged Anna interest in education. Alexander family soon moved to Pennick, Georgia, just outside Brunswick, to take advantage of land south of the Altamaha River previously held by poor whites. father became a carpenter-builder and a community leader. first taught at the public school in Pennick. she moved to Darien, Georgia, where her sister Mary founded a school affiliated with St. Cyprian's Episcopal Church, and all three sisters taught. 1894, with the cooperation of the Brunswick priest, Anna founded a mission in Pennick, while still teaching at Darien during the week, making a 40 mile round trip by boat and foot. mission faltered when Anna accepted a position at St. Paul's Normal and Industrial School (as well as enrolled in the new teachers college there) in Lawrenceville, Virginia. 1897, she returned to Pennick and revitalized the mission. congregation was renamed Church of the Good Shepherd, and Alexander also started a school. supported herself by taking in sewing, and managed to buy property in 1902, where her brother Charles Alexander and other men then erected a church. 1907, bishop Cleland Kinloch Nelson addressed the second annual meeting of the diocese's council of colored churchmen, held at the Church of the Good Shepherd, and consecrated Anna as a deaconess. became the first and only African-American deaconess. worked in the Altamaha River area for the rest of her life, teaching not only academic subjects, but also moral values. diocese of Georgia split in 1907 and Nelson chose to associate with the new Episcopal Diocese of Atlanta. successor in the Diocese of Georgia, Frederick Focke Reese, excluded African-Americans from church government in the diocese, and extended almost no diocesan financial support to African-Americans. forced Alexander and others to make do, as well as seek support from outside the diocese, including from the Episcopal Board of Missions. the bad crop years of the late 1920s through the Great Depression, Alexander continued to work in her hardscrabble community, whose members built the current wooden church building in 1928. died on September 24, 1947 and was buried at the cemetery at Camp Reese, a diocesan camp on St. Simons where she had worked. 2004, she was reinterred at Good Shepherd Church in Pennick, which she had founded and where she had worked for many years. more at Wikipedia

US, 1886-1961, Charles Harrison (CH) Mason, Pentecostal Saint, COGIC, Memphis, Tongues, Yes Lord
Shelby, County, TN; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; Charles Harrison Mason Sr. (September 8, 1866 – November 17, 1961) was an American Holiness–Pentecostal pastor and minister.[1][2] He was the founder and first Senior Bishop of the Church of God in Christ, based in Memphis, Tennessee. It developed into what is today the largest Holiness Pentecostal church denomination and one of the largest predominantly African-American Christian denominations in the United States.[1][3] and early ministry was born the son of former slaves Jerry and Eliza Mason in Shelby County, Tennessee. He lived with his family in an unincorporated area near Bartlett. Mason worked with his family sharecropping and he did not receive an early formal education. As a child, Mason was greatly influenced by the religion of his parents. In at the age of fifteen Mason joined the Missionary Baptist Church in Shelby County; he was later baptized as a Christian by his older half-brother, Rev. I. S. Nelson.[4] had initially opposed pursuing ministry as a clergyman during his childhood and told his family he only wanted to remain a church lay member. Mason was 14 years old, he contracted tuberculosis, when a tuberculosis and yellow fever epidemic spread through Shelby County in 1880.[5] Because there were no medical centers or hospitals that would treat African Americans in Shelby County, and the small, poor medical centers that were owned and operated by African Americans proved to be of little help to the residents of Shelby County, Mason's father, Jerry died from the infectious disease, and the family was forced to relocate to Preston, Arkansas. moving to Arkansas, as his own health briefly worsened, when Mason's mother and siblings prayed for him and asked the parishioners at a local Baptist church to pray for him, Mason was reportedly miraculously healed and quickly recovered. After fully recovering from the tuberculosis, it was then when he told his family and the local parishioners of the Baptist church his family had joined (which would later be known as the Mount Gale Missionary Baptist Church), "he believed God had healed him for the express purpose of alerting him to his spiritual duty"; He acknowledged throughout his teenage and young adult years subsequently that he believed "God called him into full-time ministry from then on."[4][6][5] 1893, at the age of 27, Mason began his own ministerial career by accepting a local license from the Mount Gale Missionary Baptist Church in Preston, Arkansas. On November 1, 1893, Mason entered the Arkansas Baptist College, but withdrew after three months because of his dissatisfaction with their curriculum and methodology. He claimed his reason for leaving was because he believed "the teachings being promulgated at the particular Bible college were too liberal," and "...did not have a strong enough emphasis on the Word of God"; he was deeply disturbed by the particular hermeneutics and philosophical presuppositions that were underlying the curriculum set forth by the college and left in January 1894.[7][8] to Holiness and Pentecostalism this period Mason became enamored with the autobiography of Amanda Berry Smith, an African Methodist Episcopal church evangelist. Smith had converted to the new wave of Holiness that was spreading during the latter part of the nineteenth century.[4] Those who had accepted the Holiness message testified to being "entirely sanctified" and cleansed from sin. Mason claimed sanctification and began preaching the doctrine of Holiness and Sanctification in the local Baptist churches. In 1895, Mason also became acquainted with Charles Price Jones, a popular Baptist preacher from Mississippi who shared his enthusiasm for Holiness teachings, as well as J. E. Jeter from Little Rock, Arkansas, and W. S. Pleasant from Hazelhurst, Mississippi. These men spread the doctrine of Holiness and Sanctification throughout the African-American Baptist churches in Mississippi, Arkansas, and western Tennessee.[4][8][5] June 1896, these men conducted a revival, preaching the message of Sanctification and Holiness that eventually led to their expulsion from the local Baptist association.[7] In 1897, Mason and Jones formed a new fellowship of churches named simply "Church of God." Mason suggested the name "the Church of God in Christ," a name that he said came to him during a vision in Little Rock, Arkansas. The name could distinguish the new church from a number of "Church of God" groups that were forming at the time. March 1907, Mason was sent by the church to Los Angeles to investigate the Azusa Street Revival being led by Reverend William J. Seymour.[9] His stay lasted six weeks, and before it was over he experienced the baptism of the Holy Ghost and spoke in tongues.[8][5][10] testimony of receiving the baptism with the Holy Ghost Main article: Baptism with the Holy Spirit following are excerpts from Elder Mason's personal testimony regarding his receiving the Holy Ghost. "The first day in the meeting I sat to myself, away from those that went with me. I began to thank God in my heart for all things, for when I heard some speak in tongues, I knew it was right though I did not understand it. Nevertheless, it was sweet to me. I also thank God for Elder Seymour who came and preached a wonderful sermon. His words were sweet and powerful and it seems that I hear them now while writing. When he closed his sermon, he said 'All of those that want to be sanctified or baptized with the Holy Ghost, go to the upper room; and all those that want to be justified, come to the altar.' I said that is the place for me, for it may be that I am not converted and if not, God knows it and can convert me..." "Glory!" "The second night of prayer I saw a vision. I saw myself standing alone and had a dry roll of paper in my mouth trying to swallow it. Looking up towards the heavens, there appeared a man at my side. I turned my eyes at once, then I awoke and the interpretation came. God had me swallowing the whole book and if I did not turn my eyes to anyone but God and Him only, He would baptize me. I said yes to Him, and at once in the morning when I arose, I could hear a voice in me saying, "I see..." "I got a place at the altar and began to thank God. After that, I said Lord if I could only baptize myself, I would do so; for I wanted the baptism so bad I did not know what to do. I said, Lord, You will have to do the work for me; so I turned it over into His hands." "Then, I began to ask for the baptism of the Holy Ghost according to Acts 2:4("All were filled with the Holy Spirit. They began to express themselves in foreign tongues and make bold proclamation as the Spirit prompted them") and Acts 2:41 ("Then they that gladly received His word were baptized"). Then I saw that I had a right to be glad and not sad." "The enemy said to me, there may be something wrong with you. Then a voice spoke to me saying, "If there is anything wrong with you, Christ will find it and take it away and marry you...Someone said, 'Let us sing.' I arose and the first song that came to me was 'He brought me out of the Miry Clay.' O Glory Hallelujah! Praise His most wonderful name! The Spirit came upon the saints and upon me...Then I gave up for the Lord to have His way within me. So there came a wave of Glory into me and all of my being was filled with the Glory of the Lord. So when He had gotten me straight on my feet, there came a light which enveloped my entire being above the brightness of the sun. When I opened my mouth to say Glory, a flame touched my tongue which ran down me. My language changed and no word could I speak in my own tongue. Oh! I was filled with the Glory of the Lord. My soul was then satisfied.[7] and Senior Bishop of the Church of God in Christ after his experience in Los Angeles, he returned to Mississippi preaching the new Pentecostal teachings on the Baptism of the Holy Ghost. He found that Elder Jones, the general overseer of the group, was opposed to it. After much debate at the general convocation in June 1907, Mason was expelled from the church. Later in November, he established a new pentecosal group in Memphis. He was elected the General Overseer of his group. years of conflict, in 1915 Mason won the legal rights to the name and charter of the Church of God in Christ (COGIC). In the years that followed, Mason directed his fledgling denomination. He commissioned traveling evangelists to spread COGIC's message, establishing working partnerships with various individuals, and particularly targeting the masses of African Americans headed for work in Northern cities in the Great Migration. He also founded two churches, Temple Church of God in Christ and St. Paul's Church of God in Christ. moving to Memphis and establishing it as the headquarters of COGIC, Mason founded and pastored the Temple COGIC. He established the annual "International Holy Convocation" to be held annually each year. As the church continued to grow, he established departments and auxiliaries including the Women's Department, Sunday School, and Young People Willing Workers (YPWW) which is known today as the International Youth Department (IYD). also appointed overseers and established dioceses of the church throughout the country. Mason's preaching was very practical and his delivery was spontaneous, often moving from teaching to preaching to singing and praying all in one presentation. he is most known for his consistent, disciplined and deliberate prayer life. In fact, COGIC prides itself as a church built on prayer and fasting. Mason is credited with writing the prayer chant, "Yes Lord" that has become known worldwide and sung not only by COGIC, but countless churches and other denominations and reformations. traveled the length and breadth of the country and many foreign lands preaching and establishing COGIC churches. Bishop Mason was not exclusive in his ministry, he preached in COGIC and non-COGIC churches alike. He also preached to interracial audiences as well. In fact Bishop Mason licensed several white Pentecostal ministers and in 1914 he preached at the founding meeting of the Assemblies of God. In 1911, he established the first auxiliaries and departments of the church including: Women, Young People Willing Workers (YPWW), and Sunday School. 1917, he was monitored by the government for speaking in opposition to America's entrance and support of World War I. His opposition, however, stemmed from the use of African-American men being called to fight for democracy abroad while having to face racism and discrimination here at home. 1917, he also purchased 400 acres in Lexington, MS to establish the Saints Industrial and Literary School. The school began classes in 1918 and eventually became Saint's College. The college was the major institution of higher learning for COGIC youth until closed in 1976.[5] 1926, Mason further organized COGIC by authorizing the church's constitution outlining the bylaws, rules, and regulations of the church. 1933, Bishop Mason set apart five overseers who became the first bishops in the church. 1945, Mason dedicated the now historic Mason Temple in Memphis as the church's national meeting site. At that time, it was the largest auditorium of any African-American religious group in the United States. In 1951, he set up a "special commission" and selected Bishop A. B. McEwen, Bishop J. S. Bailey, and Bishop O.M. Kelly as his assistants to help with the administration and oversight of the church. In 1952, he added Bishop J. O. Patterson, Sr. to this commission. Also in 1952, Bishop Mason revised the constitution to determine the leadership and succession of the church after his demise.[7][8] life 1890, Mason dated, courted, and married Alice Saxton, the daughter of one of his mother's friends.[4] Two years later, they divorced, due to Saxton's disagreement over Mason's ministerial life. remarried years later.[4] Saxton would succumb to illness and die in 1904.[4] A year after the death of his first wife, he courted and married Lelia Washington in 1905,[5] and to this union were born seven children; Deborah Indiana Mason Patterson, Lelia Mason Byas, Robert Mason, Arthur Mason, Alice Mason Amos, Mary Ester Mason, Julia Mason Atkins, and Ruth Mason Lewis. 1943, after the death of his second wife in 1936, he married his third and final wife, Elsie Washington (no relation to Leila Washington), who died in 2006. Bishop Mason died on November 17, 1961 in Detroit, MI at the age of 97.[4][8] funeral was held during the International Holy Convocation in Memphis and he was entombed in Mason Temple. He served as Senior Bishop of COGIC for 54 years and is recognized as one of the longest serving founders of a religious organization. By the time of Bishop Mason's death in 1961, COGIC had spread to every state in the Union and to many foreign countries; its membership was more than 400,000 and it had more than 4000 churches.[11] In the early 21st century, it is the largest Pentecostal Church in the United States, with an estimated membership of more than 7 million members and 12,000 churches. located in every state in the Union.[12] It is also located in more than 83 countries around the world. Its international membership is estimated to be between 1 and 3 million members and more than 25,000 churches.[13] Its worldwide membership is estimated to be between 6 and 8 million members.[14][15] COGIC began in 1907 with ten congregations in Mississippi, Arkansas, and Tennessee. The current leader and presiding bishop is Bishop Charles Blake of Los Angeles, California. The C. H. Mason Theological Seminary in Atlanta, Georgia, was founded in 1970 and named in his honor. It is part of the Interdemoninational Theological Center (ITC). The C.H. Mason System of Bible Colleges in numerous US locations awards certificates and associate level degrees in theology and ministry.

US, 1889-1893, Great Northern Hi-Line Road

Hi-Line Road - US 2 - Great Northern RWY (Great Lakes to Spokane)

US, 1889-1893, Prest Ben Harrison, McKinley Tariff, protective trade rates, Sherman Antitrust A, 6 western states
US President, 1889-1893, Benjamin Harrison ; Harrison (August 20, 1833 – March 13, 1901) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 23rd president of the United States from 1889 to 1893. was a grandson of the ninth president, William Henry Harrison, and a great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison V, a founding father who signed the United States Declaration of Independence. was born on a farm by the Ohio River and graduated from Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. After moving to Indianapolis, he established himself as a prominent local attorney, Presbyterian church leader, and politician in Indiana. During the American Civil War, he served in the Union Army as a colonel, and was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as a brevet brigadier general of volunteers in 1865. Harrison unsuccessfully ran for governor of Indiana in 1876. The Indiana General Assembly elected Harrison to a six-year term in the U.S. Senate, where he served from 1881 to 1887. Republican, Harrison was elected to the presidency in 1888, defeating the Democratic incumbent, Grover Cleveland. Hallmarks of Harrison's administration included unprecedented economic legislation, including the McKinley Tariff, which imposed historic protective trade rates, and the Sherman Antitrust Act. Harrison also facilitated the creation of the national forest reserves through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891. During his administration six western states were admitted to the Union. In addition, Harrison substantially strengthened and modernized the U.S. Navy and conducted an active foreign policy, but his proposals to secure federal education funding as well as voting rights enforcement for African Americans were unsuccessful. in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs, federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term. The spending issue in part led to the defeat of the Republicans in the 1890 midterm elections. Cleveland defeated Harrison for reelection in 1892, due to the growing unpopularity of high tariffs and high federal spending. He returned to private life and his law practice in Indianapolis. In 1899 he represented Venezuela in its British Guiana boundary dispute with the United Kingdom. Harrison traveled to the court of Paris as part of the case and after a brief stay returned to Indianapolis. He died at his home in Indianapolis in 1901 of complications from influenza. Many have praised Harrison's commitment to African Americans' voting rights, but scholars and historians generally regard his administration as below average due to its corruption, as well as focused criticism on his signing of the McKinley Tariff. They rank him in the bottom half among U.S. presidents, though they do not question his commitment to personal and official integrity. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; PIONEERS OF THE EPISCOPAL ANGLICAN CHURCH OF BRAZIL, Commemorated June 7; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Jacob Riis of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1889-1957, EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, first African American Bishop Episcopal Church, Mason, Tennessee and Southwest
US, 1889-1957, EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, first African American Bishop Episcopal Church, Mason, Tennessee (near Memphis, Wolf River Mouth and Mississippi River 9); Mason, Tennessee ; Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Thomas Demby [Feb. 13, 1869-Oct. 14, 1957] was the first African American bishop in the Episcopal Church. He served his first parish in Mason, Tenn. became "Suffragan Bishop for Colored Work in Arkansas and the Province of the Southwest" in 1918. His career has been covered in a book, Black Bishop.

US, 1890-1935, John G. Lake, Pentecostal, healing ministeries in South Africa and Spokane-Portland
US, 1890-1935, John G. Lake, Pentecostal, healing ministeries in South Africa and Spokane-Portland; Graham Lake (March 18, 1870 – September 16, 1935) was a Canadian-American leader in the Pentecostal movement that began in the early 20th century, and is known as a faith healer, missionary, and with Thomas Hezmalhalch, co-founder of the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa. his 1908–19 African missionary work, Lake played a decisive role in the spread of Pentecostalism in South Africa, the most successful southern African religious movement of the 20th century.[1]: 98 [2]: 34  completing his missionary work in Africa, Lake evangelized for 20 years, primarily along the west coast of the United States setting up "healing rooms" and healing campaigns, and establishing churches. was influenced by the healing ministry of John Alexander Dowie and the ministry of Charles Parham.[3] Saint Mary's, Ontario (Sault Ste. Marie); John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902);

US, 1890-1900, Northern Pacific Railway - at it's peak, fully developed
Northern Pacific Railway; Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly forty million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km2) of land grants, which it used to raise money in Europe for construction. began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific when former President Ulysses S. Grant drove in the final "golden spike" in western Montana on September 8, 1883. railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the NP had an international branch to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land. Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the NP merged with other lines in 1970 to form the Burlington Northern Railroad, which in turn merged with the Santa Fe Railway to become the BNSF Railway in 1996. Map of NPR Land Grant, c1890 chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864, with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the Pacific, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking Washington and Oregon to the rest of the country.[1] granted the railroad a potential 60 million acres (243,000 km2) of land in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864.[1] It could not use all the land and in the end took just under 40 million acres.[2] Cooke takes control[edit] the next six years, backers of the road struggled to find financing. Though John Gregory Smith succeeded Perham as president on January 5, 1865, groundbreaking did not take place until February 15, 1870, at Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota. backing and promotions of famed financier Jay Cooke in the summer of 1870 brought the first real momentum to the company. The Minnetonka. Over the course of 1871, the Northern Pacific pushed westward from Minnesota into present-day North Dakota. Surveyors and construction crews had to maneuver through swamps, bogs, and tamarack forests. The difficult terrain and insufficient funding delayed by six months the construction phase in Minnesota.[3] NP also began building its line north from Kalama, Washington Territory, on the Columbia River outside of Portland, Oregon, towards Puget Sound. small construction engines were purchased, the Minnetonka, Itaska, Ottertail and St. Cloud, the first of which was shipped to Kalama by ship around Cape Horn. Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad completed construction of its 155-mile (249 km) line stretching from Saint Paul to Lake Superior at Duluth in 1870. It was leased to the Northern Pacific in 1876, and was eventually absorbed by the Northern Pacific. The North Coast Limited was the Northern Pacific's flagship train and the Northern Pacific itself was built along the trail first blazed by Lewis and Clark.[4] Preferred Shares of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company, issued 28. November 1881 Northern Pacific reached Fargo, Dakota Territory (N.D.), early in June 1872. The following year, in June 1873, the N.P. reached the shores of the Missouri River, at Edwinton (Bismarck) D.T. In the west, the track extended 25 miles (40 km) north from Kalama. Surveys were carried out in North Dakota protected by 600 troops under General Winfield Scott Hancock. Headquarters and shops were established in Brainerd, Minnesota, a town named for the President John Gregory Smith's wife Anna Elizabeth Brainerd. A severe stock market crash and financial collapse after 1873, led by the Credit Mobilier Scandal and the Union Pacific Railroad fraud, stopped further railroad building for twelve years. 1886, the company put down 164 miles (264 km) of main line across North Dakota, with an additional 45 miles (72 km) in Washington. November 1, General George Washington Cass became the third president of the company. Cass had been a vice-president and director of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and would lead the Northern Pacific through some of its most difficult times. on survey parties and construction crews by Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa warriors in North Dakota and Minnesota became so prevalent that the company received protection from units of the U.S. Army.[5] 1886, the Northern Pacific also opened colonization offices in Germany and Scandinavia, attracting farmers with cheap package transportation and purchase deals. The success of the NP was based on the abundant crops of wheat and other grains and the attraction to settlers of the Red River Valley along the Minnesota-North Dakota border between 1881 and 1890.[6] Northern Pacific reached Dakota Territory at Fargo in 1872, and began its career as one of the central factors in the economic growth of North Dakota. The climate, although very cold, was suitable for wheat, which was in high demand in the cities of the United States and Europe. Most of the settlers were German and Scandinavian immigrants who bought the land cheaply, and raised large families. They shipped huge quantities of wheat to Minneapolis, while buying all sorts of equipment and home supplies to be shipped in by rail.[7] NP used its federal land grants as security to borrow money to build its system.[8] federal government kept every other section of land, and gave it away free to homesteaders. first the railroad sold much of its holdings at low prices to land speculators in order to realize quick cash profits, and also to eliminate sizable annual tax bills. 1905 the railroad company's land policies changed, after it was judged a costly mistake to have sold much of the land at wholesale prices. better railroad service and improved methods of farming the Northern Pacific easily sold what had been heretofore "worthless" land directly to farmers at good prices. 1910 the railroad's holdings in North Dakota had been greatly reduced.[9][10] of 1873 and first bankruptcy[edit] 1873, Northern Pacific made impressive strides before a terrible stumble. Rails from the east reached the Missouri River on June 4. After several years of study, Tacoma, Washington, was selected as the road's western terminus on July 14, 1873. the previous three years the financial house of Jay Cooke and Company had been throwing money into the construction of the Northern Pacific. As with many western transcontinentals, the staggering costs of building a railroad into a vast wilderness had been drastically underestimated. Cooke had little success in marketing the bonds in Europe and overextended his house in meeting overdrafts of the mounting construction costs. Cooke overestimated his managerial skills and failed to appreciate the limits of a banker's ability to be also a promoter, and the danger of freezing his assets in the bonds of the Northern Pacific.[11] and Company went bankrupt on September 18, 1873. Soon the Panic of 1873 engulfed the United States, beginning an economic depression that ruined or nearly paralyzed newer railroads. Northern Pacific survived bankruptcy that year, due to austerity measures put in place by President Cass. In fact, working with last-minute loans from Director John C. Ainsworth of Portland, the Northern Pacific completed the line from Kalama to Tacoma (110 miles (180 km)) before the end of 1873. On December 16, the first steam train arrived in Tacoma. But in 1874 the company was moribund.[clarification needed] Pacific slipped into its first bankruptcy on June 30, 1875. Cass resigned to become receiver of the company, and Charles Barstow Wright became its fourth president. Frederick Billings, namesake of Billings, Montana, formulated a reorganization plan which was put into effect. 1874 to 1876, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer operating out of Forts Abraham Lincoln and Rice in Dakota Territory conducted expeditions to protect the railroad survey and construction crews in Dakota and Montana Territories.[citation needed] Billings and first reorganization[edit] 1877, construction resumed in a small way. Northern Pacific pushed a branch line southeast from Tacoma to Puyallup, Washington and on to the coal fields around Wilkeson, Washington. Much of the coal was destined for export through Tacoma to San Francisco, California, where it would be thrown into the fireboxes of Central Pacific Railroad steam engines. small amount of construction was one of the largest projects the company would undertake in the years between 1874 and 1880. That same year the company built a large shop complex at Edison, Washington (now part of south Tacoma). For many years the shops at Brainerd and Edison would carry out heavy repairs and build equipment for the railroad. May 24, 1879, Frederick H. Billings became the president of the company. Billings' tenure would be short but ferocious. Reorganization, bond sales, and improvement in the U.S. economy allowed Northern Pacific to strike out across the Missouri River by letting a contract to build 100 miles (160 km) of railroad west of the river. The railroad's new-found strength, however, would be seen as a threat in certain quarters. Henry Villard, Gold Creek, Gold Spike[edit] Yellowstone Park Line Brochure 1904 and Transcontinental stock owned by Henry Villard. journalist Henry Villard had raised capital for western railroads in Europe from 1871 to 1873. After returning to New York in 1874 he invested on behalf of his clients in railroads in Oregon. Through Villard's work, most of these lines became properties of the European creditors' holding company, the Oregon and Transcontinental Company. the lines held by the Oregon and Transcontinental, the most important was the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which ran east from Portland along the left bank of the Columbia River to a connection with the Union Pacific Railroad's Oregon Short Line at the confluence of the Columbia River and the Snake River near Wallula, Washington. a decade of his return, Villard was head of a transportation empire in the Pacific Northwest that had but one real competitor, the Northern Pacific. The Northern Pacific's completion threatened the holdings of Villard in the Northwest, and especially in Portland. Portland would become a second-class city if the Puget Sound ports at Tacoma and Seattle, Washington, were connected to the East by rail. who had been building a monopoly of river and rail transportation in Oregon for several years, now launched a daring raid. Using his European connections and a reputation for having "bested" Jay Gould in a battle for control of the Kansas Pacific years before, Villard solicited – and raised – $8,000,000 from his associates. This was his famous "Blind Pool," Villard's associates were not told what the money would be used for. In this case, the funds were used to purchase control of the Northern Pacific. a tough fight, Billings and his backers were forced to capitulate; he resigned the presidency June 9, 1881. Ashbel H. Barney, former President of Wells Fargo & Company, served briefly as interim caretaker of the railroad from June 19 to September 15, when Villard was elected president by the stockholders. For the next two years, Villard and the Northern Pacific rode the whirlwind. 1882, 360 miles (580 km) of main line and 368 miles (592 km) of branch line were completed, bringing totals to 1,347 miles (2,168 km) and 731 miles (1,176 km), respectively. October 10, 1882, the line from Wadena, Minnesota, to Fergus Falls, Minnesota, opened for service. The Missouri River was bridged with a million-dollar span on October 21, 1883. Until then, crossing of the Missouri had had to be managed with a ferry service for most of the year; in winter, when ice was thick enough, rails were laid across the river itself. Herman Haupt, another veteran of the Civil War and the Pennsylvania Railroad, organized the Northern Pacific Beneficial Association in 1881. A forerunner of the modern health maintenance organization, the NPBA ultimately established a series of four hospitals across the system in Saint Paul, Minnesota; Glendive, Montana; Missoula, Montana; and Tacoma, Washington, to care for employees, retirees, and their families. January 15, 1883, the first train reached Livingston, Montana, at the eastern foot of Bozeman Pass. Livingston, like Brainerd and South Tacoma before it, would grow to encompass a large backshop handling heavy repairs for the railroad. It would also mark the east–west dividing line on the Northern Pacific system. pushed hard for the completion of the Northern Pacific in 1883. His crews laid an average of a mile and half (2.4 km) of track each day. In early September, the line neared completion. celebrate, and to gain national publicity for investment opportunities in his region, Villard chartered four trains to carry guests from the East to Gold Creek in western Montana. No expense was spared and the list of dignitaries included Frederick Billings, Ulysses S. Grant, and Villard's in-laws, the family of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. On September 8, the Gold Spike was driven near Gold Creek.[12] to Puget Sound[edit] fall was swifter than his ascendancy. Like Jay Cooke, he was now consumed by the enormous costs of constructing the railroad. Street bears attacked the stock shortly after the Golden Spike, after the realization that the Northern Pacific was a very long road with very little business. himself suffered a nervous breakdown in the days after the driving of the Golden Spike, and he left the presidency of the Northern Pacific in January 1884. the presidency of the Northern Pacific was handed to a professional railroader, Robert Harris, former head of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. For the next four years, until the return of the Villard group, Harris worked at improving the property and ending its tangled relationship with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. the mid-1880s, the Northern Pacific pushed to reach Puget Sound directly, rather than by means of a roundabout route that followed the Columbia River. of the Cascade Mountains, carried out intermittently since the 1870s, began anew. Virgil Bogue, a veteran civil engineer, was sent to explore the Cascades again. On March 19, 1881, he discovered Stampede Pass. 1883, John W. Sprague, the head of the new Pacific Division, drove the Golden Spike to mark the beginning of the railroad from what would become Kalama, Washington. He resigned a months later due to impaired health. 1884, after the departure of Villard, the Northern Pacific began building toward Stampede Pass from Wallula in the east and the area of Wilkeson in the west. By the end of the year, rails had reached Yakima, Washington in the east. A 77-mile (124 km) gap remained in 1886. January of that year, Nelson Bennett was given a contract to construct a 9,850-foot (1.866 mi; 3.00 km) tunnel under Stampede Pass. The contract specified a short amount of time for completion, and a large penalty if the deadline were missed. While crews worked on the tunnel, the railroad built a temporary switchback route across the pass. With numerous timber trestles and grades which approached six percent, the temporary line required two M class 2-10-0s — the two largest locomotives in the world (at that time) — to handle a tiny five-car train. On May 3, 1888, crews holed through the tunnel, and on May 27 the first train passed through directly to Puget Sound. and the Panic of 1893[edit] this success, the Northern Pacific, like many U.S. roads, was living on borrowed time. From 1887 until 1893, Henry Villard returned to the board of directors. Though offered the presidency, he refused. An associate of Villard dating back to his time on the Kansas Pacific, Thomas Fletcher Oakes, assumed the presidency on September 20, 1888. an effort to garner business, Oakes pursued an aggressive policy of branch line expansion. addition, the Northern Pacific experienced the first competition in the form of James Jerome Hill and his Great Northern Railway. The Great Northern, like the Northern Pacific before it, was pushing west from the Twin Cities towards Puget Sound, and would be completed in 1893. sparse traffic, and the Panic of 1893 sounded the death knell for the Northern Pacific and Villard's interest in railroading. The company slipped into its second bankruptcy on October 20, 1893. Oakes was named receiver and Brayton Ives, a former chairman of the New York Stock Exchange, became president. labor dispute[edit] 1894, the 10th Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army was involved in protecting property of the Northern Pacific Railroad from striking workers.[13] Villard to Morganization[edit] the next three years, the Villard-Oakes interests and the Ives interest feuded for control of the Northern Pacific. Oakes was eventually forced out as receiver, but not before three separate courts were claiming jurisdiction over the Northern Pacific's bankruptcy. Things came to a head in 1896, when first Edward Dean Adams was appointed president, then less than two months later, Edwin Winter. the task of straightening out the muddle of the Northern Pacific was turned over to J. P. Morgan. Morganization of the Northern Pacific, a process which befell many U.S. roads in the wake of the Panic of 1893, was handed to Morgan lieutenant Charles Henry Coster. The new president, beginning September 1, 1897, was Charles Sanger Mellen.[14] James J. Hill had purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific during the troubled days of 1896, Coster and Mellen would advocate, and follow, a staunchly independent line for the Northern Pacific for the next four years. Only the early death of Coster from overwork, and the promotion of Mellen to head the Morgan-controlled New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1903, would bring the Northern Pacific closer to the orbit of James J. Hill.[15] Map of Northern Pacific's route circa 1900. Hill, Harriman and the Northern Pacific Corner[edit] the late 1880s, the Villard regime, in another one of its costly missteps, attempted to stretch the Northern Pacific from the Twin Cities to the all-important rail hub of Chicago, Illinois. A costly project was begun in creating a union station and terminal facilities for a Northern Pacific which had yet to arrive. than build directly down to Chicago, perhaps following the Mississippi River as the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy had done, Villard chose to lease the Wisconsin Central. Some backers of the Wisconsin Central had long associations with Villard, and an expensive lease was worked out between the two companies which was only undone by the Northern Pacific's second bankruptcy. ultimate result was that the Northern Pacific was left without a direct connection to Chicago, the primary interchange point for most of the large U.S. railroads. Fortunately, the Northern Pacific was not alone. James J. Hill, controller of the Great Northern Railway, which was completed between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound in 1893, also lacked a direct connection to Chicago. Hill went looking for a road with an existing route between the Twin Cities and Chicago which could be rolled into his holdings and give him a stable path to that important interchange. the same time, E. H. Harriman, head of the Union Pacific Railroad, was also looking for a road which could connect his company to Chicago. The road both Harriman and Hill looked at was the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. Harriman, the Burlington was a road which paralleled much of his own, and offered tantalizing direct access to Chicago. For Hill as well, there was the possibility of a high-speed link directly with Chicago. Though the Burlington did not parallel the Great Northern or the Northern Pacific, it would give them a powerful railroad in the central West. was the first to approach the Burlington's aging leader, the irascible Charles Elliott Perkins. The price for control of the Burlington, as set by Perkins, was $200 a share, more than Harriman was willing to pay. met the price, and control of the Burlington was divided equally at about 48.5 percent each between the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific. to be outdone, Harriman now came up with a crafty plan: Buy a controlling interest in the Northern Pacific and use its power on the Burlington to place friendly directors upon its board. On May 3, 1901, Harriman began his stock raid which would become known as the Northern Pacific Corner. the end of the day he was short just 40,000 shares of common stock. Harriman placed an order to cover this, but was overridden by his broker, Jacob Schiff, of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. on the other hand, reached the vacationing Morgan in Italy and managed to place an order for 150,000 shares of common stock. Though Harriman might be able to control the preferred stock, Hill knew the company bylaws allowed for the holders of the common stock to vote to retire the preferred. three days the Harriman-Hill imbroglio managed to wreak havoc on the stock market. Northern Pacific stock was quoted at $150 a share on May 6, and is reported to have traded as much as $1,000 a share behind the scenes. Harriman and Hill now worked to settle the issue for brokers to avoid panic. Hill, for his part, attempted to avoid future stock raids by placing his holdings in the Northern Securities Company, a move which would be undone by the Supreme Court in 1904 under the auspices of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. was not immune either; he was forced to break up his holdings in the Union Pacific Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad a few years later. Hill to Howard Elliott[edit] 1903, Hill finally got his way with the House of Morgan. Howard Elliott, another veteran of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, became president of the Northern Pacific on October 23. Elliott was a relative of the Burlington's crusty chieftain Charles Elliott Perkins, and more distantly the Burlington's great backer, John Murray Forbes. He had spent 20 years in the trenches of Midwest railroading, where rebates, pooling, expansion and rate wars had brought ruinous competition. Having seen the effects of having multiple railroads attempt to serve the same destination, he was very much in tune with James J. Hill's philosophy of "community of interest," a loose affiliation or collusion among roads in an attempt to avoid duplicating routes, rate wars, weak finances and ultimately bankruptcies and reorganizations. would be left to make peace with the Hill-controlled Great Northern; the Harriman-controlled Union Pacific; and, between 1907 and 1909, the last of the northern transcontinentals, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, more commonly known as the Milwaukee Road. A Northern Pacific train travels over Bozeman Pass in June 1939 the twentieth century[edit] the turn of the century the Northern Pacific had a record of steady improvement. Together with the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific also gained control of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, gaining important access to Chicago, the central Middle West and Texas, as well as the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway, an important route through eastern and southern Washington. physical plant was upgraded continuously, with double-tracking in key areas, and automatic block signaling along its entire main line. This in turn gave way to centralized traffic control, microwave and radio communications as time progressed.[citation needed] Northern Pacific maintained and continuously upgraded its equipment and service. The road helped pioneer the 4-8-4 Northern type steam engine and the 2-8-8-4 Yellowstone. was among the first railroads in the country to adopt diesel power beginning with General Motors’ FTs in 1944.[citation needed] Despite this, with cheap (albeit low-quality) coal reserves in Wyoming it was among the last US railroads to complete dieselization, in 1960. NP depot at Wallace, Idaho, 2007 Northern Pacific's premier passenger train, the North Coast Limited was among the safest and finest in the nation, suffering only one passenger fatality in nearly seventy years of operation.[citation needed] 1900, most of the remaining land-grant holdings were located west of Montana, in the "western district." railroad still hoped to sell this land, both to provide operating funds and to populate the region to provide new markets to sustain the railroad. Nearly all the good farm land had been sold, leaving large tracts of grazing land or timber. The grazing acreage was poor quality, and difficult to sell. However, the timber lands were of high quality; much of these were sold to Frederick Weyerhaeuser.[16] of the Hill Lines[edit] later years, Louis W. Menk became president of the Northern Pacific, and then he brought it together with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 2, 1970, to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. The merger was allowed despite a challenge in the Supreme Court, essentially reversing the outcome of the 1904 Northern Securities ruling. A 900 mi (1,400 km) portion of the former Northern Pacific mainline in Montana was spun off and is now operated by Montana Rail Link. Revenue freight traffic, in millions of net ton-miles (including M&I, G&P) Year Traffic 1925 6852 1933 3600 1944 14679 1960 11360 1967 13629 Source: ICC annual reports 1949, the Northern Pacific's headquarters in Saint Paul presided over a system of 6,889 miles (11,087 km), which 2,831 miles (4,556 km) of main line, 4,057 miles (6,529 km) of branch line under seven operating divisions. Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches. Paul[edit] in St. Paul, Minnesota in the company's Railroad and Bank Building, the St. Paul Division's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches. in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches. in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches. Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana. in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches. in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17] the railroad expanded, immigrants, families, and single men moved to the Pacific Northwest. Tacoma's population grew rapidly: in 1880 there were 1,098 residents, and in 1889 there were 36,000.[18] service[edit] line encouraged people to make their homes in the Pacific Northwest by having an "immigration agent" and offering special excursion trains for prospective buyers during the winter months. North Coast Limited was the premier passenger train operated by the Northern Pacific Railway between Chicago and Seattle via Butte, Montana and Homestake Pass. It commenced service on April 29, 1900, served briefly as a Burlington Northern train after the merger on March 2, 1970, and ceased operation on April 30, 1971, the day before Amtrak began service. The Chicago Union Station to Saint Paul leg of the train's route was operated by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad along its Mississippi River mainline through Wisconsin. Northern Pacific's secondary transcontinental passenger train was the Alaskan, until it was replaced by the Mainstreeter on November 16, 1952.[19][page needed] Mainstreeter, which operated via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, continued in service through the Burlington Northern merger until Amtrak Day (May 1, 1971). It had been reduced to a Saint Paul to Seattle train after the last run of the former Burlington Route Black Hawk on April 12–13, 1970. Northern Pacific also participated in the Coast Pool Train service between Portland and Seattle with the Great Northern Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. NP and GN Coast Pool Trains lasted until Amtrak. were several other passenger trains which were discontinued before the Burlington Northern merger. These included: Saint Paul to International Falls, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Duluth, Minnesota (which at one time was also a pool operation, with Great Northern Railway and the Soo Line); Duluth to Staples, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Jamestown, North Dakota (the last remnant of the Alaskan); Fargo, North Dakota to Winnipeg, Manitoba; The Route of "the Great Big Baked Potato"[edit] Actress Lillian Russell and other Hollywood stars were hired to promote the railroad's potatoes. comic postcard circa 1910 to 1920 promoting "The Great Big Baked Potato". Hazen Titus was appointed as the line's dining car superintendent in 1908. He learned that Yakima Valley farmers were unable to sell their potato crops because the potatoes they were growing were simply too large; they fed them to the hogs. Titus learned that a single potato could weigh from two to five pounds, but that smaller potatoes were preferred by the end buyers of the vegetable because many people considered large potatoes inedible due to their thick, rough skin.[20] and his staff discovered the "inedible" potatoes were delicious after baking in a slow oven. He contracted to purchase as many potatoes as the farmers could produce that were more than two pounds in weight. Soon after the first delivery of "Netted Gem Bakers", they were offered to diners on the North Coast Limited beginning in early 1909. Word of the line's specialty offering traveled quickly, and before long it was using "the Great Big Baked Potato" as a slogan to promote the railroad's passenger service. Hollywood stars were hired to promote it.[21] When an addition was built for the Northern Pacific's Seattle commissary in 1914, a Railway Age reporter wrote, "A large trade mark, in the shape of a baked potato, 40 ft. long and 18 ft. in diameter, surmounts the roof. The potato is electric lighted and its eyes, through the electric mechanism, are made to wink constantly. A cube of butter thrust into its split top glows intermittently." Premiums such as postcards, letter openers, and spoons were also produced to promote "The Route of the Great Big Baked Potato"; the slogan served the Northern Pacific for about 50 years.[20]

US, 1892-1906. ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATOR, founded Denmark Industrial Institute, SC, a school for African-American youth
US, 1892-1906. ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATOR, founded Denmark (Vorhees) Industrial InstituteDenmark, South Carolina (Ashley River 2), a school for African-American youth, later became Vorhees College, historically black; Denmark, South Carolina; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28 ; Evelyn Wright (April 3, 1872 - December 14, 1906) founded Denmark Industrial Institute in Denmark, South Carolina, a school for African-American youth. is present-day Voorhees College, a historically black college. was a humanitarian and educator, founding several schools for black children. 1888, she matriculated at Booker T. Washington's Tuskegee Institute as a night student. two years, Wright moved to Hampton County, South Carolina to assist in a rural school for black children. the school was burned, she returned to Tuskegee and graduated. 1897, she moved to Denmark in rural Bamberg County, South Carolina. she started a school over a store with the support of some influential people in the community. raised money for what she called Denmark Industrial School, modeled after Tuskegee Institute. Voorhees and his wife, philanthropists from Clinton, New Jersey, donated $5,000 for the purchase of land and construction of the school's first building. 1902 Voorhees Industrial School opened for male and female students at the elementary and high school levels, Wright was principal. provided additional gifts during the next few years, the General Assembly incorporated the school in his name. school was later affiliated with the Protestant Episcopal Church eventually became a fully accredited four-year college. — from Wikipedia

Wallula, Washington
Wallula, Washington;

Phillipsburg, MT
Phillipsburg, MT;

Rock Creek, MT, Phillipsburgs River

Missoula, MT

Stevensville, MT

Darby, MT

Grantsdale, MT

Conner, MT

Bitterroot River

Rocky Mt Division, Missoula to Darby and Connor, MT, NP Railroad

Kooskia, ID

Lolo, MT

Lolo Hot Springs, MT

Lolo Pass, Idaho

Lolo Pass to Moscow, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

Syringa, ID

NP Railroad, Rocky Mt Division - Paradise to Mullan Pass

Mullan Pass, ID

Coeur d'Alene, ID

Gravelles, WA

Wilbur, WA

Almira, WA

Coulee City, WA

HWY 2 Loop Cheney Cooley City Vanage, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

Okanogan, WA

Brewster, WA

Oroville, WA and Canadian Border to Kelowna and Vernon on the Okanogan Lake
Oroville, WA and Canadian Border

Okanogan River, Orville to Okanogan, Brewster, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

George, WA

Regis, MT

Lookout Pass, MT ID

Mullan, ID

Wallace, ID

Burke, ID

Wardner, ID

Greer, ID

Potlatch, ID

Moscow, Potlatch, Palouse, Colfax, Spokane Div, NP Railroad

Culdesac, ID

Lapwai, ID

Lewiston, ID

NP Railroad, Spokane Division, Lolo Pass to Lewiston to Moscow

Kendrick, ID

Moscow, ID

Troy, ID

Pullman, WA

Colfax, WA

Rosalia, WA

Spangle, WA

Genesee, ID

Pomeroy, WA

Dayton, WA

Waitsburg, WA

Walla Walla, WA

NP Railroad, Spokane Division, LewistonID to Walla Walla and Wallula, WA

Pendleton, OR

Pasco to Pendleton via Umatilla, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

Umatilla, OR

Bolles, WA

Riverside, WA

Eureka, WA

NP Railroad, Spokane Division, Bolles, WA to Pasco, WA

Lind to George and Vantage, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

Status Pass, WA

Willapa, WA

Wilappa River, Raymond, Wilappa, Tacoma Division, NP Railroad

Lebam, WA

Pe Ell, WA

Chehalis, WA

Kalama, WA

Kelso, WA

Vancouver, WA

Portland, OR
in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17]

Grays Harbor, WA

Cosmopolis, WA

Aberdeen, WA

Grays Harbor to Chahalis thru Gate City, Tacoma Division, NP Railroad

Gate City, WA

Gate City to Olympia to Tacoma, NP Railroad

Olympia, WA

Centralia, WA

Tenino, WA

Rainier, WA

Roy, WA

Portland to Tacoma, Tacoma Division, Northern Pacific Railroad
in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17]

Orting, WA

Puyallup, WA

Seattle, WA

Gilman, WA

Woodinville, WA

Seattle to Sumas, US Canada Border, Tacoma Division, NP Railroad
in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17]

Nooksack River Folder

Acme, WA

Prarie Creek

Nooksack River Middle Fork

Sumas, WA

Sumas River Source, Sumas Mountain

Sumas River Mouth, Fraser River

Nooksack, WA

Sumas River

Nooksack River

Nooksack Cirque, North Fork Nooksack River

Nooksack River North Fork

Nooksack Falls

Welcome, WA

Nooksack River Mouth, Bellingham Bay
Nooksack River

Snohomish, WA

Arlington, WA

Stilaguamish River folder

Stillaguamish River

Stillaguamish River South Fork

Stillaguamish River North Fork

Darrington, WA

Hamilton and Darrington, Tacoma Division, NP Railroad

McMurray, WA

Sedro-Woolley, WA

Skagit River Folder

Skagit River

Skagit River Source (Allison Pass)
Allison Pass;

Skagit River Mouth (Fir Island, Skagit Bay, Puget Sound)

Sauk River North Fork

Sauk River

Sauk River 1, Darrington, WA
Darrington, WA

Sauk River Mouth, Rockport on the Skagit River

Hamilton, WA

Acme, WAAcme, WA
Acme, WA

US, 1892-1937, Alexander Hotovitzky, Volhynia Seminary, New York, San Francisco, Moscow, special spark from God
Russia, Volhynia, 1892-1937, Alexander Hotovitzky, Volhynia, son of rector of V T Seminary, educated there and Petersburg T A, New York, San Francisco, special spark from God, preaching, Tikhon, US missionary, Uniates from his home, Philidelphia, Yonkers, Passaic, publisher, mutual aid, St Nik Cathedral, Finland, proselytic Lutherans, Moscow, Tikhon, struggle to save the nation, Civil War, brotherhood, alms for Cathedral, arrests, confiscations, chruch donations for starving, however Church forbad sacred vessels surrender, court cases counter-revolutionary activities, draft resolution guaratee for starving, deemed c-r, executions, acknowleged main organizer, milder verdict 10 yrs, amnesty, interrogation, exile to Turuhan r, return, protopresbyter to Sergius, rector on Donskoy st, light in his eyes, 1937 arrest and martyrdom; Alexander Hotovitzky (or Hotovitsky), hieromartyr of the Bolshevik yoke, Missionary of America, was a Ukrainian who came to the United States in the 1890s as a lay missionary and was ordained to the priesthood while there. was active as a missionary among the emigrated Uniates in the northeastern United States before being ordered back to Europe 1914. was to become vicar of the congregation of the Russian Embassy in Berlin. of the outbreak of the First World War he was instead nominated as vicar of the Orthodox congregation in Helsinki, Finland, then a part of imperial Russia. 1917 he was assigned to Christ the Savior Cathedral in Moscow. the Bolshevik coup he was subjected to many cruelties by the revolutionaries as he defended the Orthodox faith, his people, and church property. to many arrests and exile Father Alexander served his Church as best he could through these tumultuous times until after a final arrest he was executed during the Great Purge on August 19, 1937. glorification is celebrated on December 4. Kremenetz - Kremenetz city of Kremenetz district and rests 18 km north-east of the great Pochayiv Lavra ; Glorification of the Priestmartyr Alexander Hotovitzky, Commemorated December 4 ; New Martyr of Russia Alexander Hotovitzky was born on February 11, 1872 in the city of Kremenetz, into the pious family of Archpriest Alexander, who was Rector of the Volhynia Theological Seminary and would later be long remembered in the hearts of the Orthodox inhabitants of Volhynia as a good shepherd. Alexander received a good Christian upbringing from his parents, who instilled in him love for the Orthodox Church and for the people of God. future pastor was educated at the Volhynia Seminary and the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy, from which he graduated with a Master’s degree in 1895. graduation from the Academy, he was sent for missionary service to the Diocese of the Aleutians and North America, where he was assigned to the position of reader at the newly-established Saint Nicholas Orthodox Church in New York City. his marriage to Maria Scherbuhina, a graduate of the Pavlovsk Institute in Saint Petersburg, the Hieromartyr Alexander was ordained to the diaconate, and soon after, on February 25, 1896, to the priesthood by Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov) of the Aleutians, whom Father Alexander would always later remember with gratitude and love. ordination took place at the diocesan cathedral in San Francisco. In his address to the newly-ordained Father Alexander, Bishop Nicholas explained his selection of the new priest for ordained ministry in these words: “Your special sense of decency, your good upbringing, your noble idealism, and your sincere piety immediately caused me to look favorably upon you and compelled me to single you out among the young people, with whom you used to visit me in Saint Petersburg... could see that you had that special spark from God, which makes any service an action truly done for God’s sake, and without which a vocation becomes soul-less and dead work... first experience in preaching has shown you the power of this kind of inspiration: you saw how the people gathered around you and how attentively they stood and listened at length to your discourses... Why did these people listen to you rather than going to hear other preachers? Clearly the spark which burns within you attracts the hearts of these people like a magnet.” week after his ordination, the young priest returned to New York to assume the pastorate of the parish where he had previously served as reader. From 1898 to 1907, the New Martyr Alexander served as a pastor under the omophorion of Bishop Tikhon. Tikhon, who, in the tragic year of 1917, was to be elevated by Divine Providence to the primatial see as Patriarch of Moscow, valued highly Father Alexander’s sincere piety, his gift of pastoral love, and his multifaceted theological erudition. spectrum of his activity in the United States was quite broad and very fruitful. He was successful in missionary service, primarily among Uniates newly-emigrated from Galicia and Carpathian Rus. was also one of the closest collaborators of the Orthodox archpastors in America and represented the Orthodox Church before American religious institutions and meetings. Alexander’s missionary work was not without many temptations and sorrows. later Metropolitan, Platon (Rozhdestvensky) expressed gratitude for the Passion-bearer Alexander’s labors in America in an address delivered at the Divine Liturgy on February 26, 1914. Bidding farewell to Father Alexander, the Archbishop said, “One morning, during the years we worked together, you came to my room and, without saying much, unbuttoned your shirt, revealing a very large, bluish, bloody abrasion on your chest. That wound from a fanatic, who in a fit of rage attacked you wildly with a stick, followed the meeting of Russian people at which you had encouraged your own ethnic brother to renounce the pernicious Unia with Rome... My entire being was shaken to the core and I was profoundly moved, for before me at that moment was a genuine example of witness for Christ.” Father Alexander’s efforts, Orthodox parishes were established in Philadelphia, Yonkers, and Passaic as well as other large and small towns throughout North America. The parishioners of these churches were cradle Orthodox whom fate had brought to the New World, as well as Carpatho-Russians converted from the Unia and former Protestant converts to the Orthodox Church. important contribution to the witness of the truth of Orthodoxy before heterodox American society was made by the American Orthodox Messenger, which was published in English and Russian under Father Alexander’s editorship. Articles by the editor regularly appeared in this journal. New Martyr Alexander actively participated in the establishment of an Orthodox diocesan mutual aid society and at various times, he served as treasurer, first secretary, and president of this organization. The society provided material aid to Austrian Carpatho-Russians, Macedonian Slavs, Russian troops in Manchuria, and to Russian prisoners of war in Japanese camps. Alexander also took upon himself the ascetical burden of constructing the architecturally remarkable and majestic Saint Nicholas Cathedral in New York to replace the small parish church. cathedral was to become an adornment of the city. He visited Orthodox communities throughout America soliciting funds for the construction of the Cathedral. 1901, he also traveled to his homeland, Russia, for this purpose. the annals of Saint Nicholas Church, which in 1903 became the diocesan Cathedral, it is recorded that, “This Cathedral was established and constructed in the City of New York in North America, under the supervision and through the efforts and labors of the most honorable Archpriest Father Alexander Hotovitzky in the year of Our Lord 1902.” February 26, 1906, Orthodox America celebrated the tenth anniversary of priestly service of Archpriest Alexander, one of its most remarkable pastors. Bishop Tikhon greeted the jubilarian with these words: “As you remember your ordination as a priest of God at this anniversary, you are doubtless unwillingly contemplating how you have used your God-given talents, and asking yourself if the Grace of God was bestowed on you in vain and how far you have advanced on the path of moral perfection. you judge yourself in this way, you are at the same time the judge and the accused. In order for a judgment to be fair, the testimony of onlookers, the witnesses, must be heard. Now they are speaking before you—listen to them. Thanks be to the Lord! We just heard their eloquent and heartfelt testimony praising you. myself as your superior, I can testify that you have proven to be trustworthy, and have justified the expectations which were hoped for at your ordination.” sacrificial and dedicated pastoral service of the New Martyr Alexander in America was concluded on February 26, 1914, exactly eighteen years after his ordination to the priesthood. his farewell address, Father Alexander said, “Farewell, American Orthodox Rus—my dear Mother, the Holy American Church. I, your ever-grateful son, bow fully to the ground before you. You gave birth to me spiritually, you nurtured me, from your depths you inspired me by your strength. Through the shining witness of your founders, through the enlightened apostolic teachings of your preachers, through the fervor of your faithful flock, you have given me the greatest possible joy—to be your son.” 1914 to 1917, Father Alexander served as a priest in Helsinki, Finland, where the majority of the population was Protestant. Finland was then part of the Russian Empire, the Orthodox clergy there had to exert great efforts to protect the Orthodox Karelians from the proselytic expansionism of the Finnish Lutherans. In Finland, the New Martyr Alexander was a loyal, active, and dedicated assistant to his archpastor—Sergius (Stragorodsky), the future Patriarch. August 1917, Archpriest Alexander was transferred to Moscow and assigned as assistant pastor of Christ the Savior Cathedral. Here he was again under the direct guidance of Saint Tikhon, with whom he had already been closely associated in America. Passion-bearer Alexander participated in the deliberations of the Church Council of 1917-18. When the Council discussed the drafting of a message to the Orthodox flock concerning elections to the State Council, he stated that, as the fate of Russia was at stake, the Church and the Council in particular should not shy away from the struggle to save the nation. about the efforts of the Council to upbuild the Church, he outlined his preliminary plans for order and healing in the internal life of the Church and stated with some bitterness, “It seems as if there were builders who were furiously preparing blueprints, plans and so forth for the construction of an edifice and at the same time were calmly observing the destruction brick by brick of this edifice by enemies.” the difficult years of the Civil War, the New Martyr Alexander collaborated closely with Saint Tikhon in the administration of the Moscow diocese. 1918, under the spiritual leadership of the rector, Father Nicholas Arseniev, and the assistant pastor, Father Alexander, a brotherhood affiliated with Christ the Savior Cathedral was established. As its first activity, the brotherhood issued an appeal to the Orthodox flock, which Father Alexander helped write. document stated, “People of Russia! Christ the Savior Cathedral, the adornment of Moscow, the pride of Russia, the joy of the Orthodox Church has been condemned to slow destruction. This glorious monument to the great exploits of Russian warriors, who gave their lives for their native land and the Holy Orthodox Faith, has been denied state support...People of Russia! Will you really surrender this wonderful church of the Savior to mockery? it really true, as is claimed by the persecutors of the Holy Church, that the people of Russia no longer need holy things—Churches, sacraments, services, because all this is outdated and superstitious? Respond, you faithful! All of you, respond as one! Rise up and protect your holy things! May the generous and well-intentioned donations of the rich be added to the precious pennies of the faithful poor. Moscow, you are the heart of Russia! Preserve your holy shrine—your golden-domed Church of the Savior!...” response to this appeal, Orthodox inhabitants of Moscow joined the brotherhood of Christ the Savior Cathedral, and gave their alms to support the majestic church. service at that time was accompanied by much grief and danger. May 1920 and November 1921 Father Alexander was arrested for brief periods. He was accused of violating the decrees concerning the separation of the Church from the state, and the school from the Church, by holding church school for the children. 1922, the Church was subjected to harsh tribulations when, under the pretext of helping the starving, ecclesiastical treasures including sacred vessels, icons, and other holy things were violently confiscated by the state. the appeal of Her holy primate, the Orthodox Church made generous donations to assist the starving. when Saint Tikhon issued a statement to his flock throughout Russia forbidding the cooperation of the clergy in surrendering sacred vessels for non-ecclesiastical use based on canon law, slanderous campaign against the Church was begun in the press, Her primate was arrested, and a wave of court cases took place throughout Russia, in which servants of the Lord’s altar were accused of counter-revolutionary activity. During these trials many faithful servants of the Church of Christ were sentenced to death and shed their blood as hieromartyrs and martyrs. this difficult time for the Church, Father Alexander was unwaveringly guided by the statements of the Holy Patriarch to his flock and also followed his directives. to assist the starving were collected at Christ the Savior Cathedral. At the same time, measures were undertaken to protect the sacred objects of this church. of the clergy and parishioners of Christ the Savior Cathedral were held at Father Alexander’s apartment in order to draft a resolution of the general parish meeting concerning the state decree. draft of the resolution, prepared by Father Alexander, protested against the violent confiscation of church valuables. general meeting of parishioners was convened on March 23, 1922 at Christ the Savior Cathedral, presided by Archpriest Nicholas Arseniev. Alexander had already been arrested. meeting adopted the final text of the resolution, which demanded guarantees from the state that all donations be used to save the lives of the starving. The participants in the meeting protest the poisonous publications against the Church as well as insults against the hierarchy. The drafting of this document was deemed by the authorities to be criminal counter-revolutionary activity. two court cases against the Church, in Petrograd and Moscow, which resulted in the executions of hieromartyrs and martyrs, a new highly visible trial of clergy and laity began in Moscow on November 27, 1922, during which they were accused of supposedly “attempting to retain in their hands possession of church valuables and, through the resulting starvation, to topple the Soviet regime.” trial in this case were 105 clergy and laity. the main defendants were Archpriest Sergius Uspensky, dean of the second district of forty churches in Prechistenka, Archpriest Nicholas Arseniev, dean of Christ the Savior Cathedral, Archpriest Alexander Hotovitzky, assistant pastor of this Cathedral, Ilya Gromoglasov, priest of Christ the Savior Cathedral, Lev Evgenievich Anohin, warden of this Cathedral, and Archpriest Simeon Golubev, rector of Saint John the Warrior Church. most significant part of the indictment submitted to the Court concerned the activity of the clergy and laity of Christ the Savior Cathedral. indictment stated, “The main organizers and leaders of this criminal activity were Priest Hotovitzky, chairman of the council of parishes in this area, Priest Arseniev, rector of the Cathedral, Priest Zotikov, Priest Gromoglasov, former lawyer Kayutov, former deputy minister Shchepkin, the merchant Golovkin, and engineer Anohin. the decree of the Supreme Central Executive Committee concerning the confiscation of church valuables was issued, they began their preliminary activities under the leadership of the priest Hotovitzky, who repeated to secretly gather the above named people at his apartment in order to plan with them the measures which they proposed to enact to achieve their criminal intentions.” case was in court for two weeks. After the detailed indictment was read, questioning of the defendants began. Father Alexander remained cool and calm during the questioning as he tried to protect the other defendants. did not admit any guilt, stating, “I consider that it is not counter-revolutionary to ask for a corresponding amount of metal in return for church valuables.” the interrogation of all the defendants and witnesses, at the Court session on December 6, the later infamous, sinister prosecutor Vishinsky delivered the concluding statement for the prosecution. He asked the court for a sentence of capital punishment for thirteen defendants including Archpriests Alexander Hotovitzky, Nicholas Arseniev, Sergius Uspensky, Priest Ilya Gromoglasov, Abbess Vera (Pobedinskaya) of the Novodevichii Women’s Monastery and L.E. Anohin. Vishinsky requested that the other defendants be sentenced to prison terms of varying length. December 11, defendants were given an opportunity to say a final word to the court. his comments, Father Alexander attempted, first of all, to obtain the court’s leniency and mercy for his brother clergy, “I direct your attention to those who were at the meeting in my apartment: some of them are old and the others are very young and guilty of nothing. This was a completely ordinary meeting, it was not counter-revolutionary and it cannot by any means be characterized as a shady plot.” lengthiest final comments were delivered by the professor and priest Ilya Gromoglasov. This defendant attempted to gain the favor of the court by expounding on his former opposition to the Holy Synod. Concerning the conclusions of the prosecution, he said that he “knew nothing of the criminal organization headed by Hotovitzky.” December 13, the verdict of the revolutionary tribunal was announced. was milder than the bloodthirsty verdicts delivered at previous trials held in Petrograd and Moscow in conjunction with the confiscation of church valuables. of the main defendants—Abbess Vera (Pobedinskaya), Archpriest Sergius Uspensky, and Archpriest Alexander Hotovitzky were sentenced to ten years in prison, the confiscation of their personal property and the deprivation of their civil rights for five years. others were sentenced to lesser terms of imprisonment. Appeals for pardon, made by those who were sentenced to the longest terms of imprisonment, including that of Archpriest Alexander, were rejected by the presidium of the Supreme Central Executive Committee on February 16, 1923. the holy Patriarch Tikhon resumed his administration of the Church and made several statements regarding loyalty to the governmental authorities, many hierarchs, clergy, church leaders and laity, who had previously received sentences from the judiciary in conjunction with the confiscation of church valuables, were granted amnesty. Alexander was among those freed in October 1923. Following his liberation, he was not assigned to a parish but served by invitation at various churches in Moscow. remained free for only a short time. Already on September 4, 1924, E. Tuchkov, head of the 6th section of the Department of State Political Management, compiled a list of thirteen clergy and church leaders of Moscow and recommended that they be subjected to administrative exile. New Martyr Alexander, who was included in the list, was characterized as follows in this document, “A priest and preacher with a post-graduate education, very active, zealous and influential among the Tikhonites. His outlook is anti-Soviet.” September 9, 1924, the New Martyr Alexander was subjected to an interrogation. “In my religious convictions,” he said at that time, “I consider myself to be a Tikhonite. My relations with the Patriarch are intimate rather than just strictly administrative, but lately, I have avoided meeting with Patriarch Tikhon, as I felt that this might inconvenience him due to my conviction in conjunction with the confiscation of church valuables. I have never expressed an opinion concerning the restoration of the former government and such a thought has not even crossed my mind.” a decision of a special meeting of the administration of the Department of State Political Management, the New Martyr Alexander was exiled to the Turuhan region for a period of three years. His already failing health was further weakened by his sojourn in the far north. his return from exile, Father Alexander was raised to the rank of protopresbyter and became one of the closest assistants of the Deputy Locum Tenens of the Patriarchal Throne, Metropolitan (later Patriarch) Sergius, who knew him well since the time of his service in Finland. the 1930s, Protopresbyter Alexander served as rector of the Church of the Deposition of the Robe on Donskoy Street. One of the parishioners of this church recalls, “In 1936, Father Alexander did not preach, as he was apparently forbidden to do so. In 1936-7, I was present many times when Father Alexander served. He was a tall, gray-haired priest with gentle facial features, who looked extremely intelligent. Gray, trimmed hair, a small beard, very kind gray eyes, a high-pitched, loud tenor...pronounced exclamations distinctly and with inspiration...His appearance reminded me of many priests who were exiles from the western regions...Father Alexander had many parishioners who greatly revered him...Even today, I remember Father Alexander’s eyes. It seemed as if his glance penetrated your heart and embraced it with affection. I had the same feeling when I saw the holy Patriarch Tikhon...The same light also shining in Father Alexander’s eyes was testimony of his sanctity.” the fall of 1937, the New Martyr Alexander was arrested again. The documentary evidence about him at our disposal ends with this; however, a majority of oral reports testify to his death as a martyr. The Orthodox Church in America, on whose territory Protopresbyter Alexander served as a priest until 1914, venerates him as a passion-bearer, whose life as a confessor ended with sufferings for Christ. The place of his burial is unknown. Church of Russia also commemorates Saint Alexander on August 7, along with the Archpriests Alexei Vorobiev, Michael Plishevsky, John Voronets, the priests Demetrius Milovidov, and Peter Tokarev, the deacon Elisha Sholder, and Igumen Athanasius Egorov. photo gallery of the 1994 Glorification of Saint Alexander may be viewed here.

US, 1891-1938, JAMES WELDON JOHNSON, POET, Jacksonville, Florida, novels, poems, folklore, NYU, Fisk U, NCAA mass tactics
US, 1891-1938, JAMES WELDON JOHNSON, POET, Jacksonville, Florida (Saint Johns River Mouth), author, politician, diplomat, critic, journalist, poet, anthologist, educator, lawyer, songwriter, and early civil rights activist, novels, poems, folklore, first black at NYU, p at Fisk U, opposed northern race riots & southern lynchings with NCAA mass tactics, promoted Harlem Renaissance; Jacksonville, Florida; JAMES WELDON JOHNSON, POET, 1938, Commemorated June 25 ; Weldon Johnson (June 17, 1871 – June 26, 1938) was an American author, politician, diplomat, critic, journalist, poet, anthologist, educator, lawyer, songwriter, and early civil rights activist. is remembered best for his writing, which includes novels, poems, and collections of folklore. was also one of the first African-American professors at New York University. Later in life he was a professor of creative literature and writing at Fisk University. was born in Jacksonville, Florida, into a middle-class black family of Bahamian ancestry. graduated from Atlanta University and became the first African-American admitted to the Florida bar. 1906 to 1913 he was Consul in Venezuela and then Nicaragua; during this period he wrote the fictional Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. 1913 he returned to the U. S., lived in New York, and engaged initially in songwriting and the theater with his brother, but then became involved in political activism. the fall of 1916, because Johnson excelled as a reconciler of differences among those whose ideological agendas seemed to preclude unified, cooperative action, he was asked to become the national organizer for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). race riots in northern cities and the lynchings that pervaded the South during and immediately after the end of World War I, Johnson engaged the NAACP in mass tactics, such as a silent protest parade down New York's Fifth Avenue in which ten thousand African Americans took part on July 28, 1917. 1920 Johnson was elected to manage the NAACP, the first African American to hold this position. serving the NAACP from 1914 through 1930 Johnson started as an organizer and eventually became the first black male secretary in the organization's history. the 1920s he was one of the major inspirations and promoters of the Harlem Renaissance trying to refute condescending white criticism and helping young black authors to get published. serving in the NAACP Johnson was involved in sparking the drive behind the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill of 1921. the 1930's, he had tired of politics, and "retired" as Professor of Creative Literature and Writing at Fisk University. died in an automobile accident in Maine in 1938. — more at Wikipedia and the Poetry Foundation Johnson is well-known as a poet and author. Some of his published works include: * To a Friend (1892) * A Brand (1893) * The Color Sergeant (1898) * Lift Every Voice and Sing (1899) * Sence You Went Away (1900) * The Black Mammy (1900) * O Black and Unknown Bards (1908) * Brothers (1916) * Fifty Years and Other Poems (1917) * The Creation (1919) * My City (1923) * God's Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse (1927) * Saint Peter Relates an Incident (1935) * The Glory of the Day was in Her Face * Complete Poems (2000) works and collections: * The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (1912/1927) * Self-Determining Haiti * Second Book of Negro Spirituals * Black Manhattan * Negro Americans, What Now? * Along This Way (autobiography) * Essential Writings of James Weldon Johnson

US Presidents Folder, 1893-1921

US, 1893-1897, President Grover Cleveland, honest, moral, unpopular but successful leader, policy maker
US President, 1893-1897 Grover Cleveland; Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American history to serve two nonconsecutive terms in office.[b] He won the popular vote for three presidential elections—in 1884, 1888, and 1892—and was one of two Democrats (followed by Woodrow Wilson in 1912) to be elected president during the era of Republican presidential domination dating from 1861 to 1933. Born to a Presbyterian minister and his wife, Cleveland grew up in upstate New York. In 1881, he was elected mayor of Buffalo and later, governor of New York. Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs; Free Silver; inflation; imperialism; and subsidies to business, farmers, or veterans. His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era.[1] Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism.[2] He fought political corruption, patronage, and bossism. As a reformer, Cleveland had such prestige that the like-minded wing of the Republican Party, called "Mugwumps", largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket and swung to his support in the 1884 election.[3] As his second administration began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a severe national depression. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. The result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era.[4] was a formidable policymaker, and he also drew corresponding criticism. intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 to keep the railroads moving angered labor unions nationwide in addition to the party in Illinois; his support of the gold standard and opposition to Free Silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party.[5] Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term.[5] so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term. Biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "[I]n Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have. He possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not."[6] By the end of his second term, public perception showed him to be one of the most unpopular U.S. presidents, and he was by then rejected even by most Democrats.[7] Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader, and has been praised for honesty, integrity, adherence to his morals and defying party boundaries, and effective leadership. He is generally ranked among the upper-mid tier of American presidents. DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19 ; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27;

US, 1893-1929, Charles Parham, PENTECOSTAL, American Pentecostalism, evidential tongues, holiness, divine healing
US, 1893-1929, Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Muscatine, Iowa (Rock River Mouth, Mississippi River 5), American Pentecostalism, evidential tongues, age 15 religious services 1888, preaching w direct inspiration, holiness movement, divine healing, prayer for sick, healing home, Apostolic Faith mag, Faith basis no offerings, Bible School model from Frank Sandford's work, Agnes Ozman asked prayer to receive fullness of the Holy Spirit ; Muscatine, Iowa; Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1929, Commemorated January 29 ; F. Parham (June 4, 1873 – c. January 29, 1929) was an American preacher and evangelist. with William J. Seymour, Parham was one of the two central figures in the development and early spread of American Pentecostalism. was Parham who associated glossolalia with the baptism in the Holy Spirit, a theological connection crucial to the emergence of Pentecostalism as a distinct movement. was the first preacher to articulate Pentecostalism's distinctive doctrine of evidential tongues, and to expand the movement. life[edit] one of five sons of William and Ann Parham, was born in Muscatine, Iowa, on June 4, 1873 and moved with his family to Cheney, Kansas, by covered wagon in 1878. William Parham owned land, raised cattle, and eventually purchased a business in town. Parham's mother died in 1885. The next year his father married Harriet Miller, the daughter of a Methodist circuit rider. Harriet was a devout Christian, and the Parhams opened their home for "religious activities".[1] married Sarah Thistlewaite, the daughter of a Quaker. Their engagement was in summer of 1896,[2] and they were married December 31, 1896, in a Friends' ceremony.[3] ministry[edit] began conducting his first religious services at the age of 15. 1890, he enrolled at Southwestern College in Winfield, Kansas, a Methodist affiliated school. He attended until 1893 when he came to believe education would prevent him from ministering effectively. then worked in the Methodist Episcopal Church as a supply pastor (he was never ordained).[4] Parham left the Methodist church in 1895 because he disagreed with its hierarchy. He complained that Methodist preachers "were not left to preach by direct inspiration".[2] Rejecting denominations, he established his own itinerant evangelistic ministry, which preached the ideas of the holiness movement and was well received by the people of Kansas.[5] Kansas[edit] after the birth of his son, Claude, in September 1897, both Parham and Claude fell ill. Attributing their subsequent recovery to divine intervention, Parham renounced all medical help and committed to preach divine healing and prayer for the sick.[6] 1898, Parham moved his headquarters to Topeka, Kansas, where he operated a mission and an office. It was also in Topeka that he established the Bethel Healing Home and published the Apostolic Faith magazine. Parham operated on a "faith" basis. He did not receive offerings during services, preferring to pray for God to provide for the ministry.[7] "deciding to know more fully the latest truths restored by the later day movements", took a sabbatical from his work at Topeka in 1900 and "visited various movements".[8] While he saw and looked at other teachings and models as he visited the other works, most of his time was spent at Shiloh, the ministry of Frank Sandford in Maine, and in an Ontario religious campaign of Sandford's.[2] From Parham's later writings, it appears he incorporated some, but not all, of the ideas he observed into his view of Bible truths (which he later taught at his Bible schools).[9] In addition to having an impact on what he taught, it appears he picked up his Bible school model, and other approaches, from Sandford's work.[2] he returned from this sabbatical, those left in charge of his healing home had taken over and, rather than fighting for control, Parham started Bethel Bible College at Topeka in October 1900. The school was modeled on Sandford's "Holy Ghost and Us Bible School", and Parham continued to operate on a faith basis, charging no tuition. He invited "all ministers and Christians who were willing to forsake all, sell what they had, give it away, and enter the school for study and prayer". About 40 people (including dependents) responded.[7] The only text book was the Bible, and the teacher was the Holy Spirit (with Parham as mouthpiece).[10] to starting his Bible school, Parham had heard of at least one individual in Sandford's work who spoke in tongues and had reprinted the incident in his paper. He had also come to the conclusion that there was more to a full baptism than others acknowledged at the time.[2] By the end of 1900, Parham had led his students at Bethel Bible School through his understanding that there had to be a further experience with God, but had not specifically pointed them to speaking in tongues. While Parham's account indicates that when classes were finished at the end of December, he left his students for a few days, asking them to study the Bible to determine what evidence was present when the early church received the Holy Spirit,[3] this is not clear from the other accounts.[2][9] The students had several days of prayer and worship, and held a New Year's Eve watchnight service at Bethel (December 31, 1900). The next evening (January 1, 1901) they also held a worship service, and it was that evening that Agnes Ozman felt impressed to ask to be prayed for to receive the fullness of the Holy Spirit.[2] Immediately after being prayed for, she began to speak in what they referred to as "in tongues", speaking in what was believed to be a known language.[9] Faith Movement[edit] controversial beliefs and aggressive style made finding support for his school difficult; the local press ridiculed Parham's Bible school calling it "the Tower of Babel", and many of his former students called him a fake. By April 1901, Parham's ministry had dissolved.[11] It was not until 1903 that his fortunes improved when he preached on Christ's healing power at El Dorado Springs, Missouri, a popular health resort. Mary Arthur, wife of a prominent citizen of Galena, Kansas, claimed she had been healed under Parham's ministry. She and her husband invited Parham to preach his message in Galena, which he did through the winter of 1903-1904 in a warehouse seating hundreds. In January, the Joplin, Missouri, News Herald reported that 1,000 had been healed and 800 had claimed conversion. In the small mining towns of southwest Missouri and southeastern Kansas, Parham developed a strong following that would form the backbone of his movement for the rest of his life.[12] of the Galena meetings, Parham gathered a group of young coworkers who would travel from town to town in "bands" proclaiming the "apostolic faith". Unlike other preachers with a holiness-oriented message, Parham encouraged his followers to dress stylishly so as to show the attractiveness of the Christian life. It was at this time in 1904 that the first frame church built specifically as a Pentecostal assembly was constructed in Keelville, Kansas. Other "apostolic faith assemblies" (Parham disliked designating local Christian bodies as "churches") were begun in the Galena area.[13] Parham's movement soon spread throughout Texas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. 1906 Parham began working on a number of fronts. In Houston, Parham's ministry included conducting a Bible school around 1906. Several African Americans were influenced heavily by Parham's ministry there, including William J. Seymour.[14] Both Parham and Seymour preached to Houston's African Americans, and Parham had planned to send Seymour out to preach to the black communities throughout Texas.[15] In September he also ventured to Zion, IL, in an effort to win over the adherents of the discredited John Alexander Dowie, although he left for good after the municipal water tower collapsed and destroyed his preaching tent. For about a year he had a following of several hundred "Parhamites", eventually led by John G Lake.[16] In 1906, Parham sent Lucy Farrow (a black woman who was cook at his Houston school, who had received "the Spirit's Baptism" and felt "a burden for Los Angeles"), to Los Angeles, California, along with funds, and a few months later sent Seymour to join Farrow in the work in Los Angeles, California, with funds from the school.[17][18] Seymour's work in Los Angeles would eventually develop into the Azusa Street Revival, which is considered by many as the birthplace of the Pentecostal movement. Seymour requested and received a license as a minister of Parham's Apostolic Faith Movement, and he initially considered his work in Los Angeles under Parham's authority.[14] However, Seymour soon broke with Parham over his harsh criticism of the emotional worship at Asuza Street and the intermingling of whites and blacks in the services.[19] commitment to racial segregation and his support of British Israelism have often led people to consider him as a racist. However, some have noted that Parham was the first to reach across racial lines to African Americans and Mexican Americans and included them in the young Pentecostal movement. He preached in black churches and invited Lucy Farrow, the black woman he sent to Los Angeles, to preach at the Houston "Apostolic Faith Movement" Camp Meeting in August 1906, at which he and W. Fay Carrothers were in charge. This incident is recounted by eyewitness Howard A. Goss in his wife's book, The Winds of God,[20] in which he states: "Fresh from the revival in Los Angeles, Sister Lucy Farrow returned to attend this Camp Meeting. Although a Negro, she was received as a messenger from the Lord to us, even in the deep south of Texas."[21] and decline of influence[edit] blow to his influence in the young Pentecostal movement were allegations of sexual misconduct in fall 1906. This was followed by his arrest in 1907 in San Antonio, Texas on a charge of "the commission of an unnatural offense," along with a 22-year-old co-defendant, J.J. Jourdan. Parham repeatedly denied being a practicing homosexual, but coverage was picked up by the press.[22] Finally, the District Attorney decided to drop the case. Parham and his supporters insisted that the charges had been false, and were part of an attempt by Wilbur Voliva to frame him.[23] Parham had previously stopped preaching at Voliva's Zion City church in order to set up his Apostolic Faith Movement. However, Parham's opponents used the episode to discredit both Parham and his religious movement. Posters with a supposed confession by Parham of sodomy were distributed to towns where he was preaching, years after the case against him was dropped. Parham was never able to recover from the stigma that had attached itself to his ministry, and his influence waned.[23][24][25][26] addition there were allegations of financial irregularity and of doctrinal aberrations.[27] In the aftermath of these events his large support base in Zion descended into a Salem-like frenzy of insanity, eventually killing three of their members in brutal exorcisms. Members of the group, who included John G Lake and Fred Bosworth, were forced to flee from Illinois, and scattered across America.[28] As the focus of the movement moved from Parham to Seymour, Parham became resentful. His attacks on emerging leaders coupled with the allegations alienated him from much of the movement that he began. He became "an embarrassment" to a new movement which was trying to establish its credibility.[27] a boy, Parham had contracted a severe rheumatic fever which damaged his heart and contributed to his poor health. At one time he almost died. Parham recovered to an active preaching life, strongly believing that God was his healer. While he recovered from the rheumatic fever, it appears the disease probably weakened his heart muscles and was a contributing factor to his later heart problems and early death.[2] By 1927 early symptoms of heart problems were beginning to appear, and by the fall and summer of 1928, after returning from a trip to Palestine (which had been a lifetime desire), Parham's health began to further deteriorate. early January 1929, Parham took a long car ride with two friends to Temple, Texas, where he was to be presenting his pictures of Palestine. On January 5, he collapsed while showing his slides. When his wife arrived, she found out that his heart was bad, and he was unable to eat. Against his wishes (he wanted to continue his preaching tour), his family brought him home to Baxter Springs, Kansas, where he died on the afternoon of January 29, 1929.[29] · [30] · [31] beliefs developed over time. Several factors influenced his theological ideas. He preferred to work out doctrinal ideas in private meditation, he believed the Holy Spirit communicated with him directly, and he rejected established religious authority. He focused on "salvation by faith; healing by faith; laying on of hands and prayer; sanctification by faith; coming (premillennial) of Christ; the baptism of the Holy Ghost and fire, which seals the bride and bestows the gifts".[6] evidence[edit] most important theological contributions were his beliefs about the baptism with the Holy Spirit. There were Christians groups speaking in tongues and teaching an experience of Spirit baptism before 1901, like for example, in 17th century, the Camisards[32][33] and the Quakers.[34] Parham was the first to identify tongues as the "Bible evidence" of Spirit baptism.[35] It is not clear when he began to preach the need for such an experience, but it is clear that he did by 1900. he understood the experience to have eschatological significance—it "sealed the bride" for the "marriage supper of the Lamb".[6] The bride of Christ consisted of 144,000 people taken from the church who would escape the horrors of the tribulation. It was Parham's desire for assurance that he would be included in the rapture that led him to search for uniform evidence of Spirit baptism. Parham would emphasize speaking in tongues and evangelism, defining the purpose of Spirit baptism as an "enduement with power for service".[10] Parham believed that the tongues spoken by the baptized were actual human languages, eliminating the need for missionaries to learn foreign languages and thus aiding in the spread of the gospel.[36] Some of Parham's followers even traveled to foreign countries in hopes of using glossolalia to communicate with the locals without learning the local languages. But after consistent failed attempts at xenoglossia "many of Parham's followers became disillusioned and left the movement."[37] beliefs[edit] believed in annihilationism—that the wicked are not eternally tormented in hell but are destroyed. According to this belief, immortality is conditional, and only those who receive Christ as Lord and Savior will live eternally. He stated in 1902, "Orthodoxy would cast this entire company into an eternal burning hell; but our God is a God of love and justice, and the flames will reach those only who are utterly reprobate".[5] He also believed in British Israelism, an ideology maintaining that the Anglo-Saxon peoples were among the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.[7] In addition, Parham subscribed to rather unorthodox views on creation. He believed God took two days to create humans—non-whites on the sixth day and whites on the eighth.[38] Parham also supported Theodor Herzl and the struggle for a Jewish homeland, lecturing on the subject often. Pentecostals would agree with Parham's belief that Spirit baptized (with the evidence of an unknown tongue) Christians would be taken in the rapture. But his teachings on British Israelism and the annihilation of the wicked were vehemently rejected.[19] originated the doctrine of initial evidence—that the baptism of the Holy Spirit is evidenced by speaking in tongues.[27] It was this doctrine that made Pentecostalism distinct from other holiness Christian groups that spoke in tongues or believed in an experience subsequent to salvation and sanctification. In a move criticized by Parham,[19] his Apostolic Faith Movement merged with other Pentecostal groups in 1914 to form the General Council of the Assemblies of God in the United States of America.[39] Today, the worldwide Assemblies of God is the largest Pentecostal denomination. In 1916, the fourth general council of Assemblies of God met in St. Louis, MO to decide on the mode of baptism they would use. All Apostolic Faith Movement ministers were baptized in Jesus' name by Charles F. Parham including Howard Goss, First Superintendent of the United Pentecostal Church International. After a vote, out of approximately 430 ministers, 133 were asked to leave because the majority ruled they would maintain the Catholic Trinitarian formula of baptism as the official baptism of the Assemblies of God. This move formally sparked the creation of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, which would eventually create the United Pentecostal Church International and the Assemblies of the Lord Jesus Christ.

US, 1895-1969, HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, Seminole Tribe of Southern Florida
US, 1895-1969, HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, Seminole Tribe of Southern Florida, after first serving Cheyenne Indians at Whirlwind Mission in Oklahoma and then Stevens Village Alaska which moved to Tanana, but funds ran out with the depression; Bedell (March 19, 1875 – January 8, 1969) was an Episcopal deaconess and missionary to the Cheyenne in Oklahoma, Alaska Natives (spending 15 years at a missionary school), and the Seminole of Florida. She is remembered on the calendar of saints of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America with a minor feast day on January 8. Seminole Tribe of Florida ; HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969) ; Bedell, missionary and friend to the Seminole Indians of Florida, was born in Buffalo, New York on March 19, 1875. was trained as a schoolteacher but was inspired several years later by an Episcopalian missionary who spoke at her church describing the many needs of missionary work. 1906 she applied to, and was accepted by, the New York Training School for Deaconesses, where her one-year course of study included instruction in religious matters, missions, teaching, hygiene, and hospital nursing. her training she was sent as a missionary-teacher to the Cheyenne Indians at Whirlwind Mission in Oklahoma. duties at the Whirlwind Mission were many. She cared for the sick and the poor, organized social services for the tribe, performed the duties of the rector in his absence, and provided education for the women and children. She provided religious instruction, hoping to win the confidence of the Indians and convert them to Christianity. of her experience in both teaching and working with Indians, in 1916 an Episcopal bishop requested that she consider an assignment in a remote area of Alaska. by the prospect of leaving Oklahoma, she nevertheless accepted her new assignment in Stevens Village, Alaska. there, in 1922 she was finally made a deaconess in the church, instilling in her a new and profound dedication to her vocation. mission at Stevens Village was moved to Tanana so that a boarding school funded by church members' contributions could be established for the children who could not travel in the bad winter weather. by 1931, funds were so scarce that Deaconess Bedell traveled to New York to plea for more contributions. of the Great Depression, there was little available money, and although the church paid off the school's existing debt, there was little reason for Bedell to return to Alaska. Bedell speaking engagements following her service in Alaska, Bedell was invited to visit a Seminole Indian reservation in southern Florida. Appalled by their living conditions, she began her campaign to improve the quality of life among the Mikasuki-Seminole Indians by living and working with them, not merely teaching them. sought to revive the doll making and basket weaving skills which had become nearly extinct. encouraged the incorporation of the intricate patchwork designs made by Indian women into articles of clothing for both women and men. from the arts and crafts store at Blades Cross Mission helped to provide improved income for the Mikasuki-Seminoles. emphasized health and education rather than religious conversion in her work with the Seminoles; their spiritual and physical comfort was more important to her than religious conversion, and her work and friendship with the Seminoles of Florida reflected those values. from the Florida Memory Project

US, 1897-1901, Pres Will McKinley, expert on protective tarriffs, Spanish-American War, gold standard, rapid econ growth
US President, 1897-1901, William McKinley; McKinley (born William McKinley Jr., January 29, 1843 - September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. He was president during the Spanish–American War of 1898, raised protective tariffs to boost American industry, and rejected the expansionary monetary policy of free silver, keeping the nation on the gold standard. Republican, McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War; he was the only one to begin his service as an enlisted man, and end as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton. In 1876, McKinley was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Party's expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial and, together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office, led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. He was elected governor of Ohio in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 amid a deep economic depression. He defeated his Democratic rival William Jennings Bryan after a front porch campaign in which he advocated "sound money" (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. economic growth marked McKinley's presidency. He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition and in 1900 secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. He hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict, but when negotiation failed, requested and signed Congress's declaration of war to begin the Spanish-American War of 1898. The United States victory was quick and decisive. As part of the peace settlement, Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines while Cuba was promised independence, but at that time remained under the control of the United States Army. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898 and it became a United States territory. regard McKinley's 1896 victory as a realigning election in which the political stalemate of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System, beginning with the Progressive Era. McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism, and free silver. His achievements were cut short when he was fatally shot on September 6, 1901, by Leon Czolgosz, a second-generation Polish-American anarchist. McKinley died eight days later and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. As an innovator of American interventionism and pro-business sentiment, McKinley is generally ranked above average. His popularity was soon overshadowed by Roosevelt's. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Priestmartyr John Kochurov, Commemorated on October 31; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, (30 December 1934); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated January 29 ; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Jacob Riis of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1897-1958, F. F. Bosworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 24
Nebraska, 1897-1958, F. F. Bosworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 24; William M. Branham PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 24;

US, 1898, Spanish-American War, US gets Guam, Phillipines, Puerto Rico, Cuba, R the Maine
Spanish-American War, 1898; Spanish–American War (April 21 – August 13, 1898, Spanish: Guerra hispano-estadounidense or Guerra hispano-americana; Filipino: Digmaang Espanyol-Amerikano)[d] was an armed conflict between Spain and the United States. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. The war led to the U.S. emerging predominant in the Caribbean region,[14] and resulted in U.S. acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions. It led to U.S. involvement in the Philippine Revolution and later to the Philippine–American War. The main issue was Cuban independence. Revolts had been occurring for some years in Cuba against Spanish colonial rule. The U.S. backed these revolts upon entering the Spanish–American War. There had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873. But in the late 1890s, American public opinion swayed in support of the rebellion due to reports of concentration camps (death estimates range from 150,000 to 400,000 people) set up to control the populace.[15][16] Yellow journalism exaggerated the atrocities to further increase public fervor and to sell more newspapers and magazines.[17] business community had just recovered from a deep depression and feared that a war would reverse the gains. Accordingly, most business interests lobbied vigorously against going to war.[18] President William McKinley ignored the exaggerated news reporting and sought a peaceful settlement.[19] However, after the United States Navy armored cruiser Maine mysteriously exploded and sank in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed McKinley into a war that he had wished to avoid. April 20, 1898, McKinley signed a joint Congressional resolution demanding Spanish withdrawal and authorizing the President to use military force to help Cuba gain independence.[20] In response, Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba.[21] Both sides declared war; neither had allies. 10-week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. As U.S. agitators for war well knew,[22] U.S. naval power would prove decisive, allowing expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already facing nationwide Cuban insurgent attacks and further wasted by yellow fever.[23] The invaders obtained the surrender of Santiago de Cuba and Manila despite the good performance of some Spanish infantry units, and fierce fighting for positions such as San Juan Hill.[24] Madrid sued for peace after two Spanish squadrons were sunk in the battles of Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay, and a third, more modern fleet was recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts.[25] result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. which allowed it temporary control of Cuba and ceded ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine islands. The cession of the Philippines involved payment of $20 million ($620 million today) to Spain by the U.S. to cover infrastructure owned by Spain.[26] defeat and loss of the Spanish Empire's last remnants was a profound shock to Spain's national psyche and provoked a thorough philosophical and artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of '98.[25] The United States gained several island possessions spanning the globe, which provoked rancorous debate over the wisdom of expansionism.[27] Philippine-“American War 1899-1902; GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922;

US, 1900-1965, FRANCES PERKINS, Boston, MA, responsible for social security, unemployment ins, child labor laws, minimum wage
US, 1900-1965, FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, Boston, MA (Boston Harbor, Charles River Mouth), responsible for social security, unemployment ins, child labor laws, minimum wage.; Boston; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13 ; Perkins (April 10, 1880– May 14, 1965) was the U.S. Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945, and the first woman appointed to the U.S. Cabinet. a loyal supporter of her friend, Franklin D. Roosevelt, she helped pull the labor movement into the New Deal coalition. and Interior Secretary Harold Ickes were the only original members of the Roosevelt cabinet who remained in offices for his entire presidency. her term as Secretary of Labor, she was largely responsible for the U.S. adoption of social security, unemployment insurance, federal laws regulating child labor, and adoption of the federal minimum wage. was born in Boston, Massachusetts and spent much of her childhood in Worcester. She attended Worcester's Classical High School and was graduated from Mount Holyoke College with a BA degree in chemistry in 1902, and from Columbia University with a master's degree in sociology in 1910. achieved statewide prominence as head of the New York Consumers League in 1910 and in that position she lobbied with vigor for better working hours and conditions. The next year, she witnessed the tragic Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, a pivotal event in her life. In 1918, Perkins accepted Governor Al Smith's offer to join the New York State Industrial Commission, becoming its first female member. She became chairwoman of the commission in 1926. 1929 the newly-elected New York governor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, appointed Perkins as the state industrial commissioner. Having earned the cooperation and respect of various political factions, Perkins ably helped put New York in the forefront of progressive reform. She expanded factory investigations, reduced the workweek for women to 48 hours, and championed minimum wage and unemployment insurance laws. 1933 President Roosevelt appointed Perkins as Secretary of the Department of Labor, a position she held for twelve years, longer than any other Secretary of Labor. With few exceptions, President Roosevelt consistently supported the goals and programs of Secretary Perkins. In an administration filled with compromise, the president's support for the agenda of Frances Perkins was unusually constant. Secretary of Labor, Perkins played a key role in the cabinet by writing New Deal legislation, including minimum-wage laws. Her most important contribution, however, came in 1934 as chairwoman of the President's Committee on Economic Security. In this post, she was involved in all aspects of the reports and hearings that ultimately resulted in the Social Security Act of 1935. her tenure as Secretary of Labor, in 1945 Perkins was asked by President Harry Truman to serve on the United States Civil Service Commission, which she did until 1952, when her husband died and she resigned from federal service. During this period, she also published a memoir of her time in FDR's administration called The Roosevelt I Knew, which offered a sympathetic view of the president. her government service career, Perkins remained active as a teacher and lecturer at the New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University until her death in 1965 at age 85. — more at Wikipedia a young adult she discovered the Episcopal Church and was confirmed at the Church of the Holy Spirit in Lake Forest, Illinois, on June 11, 1905, and was a faithful and active Episcopalian for the remainder of her life. her time as Secretary of Labor, she would take time away from her duties on a monthly basis and make a retreat with the All Saints' Sisters of the Poor in nearby Catonsville, Maryland. — from Holy Women, Holy Men information is available from the Frances Perkins Center (particularly the page "Frances Perkins and Faith"), and from the New York State Oral History Project. The most recent biography of her is The Woman Behind the New Deal: The Life of Frances Perkins, by Kristin Downey.

US, 1901-1909, Pres Theo Roosevelt, Republican, anti-trust and Progressive policies, split helped P Woodrow Wilson
US President, 1901-1909, Theodore Roosevelt ; Roosevelt Jr. (October 27, 1858 - January 6, 1919), often referred to as Teddy or his initials T. R., an American statesman, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer, who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. previously served as the 33rd governor of New York from 1899 to 1900 and the 25th vice president of the United States from March to September 1901. emerged as a leader of the Republican Party and became a driving force for anti-trust and Progressive policies. was a sickly child with debilitating asthma but partly overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle. He integrated his exuberant personality, a vast range of interests and achievements into a "cowboy" persona defined by robust masculinity. was home-schooled and began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard. book The Naval War of 1812 (1882) established his reputation as a learned historian and popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York's state legislature. wife and mother both died in rapid succession, and he began to frequent a cattle ranch in the Dakotas. He served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President William McKinley but resigned to lead the Rough Riders during the Spanish–American War. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898.[2] Vice President Garret Hobart died in 1899, the New York state party leadership convinced McKinley to accept Roosevelt as his running mate in the 1900 election. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously, and the McKinley–Roosevelt ticket won a landslide victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity, and conservation. took office as vice president in 1901 and assumed the presidency at age 42 after McKinley was assassinated the following September.[3] He remains the youngest person to become President of the United States. Roosevelt was a leader of the progressive movement and championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. He prioritized conservation and established national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America where he began construction of the Panama Canal. He expanded the Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project American naval power. His successful efforts to broker the end of the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. was elected to a full term in 1904 and continued to promote progressive policies. He groomed his close friend William Howard Taft to succeed him in the 1908 presidential election. grew frustrated with Taft's brand of conservatism and belatedly tried to win the 1912 Republican nomination for president. He failed, walked out, and founded the Progressive Party. He ran in the 1912 presidential election and the split allowed the Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson to win the election. Following the defeat, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition to the Amazon basin where he nearly died of tropical disease. During World War I, he criticized Wilson for keeping the country out of the war; his offer to lead volunteers to France was rejected. He considered running for president again in 1920, but his health continued to deteriorate. He died in 1919. He is generally ranked in polls of historians and political scientists as one of the five best presidents. ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, 1948, Commemorated July 19; WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941); HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922; ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, EDUCATOR, 24 SEPT. 1947; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Priestmartyr John Kochurov, Commemorated on October 31; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, (30 December 1934); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated January 29 ; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 ; John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 ; New Martyr Archpriest Vasily Martysz, Commemorated on May 4; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; Jacob Riis of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2; Walter Rauschenbusch of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1905-1913, Los Angeles Aquaduct, Colorado Aquaduct 1933, California Aquaduct, 1963

Los Angeles Aqueduct, 1905-1913
Los Angeles Aqueduct; Los Angeles Aqueduct system, comprising the Los Angeles Aqueduct (Owens Valley aqueduct) and the Second Los Angeles Aqueduct, is a water conveyance system, built and operated by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.[6] Owens Valley aqueduct was designed and built by the city's water department, at the time named The Bureau of Los Angeles Aqueduct, under the supervision of the department's Chief Engineer William Mulholland.[7] The system delivers water from the Owens River in the Eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains to Los Angeles, California. as the California water wars, its construction was controversial from the start, as water diversions to Los Angeles eliminated the Owens Valley as a viable farming community.[8] The continued operation has led to public debate, legislation, and court battles over the environmental impacts of the aqueduct on Mono Lake and other ecosystems. Los Angeles Aqueduct[edit] aqueduct project began in 1905 when the voters of Los Angeles approved a US$1.5 million bond for the 'purchase of lands and water and the inauguration of work on the aqueduct'. On June 12, 1907, a second bond was passed with a budget of US$24.5 million to fund construction.[9][10] began in 1908 and was divided into eleven divisions and a cement plant. The number of men who were on the payroll the first year was 2,629 and this number peaked at 6,060 in May 1909. In 1910, employment dropped to 1,150 due to financial reasons but rebounded later in the year. Between 1911 and 1912 employment ranged from 2,800 to 3,800 workers. The number of laborers working on the aqueduct at its peak was 3,900.[11][12][13][14] In 1913, the City of Los Angeles completed construction of the first Los Angeles Aqueduct.

Caifornia Aqueduct, 1963-1968
Caifornia Aqueduct; Governor Edmund G. Brown California Aqueduct is a system of canals, tunnels, and pipelines that conveys water collected from the Sierra Nevada Mountains and valleys of Northern and Central California to Southern California.[4] Named after California Governor Edmund Gerald "Pat" Brown Sr., the over 400-mile (640 km) aqueduct is the principal feature of the California State Water Project. aqueduct begins at the Clifton Court Forebay at the southwestern corner of the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta. aqueduct then heads south, eventually splitting into three branches: the Coastal Branch, ending at Lake Cachuma in Santa Barbara County; the West Branch, conveying water to Castaic Lake in Los Angeles County; and the East Branch, connecting Silverwood Lake in San Bernardino County. The Department of Water Resources (DWR) operates and maintains the California Aqueduct, including one pumped-storage hydroelectric plant, Gianelli Power Plant. Gianelli is located at the base of San Luis Dam, which forms San Luis Reservoir, the largest offstream reservoir in the United States. Castaic Power Plant, while similar and which is owned and operated by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, is located on the northern end of Castaic Lake, while Castaic Dam is located at the southern end.

Kings River

Kings River Middle Fork

Kings River Mouth (California Aqueduct)

Californai Aqueduct West Branch

California Aqueduct East Branch

California Aqueduct Coastal Branch

16 Miles South Southeast from Kettlerman City

Colorado River Aqueduct, 1933-1939
Colorado River Aqueduct; Colorado River Aqueduct, or CRA, is a 242 mi (389 km) water conveyance in Southern California in the United States, operated by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD). aqueduct impounds water from the Colorado River at Lake Havasu on the California-Arizona border, west across the Mojave and Colorado deserts to the east side of the Santa Ana Mountains. It is one of the primary sources of drinking water for Southern California. conceived by William Mulholland and designed by Chief Engineer Frank E. Weymouth of the MWD, it was the largest public works project in southern California during the Great Depression. The project employed 30,000 people over an eight-year period and as many as 10,000 at one time.[2] system is composed of two reservoirs, five pumping stations, 62 mi (100 km) of canals, 92 mi (148 km) of tunnels, and 84 mi (135 km) of buried conduit and siphons. Average annual throughput is 1,200,000 acre⋅ft (1.5 km3).[2]

Colorado River

US, 1906-1909, Milwalkee Road, Pacific Extension
US, 1909, Milwalkee Road, Pacific Extension the 1890s, the company's directors felt they had to extend the railroad to the Pacific to remain competitive with other railroads. A survey in 1901 estimated costs to build to the Pacific Northwest as $45 million (equal to $1.4 billion today). In 1905, the board approved the Pacific Extension, now estimated at $60 million, equal to $1.73 billion today. The contract for the western part of the route was awarded to Horace Chapin Henry of Seattle. The subsidiary Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railway Company was chartered in 1905 to build from the Missouri River to Seattle and Tacoma.[6] 1899 route map from Chicago to Lake Superior began in 1906 and was completed three years later. The route chosen was 18 miles (29 km) shorter than the next shortest competitor's, as well as better grades than some, but it was an expensive route, since the Milwaukee Road received few land grants and had to buy most of the land or acquire smaller railroads. two main mountain ranges that had to be crossed, the Rockies and the Cascades, required major civil engineering works and additional locomotive power. completion of 2,300 miles (3,700 km) of railroad through some of the most varied topography in the nation in only three years was a major feat. company maps denote five mountain crossings: Belts, Rockies, Bitterroots, Saddles, and Cascades. These are slight misnomers as the Belt mountains and Bitterroots are part of the Rockies. route did not cross over the Little Belts or Big Belts, but over the Lenep-Loweth Ridge between the Castle Mountains and the Crazy Mountains. 1910, an enormous forest fire erupted in Idaho and many railroad bridges were burned, including a 725-mile long bridge.[citation needed] historians question the choice of route, since it bypassed some population centers and passed through areas with limited local traffic potential. of the line paralleled the Northern Pacific Railway. Trains magazine called the building of the extension, primarily a long-haul route, "egregious" and a "disaster."[7] George H. Drury listed the Pacific Extension as one of several "wrong decisions" made by the Milwaukee Road's management which contributed to the company's eventual failure.[8] in 1909, several smaller railroads were acquired and expanded to form branch lines along the Pacific Extension.[9]: 15  Montana Railroad formed the mainline route through Sixteen Mile Canyon as well as the North Montana Line which extended North from Harlowton to Lewistown. This branch led to the settlement of the Judith Basin and, by the 1970s, accounted for 30% of the Milwaukee Road's total traffic.[9]: 75  Gallatin Valley Electric Railway, originally built as an interurban line, was extended from Bozeman to the mainline at Three Forks. In 1927, the railroad built the Gallatin Gateway Inn, where passengers traveling to Yellowstone National Park transferred to buses for the remainder of their journey.[9]: 83  White Sulphur Springs & Yellowstone Park Railway, originally built by Lew Penwell and John Ringling, primarily carried lumber and agricultural products.[9]: 86  1920 Milwaukee Road timetable map. conditions in the mountain regions of the Pacific Extension proved difficult. Winter temperatures of −40 °F (−40 °C) in Montana made it challenging for steam locomotives to generate sufficient steam. line snaked through mountainous areas, resulting in "long steep grades and sharp curves". provided an answer, especially with abundant hydroelectric power in the mountains, and a ready source of copper in Anaconda, Montana.[10] 1914 and 1916, the Milwaukee Road implemented a 3,000 volt direct current (DC) overhead system between Harlowton, Montana, and Avery, Idaho, a distance of 438 miles (705 km).[11] with the result, the Milwaukee electrified its route in Washington between Othello and Tacoma, a further 207 miles (333 km), between 1917 and 1920.[12] section traversed the Cascades through the 2¼ mile (3.6 km) Snoqualmie Tunnel, just south of Snoqualmie Pass and over 400 feet (120 m) lower in elevation. The single track tunnel's east portal at Hyak included an adjacent company-owned ski area (1937−1950).[13][14][15][16] the 1984 abandonment of the Pacific Extension, Tacoma Rail purchased all of Milwaukee's lines south of Tacoma. in 1990, the Chehalis-Centralia Railroad began operating over the section from Centralia to Curtis. In 2010 the line was sold to the Port of Chehalis and in 2019, The railroad purchased the line from Chehalis to Ruth. In 2021 the section from Highway 6 West to Curtis was leased. the 645 miles (1,038 km) of main-line electrification represented the largest such project in the world up to that time, and would not be exceeded in the US until the Pennsylvania Railroad's efforts in the 1930s.[17] two separate electrified districts were never unified, as the 216-mile (348 km) Idaho Division (Avery to Othello) was comparatively flat down the St. Joe River to St. Maries and through eastern Washington, and posed few challenges for steam operation.[12] Electrification cost $27 million, but resulted in savings of over $1 million per year from improved operational efficiency.[18] Boxcab electric locomotive pulling a passenger train in a canyon An EF-1 boxcab hauls the Olympian through Montana Canyon in 1925. The Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railway was absorbed by the parent company on January 1, 1913.[6] The Pacific Extension, including subsequent electrification, cost the Milwaukee Road $257 million, over four times the original estimate of $60 million. To meet this cost, the Milwaukee Road sold bonds, which began coming due in the 1920s.[19] Traffic never met projections, and by the early 1920s, the Milwaukee Road was in serious financial condition. This state was exacerbated by the railroad's purchase of several heavily indebted railroads in Indiana. company declared bankruptcy in 1925 and reorganized as the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad in 1928. In 1929, its total mileage stood at 11,248 miles (18,102 km).[20] 1927, the railroad launched its second edition of the Olympian as a premier luxury limited passenger train and opened its first railroad-owned tourist hotel, the Gallatin Gateway Inn in Montana, southwest of Bozeman, via a spur from Three Forks. company scarcely had a chance for success before the Great Depression hit. Despite innovations such as the famous Hiawatha high-speed trains that exceeded 100 mph (160 km/h), the railroad again filed for bankruptcy in 1935. The Milwaukee Road operated under trusteeship until December 1, 1945. WWII the CMSt.P&P sponsored one of the Army's MRS units the 757th Railroad Shop Battalion. Two Skytop Lounges in their fourth Milwaukee Road paint scheme, matching Union Pacific colors. These cars were part of the Twin Cities Hiawatha equipment pool. Milwaukee Road enjoyed temporary success after World War II. Out of bankruptcy and with the wartime ban on new passenger service lifted, the company upgraded its trains. Olympian Hiawatha began running between Chicago and the Puget Sound over the Pacific Extension in 1947,[21] and the Twin Cities Hiawatha received new equipment in 1948.[22] accelerated and was complete by 1956.[23][24] In 1955, the Milwaukee Road took over from the Chicago and North Western's handling of Union Pacific's Overland Route streamliners between Chicago and Omaha.[21] whole railroad industry found itself in decline in the late 1950s and the 1960s, but the Milwaukee Road was hit particularly hard. The Midwest was overbuilt with a plethora of competing railroads, while the competition on the transcontinental routes to the Pacific was tough. The premier transcontinental streamliner, the Olympian Hiawatha, despite innovative scenic observation cars, was mothballed in 1961, becoming the first visible casualty. resignation of President John P. Kiley in 1957 and his replacement with the fairly inexperienced William John Quinn was a pivotal moment. From that point onward, the road's management was fixated on merger with another railroad as the solution to the Milwaukee's problems. mergers had to be approved by the Interstate Commerce Commission, and in 1969 the ICC effectively blocked the merger with the Chicago and North Western Railway (C&NW) that the Milwaukee Road had counted on and had been planning for since 1964. The ICC asked for terms that the C&NW was not willing to agree to. The merger of the "Hill Lines" was approved at around the same time, and the merged Burlington Northern came into being. 1970s[edit] An electric locomotive with its pantographs down A Little Joe at Deer Lodge, Montana in October 1974 after the end of electrified operation. formation of Burlington Northern in 1970 from the merger of Northern Pacific, Great Northern, Burlington Route, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 3 created a stronger competitor on most Milwaukee Road routes. To boost competition, the ICC gave the Milwaukee Road the right to connect with new railroads in the West over Burlington Northern tracks. on its Pacific Extension increased substantially to more than four trains a day each way[25] as it began interchanging cars with Southern Pacific at Portland, Oregon and Canadian railroads at Sumas, Washington.[26] railroad's foothold on transcontinental traffic leaving the Port of Seattle increased such that the Milwaukee Road held a staggering advantage over BN, carrying nearly 80% of the originating traffic along with 50% of the total container traffic leaving the Puget Sound (prior to severe service declines after roughly 1974).[citation needed] 1970, the president of Chicago and North Western offered to sell the railroad to the Milwaukee Road outright. William John Quinn refused,[27] stating that it now believed only a merger with a larger system, not a slightly smaller one, could save the railroad. Almost immediately, the railroad filed unsuccessfully with the ICC to be included in the Union Pacific merger with the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad. the mid-1970s, deferred maintenance on Milwaukee Road's physical plant, which had been increasing throughout the 1960s as it attempted to improve its financial appearance for merger, was beginning to cause problems. railroad's financial problems were exacerbated by their practice of improving its earnings during that period by selling off its wholly owned cars to financial institutions and leasing them back. The lease charges became greater, and more cars needed to be sold to pay the lease payments. railroad's fleet of cars was becoming older because more money was being spent on finance payments for the old cars rather than buying new ones. This contributed to car shortages that turned away business. Milwaukee Road chose at this time to end its mainline electrification. Its electric locomotive fleet was reaching the end of its service life, and newer diesel locomotives such as the EMD SD40-2 and the GE Universal Series were more than capable of handling the route. The final electric freight arrived at Deer Lodge, Montana on June 15, 1974.[28][29] 1976, the Milwaukee Road exercised its right under the Burlington Northern merger to petition for inclusion based on its weak financial condition. The ICC denied it on March 2, 1977.[30][31]

Milwalkee Road Chicago, Milwalkee, to Bozeman, Mt, I94 along the Missouri

Milwalkee Road Pacific Extension, Bozeman to Tacoma

Miles City, MT

Butte, Mt

Bonner, MT

Saint Regis, MT

East Portal, MT

East Portal, MT to Avery, ID and St Joe River

Avery, Idaho
Avery, Idaho;

Saint Joe River

St Joe, ID

Saint Maries, ID

Plummer, ID

Tekoa, WA

Revere, WA

Ralston, WA

Roxboro, WA

Warden, WA

Othello, WA
Othello, WA;

Smyrna, WA

Boylston, WA

Kittitas, WA

Thorp, WA

Easton, WA

Snoqualmie Tunnel
Snoqualmie Tunnel;

Cedar Falls, WA

Cedar River

Barneston, WA

Maple Valley, WA

Renton, WA

US, Milwalkee Road, Montana Railroad

Helena, Mt (Missouri River 3)

Lombard, MT, Milwalkee Road, Montana Route, 1895-1903, 1908
Lombard, MT, Milwalkee Road, Montana Route; Montana Railroad was an American railroad built and operated between the towns of Lombard and Lewistown, Montana, a distance of approximately 157 miles. railroad connected with the national railway network via a connection with the Northern Pacific Railway at Lombard. The Montana Railroad line was constructed between 1895 and 1903, and operated independently until 1908, when it was acquired by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad ("the Milwaukee Road"). The railroad was colloquially known as "the Jawbone", because of the contrast between the promising statements of the line's promoters and the company's perennially-weak financial position.[1] Montana Railroad was the brainchild of Richard A. Harlow, a Helena, Montana attorney and entrepreneur, who envisioned the construction of a railway eastward from Helena to serve the mining and agricultural regions of central Montana. His first attempt at such a project, the Montana Midland, began construction in 1893, but almost immediately failed due to the onset of the Panic of 1893. in 1894 Harlow organized the Montana Railroad, a project with similar goals. Construction work on the Montana Railroad began in 1895 at Lombard, a station on the Northern Pacific Railway 53 miles east of Helena. Montana Railroad route proceeded eastward from Lombard up Sixteen Mile Canyon towards the mining districts of the Castle Mountains, in southeastern Meagher County. railroad reached Leadborough, at the southern end of the mining district, in November 1896; unfortunately for the railroad, however, the region's mines were already past their peak by then.[2] the face of the declining mineral production in the Castle area, Harlow realized that his railroad needed a larger and more diversified traffic base. therefore announced plans to extend his railroad still farther, and in 1899 railway construction crews began working eastward down the Musselshell River valley. The Montana Railroad was completed to the new town of Harlowton (named after Harlow) in 1900. line's tracklayers then turned northward, finally reaching Lewistown in 1903.[2] 1908, the Montana Railroad was purchased by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, which was then in the process of constructing a new transcontinental line through the state of Montana. Lombard-Harlowton segment of the Montana Railroad became a part of this new Milwaukee line, although nearly all of the original route was heavily rebuilt, to reduce curvature and raise the Sixteen Mile Canyon trackage above the flood-prone canyon floor. to electrify the line began in 1914. The Montana's Harlowton-Lewistown route became a secondary main line for the Milwaukee; it was later extended to Great Falls and several branch lines were built.[2] all of the Milwaukee Road's trackage in the area was abandoned in 1980 due to bankruptcy, and today only a short segment of the former Montana Railroad (near Moore) remains in service. Milwaukee Road was absorbed by the Soo Line Railroad in 1986, which was later merged into the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1990. Most of the former grade can still be seen, however.[1] from the line, including steam trains, are captured in the 1930 film Danger Lights. The landslide scene is said to have been recorded in 16 Mile Canyon east of Lombard. This section required heavy engineering with many bridges and tunnels but the exact location of the scene remains a mystery.

16 Mile Creek, Missouri River 2.3, 13 Miles North of Three Forks

Lewiston, MT, Milwalkee Road, Montana Route
Lewiston, MT, Milwalkee Road, Montana Route; Montana Railroad was an American railroad built and operated between the towns of Lombard and Lewistown, Montana, a distance of approximately 157 miles. railroad connected with the national railway network via a connection with the Northern Pacific Railway at Lombard. The Montana Railroad line was constructed between 1895 and 1903, and operated independently until 1908, when it was acquired by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad ("the Milwaukee Road"). The railroad was colloquially known as "the Jawbone", because of the contrast between the promising statements of the line's promoters and the company's perennially-weak financial position.[1] Montana Railroad was the brainchild of Richard A. Harlow, a Helena, Montana attorney and entrepreneur, who envisioned the construction of a railway eastward from Helena to serve the mining and agricultural regions of central Montana. His first attempt at such a project, the Montana Midland, began construction in 1893, but almost immediately failed due to the onset of the Panic of 1893. in 1894 Harlow organized the Montana Railroad, a project with similar goals. Construction work on the Montana Railroad began in 1895 at Lombard, a station on the Northern Pacific Railway 53 miles east of Helena. Montana Railroad route proceeded eastward from Lombard up Sixteen Mile Canyon towards the mining districts of the Castle Mountains, in southeastern Meagher County. railroad reached Leadborough, at the southern end of the mining district, in November 1896; unfortunately for the railroad, however, the region's mines were already past their peak by then.[2] the face of the declining mineral production in the Castle area, Harlow realized that his railroad needed a larger and more diversified traffic base. therefore announced plans to extend his railroad still farther, and in 1899 railway construction crews began working eastward down the Musselshell River valley. The Montana Railroad was completed to the new town of Harlowton (named after Harlow) in 1900. line's tracklayers then turned northward, finally reaching Lewistown in 1903.[2] 1908, the Montana Railroad was purchased by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, which was then in the process of constructing a new transcontinental line through the state of Montana. Lombard-Harlowton segment of the Montana Railroad became a part of this new Milwaukee line, although nearly all of the original route was heavily rebuilt, to reduce curvature and raise the Sixteen Mile Canyon trackage above the flood-prone canyon floor. to electrify the line began in 1914. The Montana's Harlowton-Lewistown route became a secondary main line for the Milwaukee; it was later extended to Great Falls and several branch lines were built.[2] all of the Milwaukee Road's trackage in the area was abandoned in 1980 due to bankruptcy, and today only a short segment of the former Montana Railroad (near Moore) remains in service. Milwaukee Road was absorbed by the Soo Line Railroad in 1986, which was later merged into the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1990. Most of the former grade can still be seen, however.[1] from the line, including steam trains, are captured in the 1930 film Danger Lights. The landslide scene is said to have been recorded in 16 Mile Canyon east of Lombard. This section required heavy engineering with many bridges and tunnels but the exact location of the scene remains a mystery.

Castle Mountain Mining District, Meagher County

Meagher County, MT

White Sulphur Springs, Meagher County, MT, Courthouse

Harlowton, MT

Judith Basin County, Montana
Judith Basin County, Montana;

Highway 12, 25 Miles North of Three Forks

Montana Railroad, up Sixteen Mile Canyon from Lombard and Missouri River to Lewiston, MT

Montana Railroad up Hwy 12

US, Milwalkee Road, Gallatin Valley Electric Railway

Three Forks, MT

Gallatin Valley Electric Railway

Gallatin Valley Electric Railway to Gallatin Gateway Inn

Gallatin Gateway Inn
Gallatin Gateway Inn;

Yellowstone National Park
Yellowstone National Park;

Annaconda, MT, Copper Capital
Annaconda, MT;

Tacoma, WA
Tacoma, WA;

US, 1907-1948, ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, at Cambridge, MA, first woman teacher at Episcopal Seminary, progressive, pacifist
Cambridge, MA; ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, 1948, commemorated July 19; 10, 1887-July 19, 1948] First woman appointed to teach at an Episcopal seminary (Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, MA). Her interests were Christian education and social reform, and she took part in many educational, social and ecumenical movements including “The Episcopal Pacifist Fellowship.” — from Holy Women, Holy Men Dr. Case received her Ph. D. from Columbia and taught Religious Education there for many years before joining ETS later in her career. Her doctoral thesis, Liberal Christianity And Religious Education, was published as a book in 1924 and is still in print. Further information may be found in a short biography by Sheryl Kujawa-Holbrook. Adelaide Teague Case, By Sheryl A. Kujawa-Holbrook, Protestant; Teague Case Biography Contributions to Christian Education Bibliography Excerpts from Publications Recommended Readings Author Information Teague Case (1887-1948), an Episcopalian, was interested in "progressive" religious education from the perspective of the Christian active in the world. Some of her areas of interest included, the religious development of children, the teaching of religion for all ages, the Bible and religious education, social ethics, and peace education. became the first woman appointed to full professorial rank in any Episcopal or Anglican seminary in 1941 when she joined the faculty of Episcopal Theological School in Cambridge, Massachusetts as professor of Christian Education. ETS, where she remained until her death in 1948, Case taught a variety of courses in religious education and directed field work. Life and Education Teague Case (1887-1948) was born on January 10, 1887 in St. Louis Missouri, with her twin sister, Mary Cushing Case. parents were Charles Lyman Case, American manger of the London Assurance Company, and Lois Teague Case; complete family included six children, three daughters and three sons. Adelaide was still an infant the family moved to New York - she considered herself a "native" New Yorker all her adult life-and eventually acquired a home in Bronxville, New York, and a summer residence in Paris Hill, Lake Sebago, Maine. was graduated from the Brearley School in New York City in 1904, and received a B.A. in mathematics and philosophy From Bryn Mawr College in 1908. began her illustrious teaching career in 1909, as a teacher of mathematics and Latin at St. Faith's School, an Episcopal girl's boarding school in Poughkeepsie, New York. a gifted student, Case began graduate studies in history and sociology at Columbia University in 1910, but was forced to withdraw within a year after a reoccurrence of childhood tuberculosis of the bone. spent nearly a year in treatment at Saranac Lake, New York, and then toured Europe with her parents as a semi-invalid. a statuesque woman in adulthood, with a keen intelligence and vibrant personality, Adelaide Teague Case battled ill health for most of her life, and withstood many operations on her legs. 1914 she re-entered the working world as volunteer librarian at the Episcopal Church Center in New York; she was eventually placed on salary and remained through 1916. her physical disability, Case had tremendous stamina, and worked tirelessly as an educator from the time she returned to graduate school at Columbia University in 1917, this time to study religious education, until her death. and confirmed in the Episcopal Church, Adelaide Teague Case's religious faith followed a conventional pattern until she experienced a conversion experience after college. the living Christ became the dominant force in her life and ministry. she continued within the Episcopal Church, Case became a devout Anglo-Catholic, and was strongly attracted spiritually to the sacramental and liturgical life of the church. in New York, she attended the Eucharist daily at St. Ignatius' Church. 1915 she became a member of the Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross, a society of lay women in the Episcopal Church dedicated to intercession, thanksgiving, simplicity of life, annual retreats, Christian unity, and social justice. Case remained an active member of the "Companions" during her lifetime, offering programs based on her teaching and publishing, including an annual retreat on the theme of "Thanksgiving in the Psalms." 1918 Case was one of a small group of Companions who wrote the Commission on Unity in support of an interdenominational petition for church unity. committed to the ministry of religious education, Adelaide Teague Case moved quickly through graduate study. She pursued her M.A. at Columbia University (1917-1919), while also serving as an instructor at the New York Training School for Deaconesses. In 1919 Case became a course assistant in the religious education department at Teachers College, Columbia; she was made an instructor in the same department in 1920, and received her Ph.D there in 1924. adviser at Columbia was theologian and educator George Albert Coe. Her dissertation, "Liberal Christianity and Religious Education," was later published as her first book. Her graduate studies focused on the recently developed "progressive" education movement and child-centered, as opposed to teacher-focused agenda and curricula. fundamentally believed that for religious education to be relevant to children, or to persons of any age for that matter, it must relate to their social environment. also developed related subspecialties in Christian social ethics, and the role of the Bible in education and worship. Teague Case's interest in social justice was further underscored in her involvement in the National Committee of the Episcopal League for Social Action, 1921-1948. and students alike praised Adelaide Teague Case for the deep sense of humanity and boundless compassion that emanated from her. all accounts, she was an amazing teacher. the influence of her adviser George Albert Coe, Case was influenced by the theory and teaching methods of John Dewey. from over fifty years ago not only remember details from Case's classes, they still have their research papers with her comments in their possession! As one former student noted, "She was a true believer in Christ and you saw him living in and through her." a teacher, Case had the ability to challenge students to do their most creative work. She was a genius at sensing student needs and creating a productive learning environment. A popular graduate student and instructor, Adelaide Teague Case was offered a faculty position as assistant professor at Teachers College after completing her doctorate; she was made associate professor in 1929. on the faculty, Case developed and offered courses in the principles of religious education, the use of the Bible in religious education, professional problems in religious education, as well as a course designed especially for directors of religious education. classes were popular with students from diverse religious backgrounds, including Protestants from a variety of traditions, Roman Catholic laity, clergy and religious, Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Jews, as well as non-believers. Teague Case was appointed full professor and chair of the religious education department at Teachers College in 1935. previous year, Hobart College conferred an honorary Litt.D. upon Case in recognition of her contributions to scholarship. teaching, Case wrote all her books while on the faculty at Teachers College. These works include her doctoral dissertation, Liberal Christianity and Religious Education (1924), an extended bibliography for religious educators focused on books about Jesus, As Modern Writers See Jesus (1927), and two devotionally oriented books based on scripture, Seven Psalms (1935) and The Servant of the Lord (1940). continued to write chapters in books and sundry articles for publications throughout her career, yet it should be noted that professional writing was but one aspect of her ministry as a religious educator. her published output were the countless workshops, conferences, and lectures that Adelaide Teague Case conducted throughout her career - often in addition to a heavy teaching and student advisement load. From 1928 until her death, Case was on the board of Windham House, a training school for women church workers. in 1930 she also served as part-time educational advisor for the Woman's Auxiliary of the Episcopal Church. addition, Case was a voluminous correspondent to a global community of friends and colleagues, amounting to over 100 letters per month. her tremendously active professional life, Adelaide Teague Case was fueled by a deep interior life, nourished by corporate worship and private prayer and meditation. the 1930s Adelaide Teague Case became involved in peacemaking efforts and in peace education. For Case "peacemaking" was always more than an international concern; it was also practical and personal. a pacifist, she worked for peace in relationships, in the classroom as well as through international organizations. Case served on the executive board of the Fellowship of Reconciliation (1930-1934); as a member of the Peace Action Committee of the New York Federation of Churches (1936), as well as vice-president of the Episcopal Pacifist Fellowship (1939-1948). In 1936 she and Paul Limbert conducted a study entitled "Around the World," that was the result of a survey completed by 373 school age children about their perceptions regarding other cultures and countries. "Around the World" was later published by the Associated Press. The resultant article, "Educating For Peace: A Study of Children's Opinion on World Affairs," was reissued in 1949 as part an of anthology on peacemaking dedicated posthumously to Adelaide Teague Case. Peace Is Possible: Essays Dedicated to The Memory of Adelaide T. Case, was published by Case's colleagues of the Episcopal Pacifist Fellowship, and included essays from a diverse group of scholars, activists, and bishops. the early 1940s, Angus Dun, the dean of the Episcopal Theological School (ETS) in Cambridge, Massachusetts recognized Adelaide Teague Case as the foremost religious educator in the Episcopal Church - if not in the United States - and persuaded her to resign her position in New York. As a way of introducing her to the school and alumni, Dun asked Case to come to campus as Kellner Lecturer in 1940-1941 to offer a course on "A Parish Program of Religious Education "on Monday afternoons. She was elected "Professor of Christian Education" in 1941, thus becoming the first woman elected to a theological faculty in an Episcopal or Anglican seminary. Though other women, particularly in the field of religious education, had taught theological students before Adelaide Teague Case arrived on the scene, none held the rank of professor previous to her. problem of religious education" - as it was referred to by faculty administrators, alumni and trustees - was not a new concern at the Episcopal Theological School. The alumni urged the creation of a chair in "religious pedagogy" as early as 1917. By the time the trustees got the campaign underway in the 1920s, with $100,000 from the endowment set aside for the chair, the school couldn't find a "man" to fill it. The seminary experimented by hiring part-time lecturers, and recruited from the nearby Harvard School of education, but complained that the later lacked training in religion. As time passed and the financial pressures of the depression impacted the school, the intention of the trustees to set aside funding from the endowment was lost. It fell to Dean Dun to find both the funding and the scholar for the job. Teague Case's reputation as an educator, scholar, and religious leader, along with her work at ETS as the Kellner Lecturer convinced Dun that she was the "man" for the job, and he proceeded to raise enough funding from private donors to cover her salary for three years. Adelaide Teague Case later told friends that her years at ETS were some of the happiest of her life, there is evidence to suggest that establishing herself as a professor in the seminary community was a slippery slope. had the courage - in her fifties - to give up a professorship at Columbia University with a very good salary and students and colleagues who appreciated her, to move to Cambridge for a much lower salary at a seminary where some of the students refused to take her classes because she was a woman. his credit, Angus Dun used his position as dean to insist that students study with Professor Case. Still, as friends indicated after her death, the transition for Adelaide Teague Case to the seminary community was slow and painful. was Adelaide Teague Case's genius for religious education and her excellence as a teacher that eventually moved the Episcopal Theological School to recognize the jewel in their midst. students in the present day write that working with Case was the most positive part of their seminary experience. While at ETS Case took her place on the faculty preaching rotation, and offered a variety of courses, including an introduction to Christian education, a course on the religious development of children and youth, a course on curriculum, a course on adult education, a course on education and the sacramental life, a course on "newer methods," a course on types of religious schools, and directed advanced study and research. In addition, during her last two years at ETS, Case directed a field work program which required weekly meetings, reports, and reading with each student. In this capacity, Case took it upon herself to visit students at their different field sites. by students as "Dr. Adelaide" or "Dr. A," Case became one of the most popular professors at the seminary, and was a mentor, counselor, and unofficial confessor for many. She shared her large faculty home with student families, and offered assistance to others who found themselves in a crisis; she provided housing and friendship to African American, Japanese American and Jewish families who were homeless. last faculty report at ETS - featuring goals that she did not live to implement - urged the creation of improved field work sites with more opportunities for supervision, additional courses in Christian education to meet the growing demand among students, and a plea for further integration between Christian education and other areas of the curriculum, particularly theology and church history. her residence in Massachusetts, Adelaide Teague Case was a member of the Church of the Advent, Boston, where she served on the parish council and on the adult education committee. Rev. Whitney Hale, rector of the Church of the Advent, brought her the Eucharist daily during her final illness. Due to her health history, she dreaded hospitals, but nevertheless until the day of her death Adelaide Teague Case was teacher, mentor, and friend to many. Her last words to a member of her household, spoken the night before her death, were "What can I do for you?" Teague Case died at the age of sixty-one on June 19, 1948 at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Bostom, of tuberculosis of the adrenal glands. remains were cremated and laid in the cemetery in Paris, Maine. The Burial Office was read at a simple service at the Episcopal Theological School on June 22; on June 23 a Requiem Mass was celebrated at the Church of the Advent, Boston. Cited Manuscript sources on Adelaide Teague Case are scattered. Some of her correspondence can be located in the files of the William Russell Collection, Teachers College, Columbia University, as well as in the George Albert Coe Collection and the Archives of the Religious Education Association at the Yale Divinity School. Files of papers related to Case and assorted clippings are located at Episcopal Divinity School (formerly Episcopal Theological School), the archives of the Episcopal Diocese of New York, the Episcopal Dioceses of Massachusetts, and the Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross. Reports from Case during her tenure as education adviser for the Woman's Auxiliary, and an account of her work at Windham House in the Oral History of Helen Turnbull, are located in the Archives of the Episcopal Church, Austin, Texas. Published biographical information on Adelaide Teague Case can be found in the following sources: Garraty, John A. &Mark C. Carnes (Eds.). (1999) American national biography. New York: Oxford University Press Ohles, John F. (Ed.) (1978). Biographical dictionary of American educators. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press Biography index. Vol, 1: January 1946-July 1949. New York: H.W. Wilson Company Wallace, Stewart (Comp.). (1988). A dictionary of American authors decreased before 1950. Toronto: Ryerson Press; Ireland Norma Olin (Ed.) (1988). Index of women of the world from ancient to modern times: A supplement. Norma Olin Ireland (Ed.) Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarerow Press James, Edward T.(Ed.). (1971). Notable American women, 1607-1950. Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1941). Religious leaders of America, Vol. II. New York: Oxford University Press. Smyth, Newman. (1932). A Story of Church Unity. New Haven: Yale University Press EDS Alumni Bulletin (1941). Obituaries and tributes, include ETS Bulletin (1984, July) XL, 4, 7-11; The Living Church (1948, July 11); School and Society (1948, July 3), 68, 1749; Bryn Mawr Alumnae Bulletin (July 1948); Taylor, Charles L. (1948, August 8).Adelaide Teague Case: An appreciation. The Living Church ; Shepherd, Massy &Charles Taylor; (1948, June 19). Adelaide Teague Case. ETS, Minute for Faculty Meeting. Turnbull, Helen. (n.d.). Adelaide Teague Case: unpublished tribute, Society for the Companions of the Holy Cross; Obituaries found in the New York Times (1948, June 20); The Church Militant (1941, June); Boston Sunday Herald (1948, June 20); Bulletin of ETS (1948, July). For Case's vitae, see Temple, Sydney (Ed.). (1949). Peace is possible: Essays dedicated to the memory of Adelaide Teague Case.) Deep River, Connecticut: The New Era Press, p. v. For her appointment at Episcopal Theological School, see Muller, James Arthur. (1943). The Episcopal Theological School, 1867-1943. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Episcopal Theological School. The author wishes to express her thanks to the following who shared their materials on and recollections of Adelaide Teague Case: Peg Aldrich, Charles Case, Charles Lee Clark, Phillip Douglas, Morgan Porteus, Owen Thomas, Fredrica Harris Thompsett, David Siegenthaler, to Christian Education Adelaide Teague Case influenced a generation of religious educators and was the leading authority in the field in the Episcopal Church of her day. As a scholar, Case was a pioneer in "progressive" education as it relates to religious education, and in the development of child-centered, as opposed to teacher-focused methodologies. Her deep love for children, and for the Christian faith, were cornerstones of her work and research. Her concern for social justice was a key motivation behind her ministry; she had little tolerance for injustice and the misuse of power. She fundamentally believed in the need for education to be mindful of social context. Moreover, her genius as a teacher endowed her with the capacity to communicate effectively to vastly different groups; she influenced children and youth, parish folk, graduate students, seminarians, activists, and religious leaders with equal alacrity. Moreover, as a deeply spiritual person, Case enabled her students to make connections between the academy and the life of faith. Her capacity to embody her beliefs endowed her ministry as a religious educator with a deep integrity. During her twenty years as a popular professor at Teachers College, Columbia University, Case influenced an interfaith study body and gained an established place in the wider education scheme. There she advocated seven-day, child-centered, religious education, rather than the traditional and more narrow Sunday school approach. For instance, at a 1933 conference of the Religious Education Association, Case proposed - along with Rabbi Isaac Landman, editor of the American Hebrew --the abolition of Sunday school in favor of a community-based model that would maximize the leadership opportunities for a variety of individuals. While a professor at Teachers College, Adelaide Teague Case was much in demand nationally as a speaker and a lecturer, on a variety of topics, including "The Commonwealth of God," "The Mental Effects on Students of Military Drills," "Religious Education for the Modern Child," and, "The Place of the Church in Adult Education." At the same time, Case fused the roles of educator and activist as a leader of the Children's Peace Festival (1936) and educators against the peacetime draft (1940). As the first woman elected to the faculty of an Episcopal or Anglican seminary, Adelaide Teague Case brought the depth of her experience to a new "mission field." In the seven years before her death, Case's work at the Episcopal Theological School increased the demand for Christian education courses within the seminary curriculum, gained full status for the field within the overall curriculum, and moved toward greater integration of religious education with other theological disciplines, Moreover, Case's teaching and supervision of field work students at ETS paved the way for the development of a more comprehensive program, with a full-time faculty member in the future. While at ETS, Adelaide Teague Case's favorite courses, "Use of the Bible in Christian Education," and "Education and the Sacramental Life," became popular electives. Although her biblical methodology was not text critical scholarship, the strength of her work in this area was in her ability to adapt scripture for "the person in the pew" in the contexts of corporate worship and personal devotion. Adelaide Teague Case was a mentor for ETS students before their graduation and afterward. Given the unique circumstances of her appointment at the seminary, she was also an important mentor and symbol for women students. Earlier in her career, she was influential as a part-time educational adviser to the Woman's Auxiliary of the Episcopal Church for ten years, 1930-1940. Though she was a proponent for the ordination of women in the Episcopal Church, she did not write on the subject. Rather, Case used her position and status as a professor to provide women with greater access to a theological education. She kept the issue of opening the seminary's doors to women before the faculty, reminding her male colleagues that their admission was not simply a personal issue for her, but an issue for all theological educators. At a time when ETS did not accept women students into degree programs, Adelaide Teague Case proposed programs for women students or the admission of women into degree programs at least once a year from the time she arrived at the seminary until her death. Two of these creative proposals included a six-week summer session for women students, and a cooperative degree program with Radcilffe College and the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Further, Case taught many women as "special students," when a formal seminary education was denied them, and helped them find a place in the church where they could exercise their gifts. Case was instrumental in encouraging women to obtain training at Windham House, and through other programs. Overall, Adelaide Teague Case was a religious leader in a generation of women who sought vocations in the church, such as Dora Chaplin, Frances Young, and Helen Turnbull, but who found few role models and even less encouragement for their aspirations. Through her teaching and scholarship, Adelaide Teague Case brought to Episcopal Theological School a wealth of experience gained through years as an activist "in the real world" and member of religious and social welfare organizations. Always intolerant of racism and discrimination in any form, Case worked actively for the American Jewish Congress, the Women's Division of Beth Hayaled, the Riverside Colored Orphanage, and the National Y.W.C.A. Courageously, she housed and sponsored Japanese American students during the World War II internment camp period. She also served on the boards of the Religious Education Association, the Church League for Industrial Democracy (later, the Episcopal League for Social Action), the Childhood Education Association, the Episcopal Pacifist Fellowship, Windham House, the International Council of Religious Education, the Federal Council of Churches, the Church Society for College Work, and the Student Christian Movement. Case also was one of the few women who served on the National Council of the Episcopal Church, 1946-1948. After her death in 1948, a memorial fund at the Episcopal Theological School (now the Episcopal Divinity School) was established in the name of Adelaide Teague Case. The fund was established as a living memorial in recognition of Case's contribution to the field of religious education; a student prize in her name is still given at the school today. Presently, the Episcopal Women's History project also gives an Adelaide Teague Case Award for achievement in writing, preserving and disseminating the history of women in the Episcopal Church. Cited A variety of sources speak to the legacy of Adelaide Teague Case, including: Adelaide Teague Case. (1948, July). ETS Bulletin, XL, 4, July 1948, p. 7-11 Taylor, Charles. (1948, August 8). Adelaide Teague Case: An appreciation. The Living Church. Episcopal women open sessions here. (1941, February 8). New York Times; Theological seminary called woman professor. 1941, June 14). New York World-Telegram; Educators assail peacetime draft. (1940, July 9). New York Times; Peace parade here in Spanish section. (1936, November 12). New York Times; $10,000 sought by churches in day. (1948, October 14). New York Times; Lead in education urged on churches. (1937, August 23). New York Times; Junior league to discuss child training in religion tomorrow." (1933, November 13) New York Times; Deny military drill had value in school." (1930, December 12). New York Times; 'The commonwealth of God' given at White Plains convention. (1923, October 28). New York Times; Propose abolition of Sunday schools. (1933, May 5). New York Times.. Faculty minutes, Episcopal Theological School, November 21, 1941; February 27, 1942; March 12, 1942; December 10, 1943; January 14, 1944. Episcopal Women's History Project, (Fall 1990). Timelines, X, 4. Numerous books written by her former students are dedicated to Adelaide Teague Case, for example, see Chaplin, Dora P. (1948). Children and Religion. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Books and Monographs (1924). Liberal Christianity and religious education. New York: Macmillian Company. (1927). As modern writers see Jesus: A descriptive bibliography of books about Jesus. Boston: the Pilgrim Press. (1935). Seven psalms: Suggestions for Bible study, meditation, and group worship. New York: The Womans Press. (1940). The servant of the Lord: A devotional commentary on the servant songs in second Isaiah. New York: The Womans Press. Chapters in Books (1929). When is education religious? In Walter M. Howlett (Ed.) Religion: The dynamic of education (pp. 109-122). New York: Harper and Brothers. (1932) Foreward. In Katharine E. Gladfelter (Ed.) Many moons ago and now. New York: Friendship Press. (1932). Religion and the child's life. In Dorothy Canfield Fisher and Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg (Eds.) Our children: A handbook for parents (pp.307-317). New York: Viking Press. (1934). The faith and education. In Frank Gavin (Ed.) Liberal Catholicism and the modern world (pp. 151-159). Vol. I. Milwaukee: Morehouse Publishing. (1936).Christian education. In Samuel McCrea Cavert and Henry Pitney Van Dusen (Eds.) The church through half a century: Essays in honor of William Adams Brown (pp. 229-247). New York: C. Scribner's sons. (1949). Educating for peace: A study of children's opinion on world affairs. In Sydney Temple (Ed.) Peace is possible: Essays dedicated to the memory of Adelaide Teague Case (pp.104-113). Deep River, Connecticut: The New Era Press. Selected Articles (1927, June). The religion of childhood. Findings in religious education, 3-6. (1942, February). Women in defense of the church. The Church Militant. 3-4. Excerpts from Publications (1924). Liberal Christianity and religious education. New York: the Macmillan Company. The liberal attitude toward the Bible and toward traditional theology has released Jesus of Nazareth alike from the machinery of a prearranged scheme of salvation and from the dead hand of pious superstition. (pg. 33) While the activities for social betterment are often undertaken by individuals and organizations not avowedly religious, liberal protestants ascribe a truly Christian character to all such service and call upon Christian people intelligently and energetically to support measures for better health, better housing, sufficient recreation, fair wages and kindred items of social welfare. (pg. 39) We need to know, not simply to guess, the information and attitudes of religious workers on such matters as: the use of the Bible in modern life, facts about the life of Jesus, the importance of religious dogmas, standards of sex relationship, war and peace, the organization and control of industry, property ownership, freedom of speech. (pg. 155) (1927). As modern writers see Jesus: A descriptive bibliography of books about Jesus. Boston: The Pilgrim Press. Many of us are convinced that the essential task of religious education is to make Jesus of Nazareth available for the students of our generation; to make it possible for children and young people in the modern world to share, as moderns, in the experience of Jesus, and to relate that shared experience to the problems of modern life. (pg. i ) Even in quarters where reforms in Sunday-school work are being carried out and there is genuine enthusiasm for up-to-date educational methods, one often finds the greatest unwillingness to adopt a free and intelligent attitude toward Christian history and literature. (pg. 73) (1929). When is Education Religious? In Walter M. Howlett (Ed.) Religion: The dynamic of education. New York: Harper &Brothers. pg. 109-10, 122. The question When is education religious?" has received four typical answers, each representing a major emphasis in everyday practice. Education is religious: When the Bible is being taught. When ideas of God are being shared and the experience of God is induced. When character is being developed in the direction of Christian ideals. When the teacher possesses a religious personality. (109-10) I confess that I am not very sanguine about the possibilities of the ordinary church school with its short sessions, artificial atmosphere, and conscripted teachers. Very little constructive teaching can be expected in the modern home. If we are to go forward, we must look for new leadership within the church. Surely the time has come for church to set up a seven-day plan for religious education which will utilize the public school, the home, the playground, and the church school, integrating the religious aspects of all these experiences and directing them toward the realization of Christian purposes. (pg. 122) (1932). Religion and the child's life. In Dorothy Canfield Fisher &Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg (Eds.) Our children: A handbook for parents (pp.307-317). New York: The Viking Press. In no area of life is it so true as in the area of religion that we are living suspended between two worlds - a past that has gone and a future that is yet to be. The paraphernalia and forms of our fathers' faiths are all about us, but they are like the furniture and ornaments of an empty house. Children see them, of course, and wonder about them. They hear words associated with religious experiences - "God," "Jesus," "the Sabbath," "the Bible." They see around them in familiar pictures representations of the Jewish-Christian epic - the cross, angels and figures of Christmas legends. At certain seasons of the year their environment takes on a special coloring which is in some vague way connected with religious tradition. Quaint tales and curious fables find their way to them through all sorts of unsupervised channels - their playmates at school, the cook's sister. They may perhaps have received some formal instruction and enjoy the authorized fellowship of a Sunday school or some other religious group. But that is usually a dull business. For most children the passion and the beauty and the practical serviceableness formerly associated with religious symbols and religious experiences are no longer accessible. The shell is there but not the substance. Religion is a deserted house. The people who used to live in it are in a foreign country camping on the hills; they have built for themselves other shelters and their adventures lead them in other directions. Devotion and despair speak a different tongue from the spiritual dialects of the past. And the mysteries of birth and death are quite without emotional house room. (pg. 307). Religious education is in somewhat the same situation today that sex education was several years ago. Most of the formal instruction is of a routine sort, without vitality and meaning. Parents and teachers are uninformed, embarrassed, double-minded, victims of their own miseducation. The result is that children's real learnings are of a causal and illicit nature, often inaccurate, exaggerated, unwholesome. Tremendous strides have been made in sex education. We need something of the same courageous attack on problems of religious education. (pg. 308) Among intelligent groups in America, religion has been one of the most neglected of all the possible subjects for adult education. Recently, however, a new interest has sprung up and a new freedom in discussion. This is distinctly encouraging, for it is not primarily the children of this generation who need religious education, but their elders. (pg. 317) (1934). The faith and education. In Frank Gavin (Ed.) Liberal Catholicism and the modern world (pp. 151-159). Vol. I. Milwaukee: Morehouse Publishing. As a matter of fact, American schools have been at the mercy of whatever happened to be the ruling passion of the social group of which they were a part. Nationalism, the cult of social success, the exploitation of individual prowess, racial and religious superiority: these the schools served to foster, not because of an conscious purpose to do so on the part of teachers and officials but because the ideals of education itself were ambiguous, not closely related to the civilization in which they were to function, academic and anemic. In an age of universal self-deception, educators were perhaps the most self-deceived people. (pg. 151) We can say with conviction that the Anglican Church in America has done little to put into practice the great educational principals of Catholicism. A patter of catechism; drill on ritualism; long lectures in biblical history; and in many parishes an elaborate graded system under inefficient teachers using a hodge-podge of material that reflects the well meaning, spiritual confusion of liberal Protestantism. This is about what we actually find. It is almost if not quite as bad as this! Yet every parish where the sacramental life of the Church is observed and where men and women draw with joy out of the wells of salvation is a potential center for religious education of the finest sort. In a few closely knit parishes, in Church boarding schools here and there, and in a handful of Church families, children are growing up in glad allegiance to the Catholic Church, finding freedom and expression within it. (pg. 158) (1935) Seven psalms: Suggestions for Bible study, meditation, and group worship. New York: The Womans Press. It is this central emphasis on the nature and purpose of God that makes the psalms so much needed in the present day. Surely we need to see our personal and social experiences in their Godward aspects. We need to find God in them. We need to learn to praise God in the midst of our common everyday life - not in spite of it, not outside it, but within in. (pg. 7) As we come to know the psalms better we see that they reflect just the sort of worship that we need desperately in this generation. They are a fine corrective for the narrow individualism that has crept into our devotion and corrupted popular religion. For the psalms are always the aspirations not of a solitary individual but of a group. In them we have a healthy collectivism - the priesthood of every believer - which at its best, as in many of these ancient poems, transcends narrow nationalism and embraces the whole of nature and history. (pg. 7) (1941?) Teaching that touches life. The Christian Register, n.p. This Christianity has been divorced from life both by its opponents and its adherents. This would be an unhappy state indeed were it not for a group representing another strain in our religious heritage, a group which has insisted in season and out of season that religion has a direct bearing upon the problems of human life. Here are the prophets of Israel and leaders and martyrs from the earliest days to the present time. They tell us that the heart of the Christian message is in its belief in radically transformed relationships, in its insistence on human brotherhood. They declare that only in relation to this fundamental teaching can the nature of God and the character of the spiritual life be understood. (n.p.) What then are the marks of Christian teaching which is in touch with life? It has at least these three characteristics, and it has them in all grades, from the kindergarten up to the adult classes. 1. It faces the ugly facts of our common life and judges them. 2. It encourages experiments in Christian brotherhood and participation in causes for social justice. 3. It studies our religious heritage as a great panorama of human experience where the will of God has been seeking to express itself. (n. p)(1949). Educating for peace: A study of children's opinion on world affairs. In Sydney Temple (Ed.) Peace is possible: Essays dedicated to the memory of Adelaide T. Case (pp.104-113). Deep River, Connecticut: The New Era Press. These children's sentiments when they salute the flag were for the most part (or at least they thought they ought to be!) in the direction of peaceful work of the United States as one among nations, although there were substantial minorities representing attitudes of jingoism and blind obedience to authority. (pg. 109) This set of responses seen in conjunction with the ignorance of important facts already noted, is a glaring commentary on the character of our education for peace. Apparently we encourage children to express fine sentiments but to stand pat on live issues, where these sentiments might be effective. The best that can be said is that we "mean well feebly." (pg. 111) But education, when it becomes socially dangerous, is surely beginning to be socially useful. (pg. 113) Readings Books (1924). Liberal Christianity and religious education. New York: The Macmillian Company. This book is a revised edition of Case's doctoral dissertation, and thus represents some of her earliest held ideas about religious education. The central question of the book is "To what extent has protestant religious education adopted the educational objectives implied in the liberal movement." Case finds a disconnect between the system of religious education at the time, and the attitudes and conducted implied by liberalism. Her analysis includes religious education organizations, curriculum objectives, and the competency of religious workers. Throughout the study reflects the influence of Case's dissertation adviser, George Alfred Coe, particularly in the application of scripture and the appeal for a fundamental restructuring of the Sunday school experience. (1927). As modern writers see Jesus. Boston: the Pilgrim Press. Written for religious education teachers, parents, librarians, and parish committees, this extended and annotated bibliography on major works focused on Jesus is intended to help the consumer sift through a variety of works for all ages. The individual entries for prose, poetry, plays, and pictures gives a brief synopsis of the work, along with Case's suggestions for its use. The book conveys a clear sense of some of Case's more pragmatic opinions regarding religious literature. (1935). Seven psalms: Suggestions for Bible study, meditation, and group worship. New York: The Womans Press. This is a plan for the study and use during worship of psalms 19, 46, 51, 73, 103, 107, 122. The focus throughout is the use of psalms as devotional literature, and the reader is encouraged to see through them the activity of God in their own lives and within human history. (1940). The servant of the Lord: A devotional commentary on the servant songs in second Isaiah. New York: The Womans Press. As a devotional commentary for Christians, this work focuses on the application of the Servant Songs in Isaiah II to everyday life. Case emphasizes some themes common to her work throughout, including the Incarnation, God's love for all humanity, and God's reign of justice and peace. Chapters in Books (1929). Religion and the child's life. In Dorothy Canfield Fisher &Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg (Eds.) Our children: A handbook for parents (pp. 307-317). New York: The Viking Press. In this article Case reiterates her belief in the centrality of religion to childhood experience, and argues for the need to find new ways to adapt the educational process to their needs with creativity and vitality. Case's dislike for boring educational methods unsuited to children's learning needs is evident here. Moreover, Case consciously writes for a religiously diverse audience, Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish, beseeching adults to be conscious in not passing along their narrow and ignorant prejudices to children. Rather than providing children with religion based in prohibitions, Case urges adults to become educated themselves, in order to meet their children's questions in a spirit of freedom and appreciation of other religious groups. (1932). When is education religious? In Walter M. Howlett (Ed.) Religion: The dynamic of education (pp.109-122). New York: Harper &Brothers. The focus of this collection of articles from a symposium on religious education sponsored by the Greater New York Federation of Churches is the relationship between religion and education in a country based on the separation of church and state. The guiding premise throughout the collection is that religion - as the integrating force that gives life its value - is either integral to education or both the individual and the state have lost something of deep value. Case's article describes the parameters of religious education, and suggests the need for a seven-day plan that will integrate religious education into all aspects of a child's life. (1934). The faith and education. In Frank Gavin (Ed.) Liberal Catholicism and the modern world (pp.151-159). Milwaukee: Morehouse Publishing. In this article Case presents her sense of the priorities for (Anglo-) Catholic religious education. She specifically advocates for a sympathetic understanding of the social goals of public education in religious circles; the need for leaders to present the need for such education to parish clergy and parents; and, raising of the level of religious education in those congregations which already represent themselves as part of the Catholic tradition. Case's commitment to the sacramental and liturgical life of the church, her distrust of nationalism, and her belief in the role of education within the social order are evident here. (1936). Christian education. In Samuel McCrea Cavert &Henry Pitney Van Dusen (Eds.) The church through half a century: Essays in honor of William Adams Brown (pp. 229-247). New York: C. Scribner's sons. This article presents Case's overview of the role of Christian education in the liberal movement and in the twentieth century. (1949). Educating for peace: A study of children's opinion on world affairs. In Sydney Temple (Ed.) Peace is possible: Essays dedicated to the memory of Adelaide T. Case (pp.104-113). Deep River, Connecticut: The New Era Press. This article was actually written thirteen years before its publication, prior to World War II. It is based on a report written by Case in 1936 with Paul Limbert entitled "Around the World," and published by the Associated Press. In the study, Case and Limbert surveyed 373 children about world issues. Case writes about the results of the study in this article, and makes a case for the importance of peace education in a world where future generations often receive erroneous information about world events. The collection of essays was published posthumously in Case's honor by colleagues in the Episcopal Pacifist Fellowship. Selected Articles (1927, June). The religion of childhood. Findings in religious education, 3-6. A synopsis of Case's understandings of the religious world of children with practical suggestions for leaders. (1941?) Teaching that touches life. The Christian Register, n.p. In this article Case discusses the characteristics of Christian teaching that is in touch with contemporary life and the search for truth. The vitality and urgency with which Case viewed the teaching office infuses this short piece in which she decries "pseudo-progressivism" among liberal groups which trivializes religious teaching and makes trivial connections between faith and life. (1942, February). Women in defense of the church. The Church Militant, 3-4. Case's explication of the mission and ministry of Christian women during wartime. In the article she details how women can work to strengthen their parishes, their homes and families, as well as the larger world through prayer and action. Information Sheryl A. Kujawa-Holbrook Sheryl A. Kujawa-Holbrook, Ed.D, Ph.D, is the vice president for academic affairs and dean of the faculty and professor of practical theology and religious education at Claremont School of Theology. She also serves as professor of Anglican studies at Bloy House, the Episcopal Theological School at Claremont.

US, 1907-1961, LILLIAN TRASHER, established orphanage in Assiout, Egypt (Nile River 14), pentecostal missionary, evangelist
Egypt, 1907-1961, LILLIAN TRASHER, Assiout, Egypt (Nile River 14), missionary, evangelist, established orphanage, in Assiout, Egypt, Nile Mother oEgypt, fFlorida&Georgia, Catholic then Filled with the Spirit at Bible College in South Carolina, pastored Pentacostal Church, traveled wEvangelist, returned tWork at Orphanage, broke engagement, felt called tAfrica, arrived Egypt wOnly $100, dying mother gave baby, man asks tCare for daughter, ordained Church oGod Cleveland TN, fFinancial prayer joined Assemblies oGod, worked 25 yrs 1929-1954 woFurlough, orphanage 1200 children ; Egypt, 1907-1961, LILLIAN TRASHER, Assiout, Egypt (Nile River 14), missionary, evangelist, established orphanage; Hunt Trasher (27 September 1887 – 17 December 1961) was a Christian missionary to Asyut, Egypt, as well as the founder of the first orphanage in Egypt. She is famed as the "Nile Mother" of Egypt. life was born in Jacksonville, Florida and was raised Roman Catholic in Brunswick, Georgia.[1] According to one account, her Quaker family had moved to the South after the Civil War.[2] still in her late teens, Trasher attended Bible college for one term, and then worked at Faith Orphanage in North Carolina in 1908–1910, after she failed to get a reporting job that she wanted. After becoming engaged to marry minister Tom Jordan, Trasher heard a missionary from India speak. Deciding that her mission lay in Africa, she broke off the engagement ten days before the wedding after her prospective husband failed to share her call. Trasher also taught at a second Bible school in South Carolina, pastored a Pentecostal church, and briefly travelled with an evangelist, but later returned to work again at the orphanage. 1910 after meeting Pastor Brelsford (or Perlsford) of Assiout, Egypt at a missionary conference, Trasher decided to defy her family's wishes and leave for that country.[3] Inspired as well by opening a bible to Acts 7:34, which referred to Egypt, Lilian and her sister Jennie sailed to Africa with less than 100 dollars in their pockets. in Egypt and starting the orphanage in Assiout, (some 230 miles south of Cairo), she soon met a man who came to the mission house seeking someone to attend to a dying woman nearby. Lillian and an older woman named Sela went to see the woman, who died shortly after they arrived, but left them her malnourished baby girl, clinging to life. When they arrived, their Arabic translator told Miss Trasher that the old woman then holding the baby (its grandmother) planned to throw it into the great river Nile. At the thought of this Lillian Trasher could not leave the baby, whom she named Fareida. Thus she defied her then-mission organization and began an orphanage.[4] By the turn of 1918 her orphanage family had grown to fifty children and eight widows. When Trasher returned to the States briefly in 1919 (Britain expelled foreigners during civil unrest) and saw the financial and prayer support to be found in the Assemblies of God, Trasher joined the missions-oriented movement. Upon returning to Egypt, she expanded her mission to include widows and the blind. Trasher worked 50 years among Egypt's orphans and other forgotten people, from 1911 to 1961, without a furlough, including through the Nazi occupation during World War II. and legacy the time she died in 1961, the Lillian Trasher Orphanage had grown to some 1200 children. Today, the institution is entirely the responsibility of the Assemblies of God of Egypt, with 85% of its daily needs being met by donations from the Presbyterian churches of Egypt, the Soul Salvation Society, and other Egyptian church bodies. Lillian lies buried on her orphanage's cemetery. In accordance with Egyptian law she was buried the same day that she died. The orphanage she founded still helps people to this day. is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on December 19. Assiout, Egypt; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961. Commemorated December 19 ; Hunt Trasher (27 September 1887–17 December 1961) was a Christian missionary to Assiout, Egypt, as well as the founder of the first orphanage in Egypt, famed as the “Nile Mother” of Egypt. was born in Florida, and grew up in Georgia. She followed Roman Catholicism as a young girl. In her teens, through Bible reading and Bible studies at a friend's house, she chose to make a personal commitment of her life to Jesus Christ. still in her late teens, Trasher attended Bible college for one term, and then worked at an orphanage in North Carolina. She received the infilling of the Holy Spirit at a second Bible school in South Carolina, and pastored a Pentecostal church. For a brief period, she traveled with an evangelist, but later returned to work again at the orphanage. was only ten days away from her wedding date when she broke her engagement to Tom Jordan. She felt called to Africa, he didn't, and in that same year of 1910 she defied her family's wishes and sailed to Africa with less than 100 dollars in her pocket. Her sister Jennie accompanied her, and was a valuable companion through decades of work overseas. in Egypt, Trasher had little idea what exactly she should do. That was decided for her when a dying Egyptian mother gave her baby to Trasher to care for. rented a home in the predominantly Christian city of Assiout (some 230 miles south of Cairo), and, after a period of a few months, a man came to her with his infant daughter whose mother was dying. The man asked her to take care of the girl for him, and this was the beginning of the Lillian Trasher Orphanage, accepting that her previous experience in that work was a sign of God's leading. 1912, the Church of God of Cleveland, Tennessee ordained Trasher, and by 1916 her orphanage family had grown to fifty children. When she returned to the States in 1919 and saw the financial and prayer support to be found in the Assemblies of God, Trasher joined the very missions-minded new organization. Trasher worked 25 years--from 1929 to 1954--without a furlough. the time of her death in 1961, the Lillian Trasher Orphanage had grown to some 1200 children. the institution is entirely the responsibility of the Assemblies of God of Egypt, with some 85% of its daily needs being met by donations from the Presbyterian churches of Egypt, the Soul Salvation Society, and other Egyptian church bodies. Lillian lies buried in a simple Egyptian tomb several miles outside the city of Assiout. from Wikipedia

US, 1909-1913, Pres Will H Taft, Conservative Republican, P Roosevelt conflict helped P Wilson win, SCOTUS Chief
US President, 1909-1913, William Howard Taft; ---------------------William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857 - March 8, 1930) was the 27th president of the United States (1909–1913) and the tenth chief justice of the United States (1921-1930), the only person to have held both offices. Taft was elected president in 1908, the chosen successor of Theodore Roosevelt, but was defeated for reelection by Woodrow Wilson in 1912 after Roosevelt split the Republican vote by running as a third-party candidate. In 1921, President Warren G. Harding appointed Taft to be chief justice, a position he held until a month before his death. was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft, was a U.S. attorney general and secretary of war. Taft attended Yale and joined the Skull and Bones, of which his father was a founding member. becoming a lawyer, Taft was appointed a judge while still in his twenties. He continued a rapid rise, being named solicitor general and a judge of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals. 1901, President William McKinley appointed Taft civilian governor of the Philippines. 1904, Roosevelt made him Secretary of War, and he became Roosevelt's hand-picked successor. Despite his personal ambition to become chief justice, Taft declined repeated offers of appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, believing his political work to be more important. Roosevelt's help, Taft had little opposition for the Republican nomination for president in 1908 and easily defeated William Jennings Bryan for the presidency in that November's election. the White House, he focused on East Asia more than European affairs and repeatedly intervened to prop up or remove Latin American governments. sought reductions to trade tariffs, then a major source of governmental income, but the resulting bill was heavily influenced by special interests. His administration was filled with conflict between the Republican Party's conservative wing, with which Taft often sympathized, and its progressive wing, toward which Roosevelt moved more and more. over conservation and antitrust cases filed by the Taft administration served to further separate the two men. Roosevelt challenged Taft for renomination in 1912. Taft used his control of the party machinery to gain a bare majority of delegates and Roosevelt bolted the party. The split left Taft with little chance of reelection, and he took only Utah and Vermont in Wilson's victory. leaving office, Taft returned to Yale as a professor, continuing his political activity and working against war through the League to Enforce Peace. 1921, Harding appointed Taft chief justice, an office he had long sought. Chief Justice Taft was a conservative on business issues, and under him there were advances in individual rights. poor health, he resigned in February 1930, and died the following month. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, the first president and first Supreme Court justice to be interred there. Taft is generally listed near the middle in historians' rankings of U.S. presidents. SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16 ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922; ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, EDUCATOR, 24 SEPT. 1947; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; Priestmartyr John Kochurov, Commemorated on October 31; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961, Commemorated December 19; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, (30 December 1934); HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated January 29 ; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13;

US, 1913, West Coast Railroad, After LA Aquaduct

US, 1913, West Coast Railroad, after LA Aquaduct, Vancouver to San Diego, I5 Corridor

US, 1913-1921, President Woodrow Wilson, progressive, southern dem, professor, income tax, fed reserve, WWI, segregation
President, 1913-1921, Woodrow Wilson ; Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of Princeton University and as the governor of New Jersey before winning the 1912 presidential election. As President, Wilson changed the nation's economic policies and led the United States into World War I in 1917. He was the leading architect of the League of Nations, and his progressive stance on foreign policy came to be known as Wilsonianism. grew up in the American South, mainly in Augusta, Georgia, during the Civil War and Reconstruction. After earning a Ph.D. in political science from Johns Hopkins University, Wilson taught at various colleges before becoming the president of Princeton University and a spokesman for progressivism in higher education. As governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913, Wilson broke with party bosses and won the passage of several progressive reforms. To win the presidential nomination he mobilized progressives and Southerners to his cause at the 1912 Democratic National Convention. Wilson defeated incumbent Republican William Howard Taft and third-party nominee Theodore Roosevelt to easily win the 1912 United States presidential election, becoming the first Southerner to do so since 1848. allowed the continuing imposition of segregation inside the federal bureaucracy. His first term was largely devoted to pursuing passage of his progressive New Freedom domestic agenda. His first major priority was the Revenue Act of 1913, which lowered tariffs and began the modern income tax. Wilson also negotiated the passage of the Federal Reserve Act, which created the Federal Reserve System. Two major laws, the Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act, were enacted to promote business competition and combat extreme corporate power. the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the U.S. declared neutrality as Wilson tried to negotiate a peace between the Allied and Central Powers. He narrowly won re-election in the 1916 United States presidential election, boasting how he kept the nation out of wars in Europe and Mexico. April 1917, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war against Germany in response to its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare that sank American merchant ships. Wilson nominally presided over war-time mobilization and left military matters to the generals. instead concentrated on diplomacy, issuing the Fourteen Points that the Allies and Germany accepted as a basis for post-war peace. He wanted the off-year elections of 1918 to be a referendum endorsing his policies, but instead the Republicans took control of Congress. the Allied victory in November 1918, Wilson went to Paris where he and the British and French leaders dominated the Paris Peace Conference. successfully advocated for the establishment of a multinational organization, the League of Nations. It was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles that he signed. Wilson had refused to bring any leading Republican into the Paris talks, and back home he rejected a Republican compromise that would have allowed the Senate to ratify the Versailles Treaty and join the League. had intended to seek a third term in office but suffered a severe stroke in October 1919 that left him incapacitated. His wife and his doctor controlled Wilson, and no significant decisions were made. his policies alienated German and Irish Democrats and the Republicans won a landslide in the 1920 presidential election. Scholars have generally ranked Wilson in the upper tier of U.S presidents, although he has been criticized for supporting racial segregation. His liberalism nevertheless lives on as a major factor in American foreign policy, and his vision of ethnic self-determination resonated globally. SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, 1948, Commemorated July 19; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941); HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16 ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922; ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, EDUCATOR, 24 SEPT. 1947; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; Priestmartyr John Kochurov, Commemorated on October 31; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961, Commemorated December 19; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, (30 December 1934); HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated January 29 ; SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Ida B. Robinson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1946, Commemorated April 20; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; TOYOHIKO KAGAWA, RENEWER OF SOCIETY, 23 APRIL 1960; GENOCIDE REMEMBRANCE 1915-1923, Commemorated April 24; New Martyr Archpriest Vasily Martysz, Commemorated on May 4; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; Jacob Riis of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2; Walter Rauschenbusch of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1913-1963, SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, Midtown, NYC, Episcopal Priest, co-founder Alcoholics Anonymous
US, 1913-1963, SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, atCalvary Church in New York City, Midtown, Episcopal Priest, insturmental in Oxford Group, his church was US Headquarters Oxford Group, Bill Wilson credited him as co-founder Alcoholics Anonymous, while in China with Frank Buchman and Princeton-in-China, learned of the 4 absolutes: honesty purity unselfishness & love,12 Steps AA from Sam, wrote over 30 books, last 10 yrs served in Calvary Church Pitsburg, foremost preacher, regular radio program, rebirth small group ministries in US, christianity into daily activities, interdenominational Pittsburg Experiment and Faith at Work, beginnings of Anglican Fellowship oPrayer; Calvary Church in New York City; SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; Shoemaker, DD, STD (1893-1963), was an Episcopal priest who was instrumental in the Oxford Group founding principles of Alcoholics Anonymous. Samuel Moor Shoemaker was the rector of the Calvary Church in New York City, was the United States headquarters of the Oxford Group. Wilson attended Oxford Group meetings at the Calvary Church Sam was instrumental in assisting Bill Wilson with the writing of the book Alcoholics Anonymous (nickname: The Big Book). acknowledged this linkage when he wrote in the book, A.A. Comes of Age (page 39): 1917, Sam Shoemaker had been sent to China to start a branch of the YMCA to teach at the Princeton-in-China Program. in 1918, feeling discouraged, he first met Frank Buchman told him of the four absolutes, honesty, purity and unselfishness and love. Shoemaker would speak of the meeting as a major influence for the start of his ministry, being the time when he decided to let go of self and let God guide his life Wilson, in 1955, would later give credit to Sam Shoemaker whom he referred to as a co-founder of AA. It was from Sam Shoemaker, that we absorbed most of the Twelve Steps of Alcoholics Anonymous, steps that express the heart of AA's way of life. Dr. Silkworth gave us the needed knowledge of our illness, but Sam Shoemaker had given us the concrete knowledge of what we could do about it, he passed on the spiritual keys by which we were liberated. The early AA got its ideas of self-examination, acknowledgement of character defects, restitution for harm done, and working with others straight from the Oxford Group and directly from Sam Shoemaker, their former leader in America, and from nowhere else." Shoemaker wrote over thirty books, at least half of which were circulating before A.A.’s 12 Steps were first published in the Big Book in 1939. by Shoemaker: Children of the Second Birth, 1927 If I Be Lifted Up, 1931 The Conversion of the Church, 1932 Twice-Born Ministers, 1929 Shoemaker's contributions and service to Alcoholics Anonymous and as a minister of the Anglican Communion and Episcopal Church of America have had a worldwide effect. The philosophy that Shoemaker codified, in conjunction with Bill Wilson, is used in almost every country around the world to treat alcoholism. — from Wikipedia leaving New York, Dr. Shoemaker served Calvary Church, Pittsburgh, for ten years before retiring in 1961. was known as one of the foremost preachers of his day, with a regularly-scheduled radio program. was also instrumental in the rebirth of small group ministries in the United States, led to (among other things) the Pittsburgh Experiment, and Faith at Work, both interdenominational program designed to bring Christianity into normal daily activities. he was involved in the beginnings of the Anglican Fellowship of Prayer, actually started by his wife Helen in the 1950's.

US, 1914-1938, CHARLES RAYMOND BARNES, martyred missionary, Dominican Republic, noted Haitians slaughter by Trujillo
US, 1914-1938, CHARLES RAYMOND BARNES, martyred missionary, Dominican Republic, Hispanola, noted slaughter Haitians by Trujillo, also served PA, Belize, Honduras ; Dominican Republic; CHARLES RAYMOND BARNES. PRIEST, 26 July 1938; American missionary in the Dominican Republic, Reverend Charles Barnes spoke out against tyranny. raised awareness of the slaughter of thousands of Haitian innocents at the hand of the Dominican Republic's Trujillo regime by writing letters to contacts in the American State Department. by Trujillo's officials, Barnes' letters made him the target of the regime, and he was martyred for his advocacy in 1938. came to the Dominican Republic in April 1936, and served as Vicar of the Church of the Epiphany, where his remains are interred. was born in Camden, New Jersey, on March 17, 1894, received his graduate theological training at the General Theological Seminary in New York. to the priesthood in 1920, served in Pennsylvania, present-day Belize, and Honduras before coming to the Dominican Republic. a Eucharist celebrated at General Convention, 2015.

US, 1916-1966, John oSan Francisco, tBelgrade&ROCOR, tShanghai bCathedral, 5k exodus tPhillipines, DC lobbying, Paris, San Fran
Russia, Kiev, 1916-1966, St John oSan Francisco, fKharkov, Ukraine (High Point, Three Rivers source of the Seversky Donets, Vorskla River), born to pious aristocrats, sickly youth, poor appetite, intense religious interest, military school ed, Kharkiv U, law degree 1918, theological ed Belgrade 1925, Bishop Russian Church Outside Russia ROCOR, fled Bolsheviks, emigrated tYugoslavia, tonsured monk by ROCOR primate, taught iSerbian High School, hieromonk 1926, served iGreek, Bishop i1934, tShanghai, 1946 China Archbishop, ONationalities unity, built large cathedral w large Bell tower& lParish house, Churches, hospitals, orphanages, intensely active, barefoot Fool, end WWII exodus fCommunists 1949, 5,000 refuges Tubabao, Philippines, Wash DC lobbing tEnter US, parish in DC, 1951 Western Europe Archdiocese from Paris, restored Gaullican liturgy, consecrated ordained Bishops, 1962 Diocese San Francisco after friend Tikhon, sorrowful disunity days there, but peace there & new cathedral; Kharkov; Saint John [Maximovitch], Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, Commemorated on July 2; Father among the Saints John (Maximovitch), Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco (1896-1966), a diocesan bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) served widely from China to France to the United States. John departed this life on June 19 (O.S.) / July 2 (N.S.), 1966, was officially glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad on July 2, 1994. glorification was later recognized for universal veneration by the Patriarchate of Moscow on July 2, 2008. future Saint John was born on June 4, 1896, in the village of Adamovka in Kharkiv province pious aristocrats, Boris and Glafira Maximovitch. was given the baptismal name of Michael, after the Holy Archangel Michael. In his youth, Michael was sickly and had a poor appetite, but he displayed an intense religious interest. was educated at the Poltava Military School (1907-14); Kharkiv Imperial University, from which he received a law degree (in 1918); and the University of Belgrade (where he completed his theological education in 1925). and his family fled their country as the Bolshevik revolutionaries descended on the country, emigrating to Yugoslavia. he enrolled in the Department of Theology of the University of Belgrade. was tonsured a monk in 1926 by Metropolitan Anthony (Khrapovitsky) of Kharkov the first primate of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia). Anthony later in 1926 ordained him hierodeacon. Gabriel of Chelyabinsk ordained him hieromonk on November 21, 1926. to his ordination he began an active life of teaching in a Serbian high school serving, at the request of local Greeks and Macedonians, in the Greek language. the growth of his popularity, the bishops of the Russian Church Aboard resolved to elevate him to the episcopate. John was consecrated bishop on May 28, 1934, with Metropolitan Anthony serving as principal consecrator, which he was assigned to the Diocese of Shanghai. years later he was named Archbishop of China. his arrival in Shanghai, Bishop John began working to restore unity among the various Orthodox nationalities. time, he worked to build a large cathedral church that was dedicated to Surety of Sinners Icon to the Mother of God, with a bell tower and large parish house. he inspired many activities: building of churches, hospitals, and orphanages among the Orthodox and Russians of Shanghai. was intensely active, constantly praying and serving the daily cycle of services, while also visiting the sick with the Holy Gifts. often would walk barefooted even in the coldest days. Yet to avoid the appearance of secular glory, he would pretend to act the fool. the end of World War II and the coming to power of the communists in China, Bishop John led the exodus of his community from Shanghai in 1949. Initially, he helped some 5,000 refugees to a camp on the island of Tubabao in the Philippines, he travelled successfully to Washington, D.C., to lobby to amend the law to allow these refugees to enter the United States. was while on this trip that Bishop John took time to establish a parish in Washington dedicated to Saint John the Forerunner. 1951, Archbishop John was assigned to the Archdiocese of Western Europe with his cathedra in Paris. his time there, he also served as archpastor of the Orthodox Church of France, restored Gallican liturgy he studied and then celebrated. was the principal consecrator of the Orthodox Church of France's first modern bishop, Jean-Nectaire (Kovalevsky) of Saint-Denis, ordained to the priesthood the man who would become its second bishop, Germain (Bertrand-Hardy) of Saint-Denis. 1962, Archbishop John was assigned to the Diocese of San Francisco, his long time friend Archbishop Tikhon. John's days in San Francisco were to prove sorrowful as he attempted to heal the great disunity in his community. was able to bring peace such that the new cathedral, dedicated to the Joy of all Who Sorrow Icon of the Mother of God, was completed. revering Saint John of Kronstadt, Archbishop John played an active role in preparation of his canonization. reposed during a visit to Seattle on July 2, 1966, accompanying a tour of the Kursk-Root Icon of the Mother of God. was laid to rest in a crypt chapel under the main altar of the new cathedral. CREDIT: www.monasteryofstjohn.org/?p=about_st_john

US President's Folder, 1921-1933

US, 1921-1923, President Warren G. Harding, rep, very popular while alive, Teapot Dome bribery and other scandals after d
US President, 1921-1923, Warren G. Harding; Gamaliel Harding (November 2, 1865 - August 2, 1923) was the 29th president of the United States, serving from 1921 until his death in 1923. A member of the Republican Party, he was one of the most popular U.S. presidents to that point. After his death, a number of scandals, including Teapot Dome, came to light, as did his extramarital affair with Nan Britton; those eroded his popular regard. lived in rural Ohio all his life, except when political service took him elsewhere. As a young man, he bought The Marion Star and built it into a successful newspaper. He served in the Ohio State Senate from 1900 to 1904, then as lieutenant governor for two years. He was defeated for governor in 1910, but was elected to the United States Senate in 1914, the state's first direct election for that office. ran for the Republican nomination for president in 1920, and was considered a long shot until after the convention began. The leading candidates could not gain the needed majority, and the convention deadlocked. Harding's support gradually grew until he was nominated on the tenth ballot. He conducted a front porch campaign, remaining for the most part in Marion and allowing the people to come to him, and running on a theme of a return to normalcy of the pre-World War period. won in a landslide over Democrat James M. Cox and Socialist Party candidate Eugene Debs, to become the first sitting senator elected president. appointed a number of well-regarded figures to his cabinet, including Andrew Mellon at Treasury, Herbert Hoover at Commerce, and Charles Evans Hughes at the State Department. major foreign policy achievement came with the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–1922, in which the world's major naval powers agreed on a naval limitations program that lasted a decade. released political prisoners who had been arrested for their opposition to the World War. cabinet members Albert B. Fall (Interior Secretary) and Harry Daugherty (Attorney General) were each later tried for corruption in office; Fall was convicted though Daugherty was not. These and other scandals greatly damaged Harding's posthumous reputation; he is generally regarded as one of the worst presidents in U.S. history. Harding died of a heart attack in San Francisco while on a western tour, and was succeeded by Vice President Calvin Coolidge. Teapot Dome scandal was a bribery scandal involving the administration of United States President Warren G. Harding from 1921 to 1923. Secretary of the Interior Albert Bacon Fall had leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming, as well as two locations in California, to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding.[1] The leases were the subject of a seminal investigation by Senator Thomas J. Walsh. Convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies, Fall became the first presidential cabinet member to go to prison; no one was convicted of paying the bribes. the Watergate scandal, Teapot Dome was regarded as the "greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics".[2] It damaged the reputation of the Harding administration, which was already severely diminished by its controversial handling of the Great Railroad Strike of 1922 and Harding's veto of the Bonus Bill in 1922.[3] Congress subsequently passed legislation, enduring to this day, giving subpoena power to the House and Senate for review of tax records of any U.S. citizen regardless of elected or appointed position.[4] These resulting laws are also considered to have empowered the role of Congress more generally.[5] ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, 1948, Commemorated July 19; CHARLES RAYMOND BARNES, PRIEST, 26 July 1938; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16 ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, EDUCATOR, 24 SEPT. 1947; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961, Commemorated December 19; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, (30 December 1934); HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated January 29 ; SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Ida B. Robinson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1946, Commemorated April 20; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13;

US, 1923-1929, President Calvin Coolidge, Northeast Rep, small govt conservative, popular
US President, 1923-1929, Calvin Coolidge; Coolidge[1] (July 4, 1872 - January 5, 1933) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 30th president of the United States from 1923 to 1929. Republican lawyer from New England, born in Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics, eventually becoming governor of Massachusetts. response to the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight and gave him a reputation as a man of decisive action. next year, he was elected the 29th vice president of the United States, and he succeeded to the presidency upon the sudden death of Warren G. Harding in 1923. in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small-government conservative and also as a man who said very little and had a rather dry sense of humor.[2][3] restored public confidence in the White House after the scandals of his predecessor's administration, and left office with considerable popularity.[4] a Coolidge biographer wrote: "He embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class, could interpret their longings and express their opinions. That he did represent the genius of the average is the most convincing proof of his strength."[5] have ranked Coolidge in the lower half of those presidents that they have assessed. He is praised by advocates of smaller government and laissez-faire economics, while supporters of an active central government generally view him less favorably, although most praise his stalwart support of racial equality.[6] ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, 1948, Commemorated July 19; CHARLES RAYMOND BARNES, PRIEST, 26 July 1938; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16 ; ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, EDUCATOR, 24 SEPT. 1947; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961, Commemorated December 19; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, (30 December 1934); HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated January 29 ; SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Ida B. Robinson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1946, Commemorated April 20; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13;

US, 1926-1973, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, James Gordon Lindsay, Commemorated December 24
Illinois, 1926-1973, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, James Gordon Lindsay, Commemorated December 24 ; Zion, Illinois; William M. Branham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1965, Commemorated December 24 ; Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1929, Commemorated January 29 ;

US, 1927-1976, Kathryn Kuhlman, PS, American Christian Evangelist, referred to as a faith healer, estimated 2Million healed
US, 1927-1976, Kathryn Kuhlman, PS, fConcordia, Missouri (Missoiuri River 23), American Christian Evangelist, referred to as a faith healer, bible instruction at home from Methodist Parents, father was the mayor, spiritual experience at 14, itinerant preaching several years later in Idaho with elder sister and brother-in-law, later ordained Evangelical Church Alliance, traveled extensively around US and abroad healing meetings between 1940s and 70s, considered one of the most well known faith healers in the world, however she considered term faith healer to be offensive, 1955 heart condition in her late 40s, but she kept very busy schedule, across US and abroad, 2-6 hour meetings, often late into evening, 60s and 70s weekly national tv program I believe in Miracles, plus 30 minute radio program, her foundation estab 1954 in US, 1970 in Canada, she supported the Jesus Movement, 1970 moved to Las Angeles for healing services for thousands, often compared to Aimee Simple McPherson, gift of healing but no theological training, friendly wPat Robinson, CBN and 700 Club, sued 1975 for breach oContract, she increased number of services whene heart pain increased, estimated 2Million people healed, case study against but analysis criticised by believers, he attended only one service and did not follow up those healed there, no one claimed everyone healed, but significant recoveries occurred; Concordia, Missouri ; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; Kuhlman (May 9, 1907 - February 20, 1976) was an American Christian evangelist who was referred to by her contemporaries and the press to be a 'faith healer'. life[edit] Johanna Kuhlman was born in 1907 near Concordia, Missouri, where her father was mayor.[1] was one of four children to German-American parents Joseph Adolph Kuhlman and Emma Walkenhorst.[2] received Bible instruction at home from her parents, who were both Methodist.[3][better source needed] had a spiritual experience at age 14, and several years later she began itinerant preaching with her elder sister and brother-in-law in Idaho. she was ordained by the Evangelical Church Alliance.[4] H. Williams of Brooklyn, New York helped to birth Kuhlman's healing ministry.[4] traveled extensively around the United States and abroad holding healing meetings between the 1940s and 1970s. was considered to be one of the most well-known faith healers in the world, the term "faith healer" was something she rejected as offensive.[citation needed] 1955, despite being told by doctors about a heart condition in her late 40s, Kuhlman kept a very busy schedule, often traveling across the US and abroad, holding two to six-hour long meetings which could last late into the evenings.[5] had a weekly TV program in the 1960s and 1970s called I Believe In Miracles' that was aired nationally. also had a 30-minute nationwide radio program, which featured sermons and frequent excerpts from her healing services in music and message. foundation was established in 1954, and its Canadian branch in 1970. in her life she was supportive of the nascent Jesus movement.[6] 1970 she had moved to Los Angeles, conducting healing services for thousands of people, was often compared to Aimee Semple McPherson.[7] became well known for her "gift of healing" despite, as she often noted, having no theological training.[7][dead link] was friendly with Christian television evangelist Pat Robertson and made guest appearances at his Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN) and on the network's flagship program The 700 Club. 1975, Kuhlman was sued by Paul Bartholomew, her personal administrator, who claimed that she kept $1 million in jewelry and $1 million in fine art hidden away and sued her for $430,500 for breach of contract.[8][9] former associates accused her in the lawsuit of diverting funds and of illegally removing records, which she denied and said the records were not private.[10] According to Kuhlman, the lawsuit was settled prior to trial.[11] devotion to her ministry was summed up in the 1976 biography Daughter of Destiny, written by Jamie Buckingham: television ministry itself required more than $30,000 a week. To stop, to even cut back, would mean she was beginning to fail. The same was true with the miracle services. As the pain in her chest grew almost unbearable, instead of holding fewer services, she increased the number." estimated two million people reported that they were healed in her meetings over the years.[12] a 1967 fellowship in Philadelphia, Dr. William A. Nolen conducted a case study of 23 people who said they had been cured during one of her services.[13][14][15][16] long term follow-ups concluded that there were no cures in those cases. woman who was said to have been cured of spinal cancer threw away her brace and ran across the stage at Kuhlman's command; her spine collapsed the next day and she died four months later.[11][17] analysis of Kulhman came in for criticism from believers. Althouse, a physician, said that Nolen had attended only one of Kuhlman's services and did not follow up with all of those who said they had been healed there.[18] Richard Casdorph produced a book of evidence in support of miraculous healings by Kuhlman.[19] van der Breggen, a Christian philosophy professor, argued in favor of the claims.[20] Craig Keener concluded, "No one claims that everyone was healed, but it is also difficult to dispute that significant recoveries occurred, apparently in conjunction with prayer. may associate these with Kathryn Kuhlman's faith or that of the supplicants, or, as in some of Kuhlman's teaching, to no one's faith at all; but the evidence suggests that some people were healed, even in extraordinary ways.".[21] Richard Owellen, a member of the cancer‐research department of the Johns Hopkins Hospital who appeared frequently at Kuhlman's services, testified to various healings that he said he had investigated.[22] life[edit] met Texas evangelist Burroughs Waltrip in 1935, when he was a guest speaker at Kuhlman's Denver Revival Tabernacle, the two preachers soon found themselves in a romantic relationship with each other.[23] Waltrip divorced his first wife, left his family, moved to Mason City, Iowa, and started a revival center called Radio Chapel, Kuhlman and her pianist friend, Helen Gulliford, helped him raise funds for this new venture.[6] a romance between Waltrip and Kuhlman began, she told her friends that she could not "find the will of God in the matter", seemingly feeling guilt-ridden. friends tried to encourage her to not marry Waltrip. she reasoned that Waltrip's wife had left him, not the other way around. (The details of their separation are not clear.)[23] October 18, 1938, she secretly married "Mister," as she called him, in Mason City, but the wedding supposedly brought her no peace.[24] couple had no children and eventually separated in 1944, divorcing in 1948. Regarding her marriage, in a 1952 interview with the Denver Post, Kuhlman stated, "He charged—correctly—that I refused to live with him. I haven't seen him in eight years."[25] many occasions, Kuhlman expressed remorse for her part in the pain caused by the breakup of Waltrip's previous marriage, citing his children's heartbreak as particularly troubling to her. claimed it was the single greatest regret of her life, second only to the betrayal of her loving relationship with Jesus.[25] July 1975, a doctor diagnosed Kuhlman with a minor heart flare-up; in November, she had a relapse.[26] a result, Kuhlman underwent open-heart surgery in Tulsa, Oklahoma, during which she died on February 20, 1976.[4] was reported in her biography that at the time of her passing in the hospital, a bright light was witnessed hovering over her corpse.[25] Kuhlman was buried in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. plaque in her honor is in the main city park in Concordia, Missouri, a town in central Missouri on Interstate Highway 70.[citation needed] she died, her will led to controversy.[27] left $267,500, the bulk of her estate, to three members of her family and twenty of her employees. bequests were given to 19 other employees. to the Independent Press-Telegram, her employees were disappointed when they learned that "she did not leave most of her estate to the foundation as she had done under a previous 1974 will." Kathryn Kuhlman Foundation had continued, but due to lack of funding, it terminated its nationwide radio broadcast in 1982. Ultimately, the foundation closed its doors in April 2016.[28] believers uphold Kuhlman as an important forerunner to the present-day charismatic movement.[29] influenced faith healers Benny Hinn and Billy Burke. has adopted some of her techniques and he also wrote a book about Kuhlman, as he frequently attended her preaching services.[30] did meet her and was counseled by her, having claimed a miracle healing in her service as a young boy.[31] 1981, David Byrne and Brian Eno sampled one of Kuhlman's sermons for a track which they created during sessions for their collaborative album My Life in the Bush of Ghosts. failing to clear the license to Kuhlman's voice from her estate, the track was reworked to use audio from an unidentified exorcism, with this modified version being released as "The Jezebel Spirit".[32] Kuhlman version was later included on the 1992 bootleg recording Ghosts, titled "Into the Spirit Womb".[citation needed] Kathryn Kuhlman, I Believe in Miracles, Prentice-Hall Publishers (1962) Kathryn Kuhlman, God Can Do It Again, (1969) Kathryn Kuhlman, Nothing Is Impossible With God, Bridge-Logos Publishers (1974) Kathryn Kuhlman, Never Too Late, Bridge-Logos Publishers (1975) Kathryn Kuhlman, The Greatest Power in the World: A Spirit-Filled Classic Bridge-Logos Publishers (2008) Kathryn Kuhlman, A Glimpse into Glory: A Spirit-Filled Classic Bridge Publishing INC International Concepts.,U.S. (1979) Kathryn Kuhlman, Gifts of the Holy Spirit, Publisher - Kathryn Kuhlman (2022) Kathryn Kuhlman, Victory in Jesus and the Lord's Healing Touch, Leopold Classic Library (2015) Kathryn Kuhlman, Twilight and Dawn: The Great Physicians Second Opinion, Bridge-Logos Publishers (1979) Biography[edit] Buckingham, Jamie (1976). Daughter of Destiny: Kathryn Kuhlman...Her Story. Bridge-Logos Foundation. ISBN 0882703188. Wayne E. Warner, Kathryn Kuhlman, The Woman Behind the Miracles, Servant Publications/New Wine Press (1993) Artman, Amy Collier, The Miracle Lady: Kathryn Kuhlman and the Transformation of Charismatic Christianity, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., (2019)

US, 1929-1933, President Herbert Hoover, progressive rep, stock market crash, progressive recovery caused depression
US President, 1929-1933, Herbert Hoover; Clark Hoover (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was an American politician, businessman, and engineer who served as the 31st president of the United States from 1929 to 1933. member of the Republican Party, he held office during the onset of the Great Depression. serving as president, Hoover led the Commission for Relief in Belgium, served as the director of the U.S. Food Administration, and served as the third U.S. secretary of commerce. to a Quaker family in West Branch, Iowa, he grew up in Oregon.[1] Hoover took a position with a London-based mining company after graduating from Stanford University in 1895. the outbreak of World War I, he became the head of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, an international relief organization that provided food to occupied Belgium. the U.S. entered the war, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Hoover to lead the Food Administration, and Hoover became known as the country's "food czar". the war, Hoover led the American Relief Administration, which provided food to the inhabitants of Central and Eastern Europe. Hoover's war-time service made him a favorite of many progressives, and he unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination in the 1920 presidential election. the 1920 election, newly elected Republican President Warren G. Harding appointed Hoover as Secretary of Commerce; Hoover continued to serve under President Calvin Coolidge after Harding died in 1923. was an unusually active and visible cabinet member, becoming known as "Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments". was influential in the development of air travel and radio. He led the federal response to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927. won the Republican nomination in the 1928 presidential election, and decisively defeated the Democratic candidate, Al Smith. stock market crashed shortly after Hoover took office, and the Great Depression became the central issue of his presidency. pursued a variety of policies in an attempt to lift the economy, but opposed directly involving the federal government in relief efforts. the midst of the economic crisis, Hoover was decisively defeated by Democratic nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. leaving office, Hoover's retirement was over 31 years long, one of the longest retirements of any U.S president, and he authored numerous works in subsequent decades. Hoover became increasingly conservative in this time, and he strongly criticized Roosevelt's foreign policy and New Deal domestic agenda. the 1940s and 1950s, Hoover's public reputation was slightly rehabilitated, because he served in various assignments for Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, including as chairman of the Hoover Commission. he managed somewhat to rehabilitate his legacy, Hoover is still widely regarded as a below average U.S. president, and most polls of historians and political scientists rank him in the bottom third overall. ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, 1948, Commemorated July 19; CHARLES RAYMOND BARNES, PRIEST, 26 July 1938; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16 ; ANNA ELLISON BUTLER ALEXANDER, EDUCATOR, 24 SEPT. 1947; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961, Commemorated December 19; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, (30 December 1934); HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969); SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Ida B. Robinson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1946, Commemorated April 20; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1929-1965, William Branham, PS, faith healer, led healing movement, led restorationists, largest meetings, worldwide
US, 1929-1965, William Branham, PS, fBurkesville, Cumberland County, KY(Wilderness Road South to Nashville, Cumberland River), an American Christian minister and faith healer who initiated the post-World War II healing revival, and claimed to be a prophet with the anointing of Elijah, who had come to prelude Christ's second coming; some of his followers have been labeled a doomsday cult, a principal architect of restorationist thought, leading individual in the Second Wave of Pentecostalism, largest religious meetings ever at that time, America, Europe, Africa, India, angelic visions, many controversies; Burkesville, Cumberland County, KY ; William M. Branham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1965, Commemorated December 24 ; Marrion Branham (April 6, 1909 – December 24, 1965) an American Christian minister and faith healer who initiated the post-World War II healing revival, and claimed to be a prophet with the anointing of Elijah, who had come to prelude Christ's second coming; some of his followers have been labeled a "doomsday cult".[1][2][3] He is credited as "a principal architect of restorationist thought" for charismatics by some Christian historians,[4] has been called the "leading individual in the Second Wave of Pentecostalism."[5] made a lasting influence on televangelism and the modern charismatic movement,[6] and his "stage presence remains a legend unparalleled in the history of the Charismatic movement".[7] the time they were held, his inter-denominational meetings were the largest religious meetings ever held in some American cities. was the first American deliverance minister to successfully campaign in Europe; his ministry reached global audiences with major campaigns held in North America, Europe, Africa, and India. claimed that he had received an angelic visitation on May 7, 1946, commissioning his worldwide ministry and launching his campaigning career in mid-1946. fame rapidly spread as crowds were drawn to his stories of angelic visitations and reports of miracles happening at his meetings. ministry spawned many emulators and set in motion the broader healing revival that later became the modern charismatic movement. the peak of his popularity in the 1950s, Branham was widely adored and "the neo-Pentecostal world believed Branham to be a prophet to their generation".[8] 1955, Branham's campaigning and popularity began to decline as the Pentecostal churches began to withdraw their support from the healing campaigns for primarily financial reasons. By 1960, Branham transitioned into a teaching ministry. his contemporaries, who followed doctrinal teachings which are known as the Full Gospel tradition, Branham developed an alternative theology which was primarily a mixture of Calvinist and Arminian doctrines, and had a heavy focus on dispensationalism and Branham's own unique eschatological views. While widely accepting the restoration doctrine he espoused during the healing revival, his divergent post-revival teachings were deemed increasingly controversial by his charismatic and Pentecostal contemporaries, who subsequently disavowed many of the doctrines as "revelatory madness".[9] His racial teachings on serpent seed and his belief that membership in a Christian denomination was connected to the mark of the beast alienated many of his former supporters. His closest followers, however, accepted his sermons as oral scripture and refer to his teachings as The Message. Despite Branham's objections, some followers of his teachings placed him at the center of a cult of personality during his final years. Branham claimed that he had converted over one million people during his career. His teachings continue to be promoted by the William Branham Evangelistic Association, which reported that about 2 million people received its material in 2018. Branham died following a car accident in 1965. his healing revivals, Branham was accused of committing fraud by investigative news reporters, fellow ministers, host churches, and governmental agencies. Numerous people pronounced healed died shortly thereafter, investigators discovered evidence suggesting miracles may have been staged, and Branham was found to have significantly embellished and falsified numerous stories he presented to his audiences as fact. Branham faced legal problems as a result of his practices. The governments of South Africa and Norway intervened in order to stop his healing campaigns in their countries. In the United States, Branham was charged with tax evasion for failing to account for the donations received through his ministry; admitting his liability, he settled the case out of court. The news media has linked Branham to multiple notorious figures. Branham was baptized and ordained a minister by Roy Davis, the National Imperial Wizard (leader) of the Ku Klux Klan; the two men maintained a lifelong relationship. Branham helped launch and popularize the ministry of Jim Jones. Paul Schäfer, Robert Martin Gumbura, Leo Mercer, the Malindi cult and other followers of William Branham's teachings have regularly been in the news due to the serious crimes which they committed. Followers of Branham's teachings in Colonia Dignidad were portrayed in the 2015 film Colonia. life[edit] A log cabin with some logs missing and a lean-to attached to its side The dirt-floor log cabin that was William Marrion Branham's birthplace as shown in his biography William Branham: A Man Sent From God M. Branham was born near Burkesville, Kentucky, on April 6, 1909,[10][11][12][a][b] son of Charles and Ella Harvey Branham, oldest of ten children.[15] claimed that at his birth, a "Light come [sic] whirling through the window, about the size of a pillow, and circled around where I was, and went down on the bed".[11] told his publicist Gordon Lindsay that he had mystical experiences from an early age;[10] and that at age three he heard a "voice" speaking to him from a tree telling him "he would live near a city called New Albany".[10][11] to Branham, that year his family moved to Jeffersonville, Indiana.[11] also said that when he was seven years old, God told him to avoid smoking and drinking alcoholic beverages.[10][16] Branham stated he never violated the command.[10] told his audiences that he grew up in "deep poverty",[10] often not having adequate clothing, and that his family was involved in criminal activities.[12] neighbors reported him as "someone who always seemed a little different", but said he was a dependable youth.[10] explained that his tendency towards "mystical experiences and moral purity" caused misunderstandings among his friends, family, and other young people; he was a "black sheep" from an early age.[17] called his childhood "a terrible life."[16] father owned a farm near Utica, Indiana, and took a job working for O. H. Wathen, owner of R. E. Wathen Distilleries in nearby Louisville, Kentucky.[18] was a supplier for Al Capone's bootlegging operations.[19] told his audiences that he was required to help his father with the illegal production and sale of liquor during prohibition. March 1924, Branham's father was arrested for his criminal activities; he was convicted and sentenced to a prison.[20] Indiana Ku Klux Klan claimed responsibility for attacking and shutting down the Jeffersonville liquor producing ring.[21] was involved in a firearms incident and was shot in both legs in March 1924, at age 14; he later told his audiences he was involved in a hunting accident. Two of his brothers also suffered life-threatening injuries at the same time.[22] was rushed to the hospital for treatment. family was unable to pay for his medical bills, but members of the Indiana Ku Klux Klan stepped in to cover the expenses.[23] help of the Klan during his impoverished childhood had a profound impact on Branham throughout his life. As late as 1963, Branham continued to speak highly of the them saying, "the Ku Klux Klan, paid the hospital bill for me, Masons. I can never forget them. See? No matter what they do, or what, I still ... there is something, and that stays with me ...".[24] Branham would go on to maintain lifelong connections to the KKK.[25] and early influences[edit] William Branham c. 1930 told his audiences that he left home at age 19 in search of a better life, traveling to Phoenix, Arizona, where he worked on a ranch for two years and began a successful career in boxing.[10] Branham was away, his brother Edward aged 18, shot and killed a Jeffersonville man and was charged with murder.[26][27] Edward died of a sudden illness only a short time later.[28] returned to Jeffersonville in June 1929 to attend the funeral.[10][29] had no experience with religion as a child; he said that the first time he heard a prayer was at his brother's funeral.[30] Roy Davis, William Branham's first pastor. afterward, while he was working for the Public Service Company of Indiana, Branham was overcome by gas and had to be hospitalized.[30] said that he heard a voice speaking to him while he was recovering from the accident, which led him to begin seeking God.[30] thereafter, he began attending the First Pentecostal Baptist Church of Jeffersonville, where he converted to Christianity.[31][10] church was pastored by Roy Davis, a founding member of the second Ku Klux Klan and a leading recruiter for the organization. Davis later became the National Imperial Wizard (leader) of the KKK. baptized Branham and six months later, he ordained Branham as an Independent Baptist minister and an elder in his church.[10] by the KKK's Imperial Kludd (chaplain) Caleb Ridley, Branham traveled with Davis and they participated together in revivals in other states.[32][33] the time of Branham's conversion, the First Pentecostal Baptist Church of Jeffersonville was a nominally Baptist church which adhered to some Pentecostal doctrines, including divine healing and speaking in tongues; reported that his baptism at the church was done using the Jesus name formula of Oneness Pentecostalism.[34] claimed to have been opposed to Pentecostalism during the early years of his ministry. according to multiple Branham biographers, like Baptist historian Doug Weaver and Pentecostal historian Bernie Wade, Branham was exposed to Pentecostal teachings from his conversion.[35] claimed to his audiences he was first exposed to a Pentecostal church in 1936, which invited him to join, but he refused.[34][c] speculated that Branham may have chosen to hide his early connections to Pentecostalism to make his conversion story more compelling to his Pentecostal audiences during the years of the healing revival. Weaver identified several parts of Branham's reported life story that conflicted with historical documentation and suggested that Branham began significantly embellishing his early life story to his audiences beginning in the 1940s.[35] June 1933, Branham held tent revival meetings that were sponsored by Davis and the First Pentecostal Baptist Church.[10][37] June 2 that year, the Jeffersonville Evening News said the Branham campaign reported 14 converts.[38] followers believed his ministry was accompanied by miraculous signs from its beginning, and that when he was baptizing converts on June 11, 1933, in the Ohio River near Jeffersonville, a bright light descended over him and that he heard a voice say, "As John the Baptist was sent to forerun the first coming of Jesus Christ, so your message will forerun His second coming".[39][40] in the baptismal story is a critical element of faith among Branham's followers.[41] In his early references to the event during the healing revival, Branham interpreted it to refer to the restoration of the gifts of the spirit to the church.[42] later years, Branham significantly altered how he told the baptismal story, and came to connect the event to his teaching ministry. He claimed reports of the baptismal story were carried in newspapers across the United States and Canada.[43] of the way Branham's telling of the baptismal story changed over the years, and because no newspaper actually covered the event, Weaver said Branham may have embellished the story after he began achieving success in the healing revival during the 1940s.[44] House of David commune in Michigan Roy Davis and the First Pentecostal Baptist Church, Branham reported interaction with other groups during the 1930s who were an influence on his ministry. the early 1930s, he became acquainted with William Sowders' School of the Prophets, a Pentecostal group in Kentucky and Indiana. Through Sowders' group, he was introduced to the British Israelite House of David and in the autumn of 1934, Branham traveled to Michigan to meet with members of the group.[45] ministry[edit] The front of a brick building with white double doors and windows on either side and a sign above the door Billie Branham Pentecostal Tabernacle c. 1935 took over leadership of Roy Davis's Jeffersonville church in 1934, after Davis was arrested again and extradited to stand trial.[46] during March or April 1934, the First Pentecostal Baptist Church was destroyed by a fire and Branham's supporters at the church helped him organize a new church in Jeffersonville.[47] first Branham preached out of a tent at 8th and Pratt street, and he also reported temporarily preaching in an orphanage building.[48] 1936, the congregation had constructed a new church on the same block as Branham's tent, at the corner of 8th and Penn street. church was built on the same location reported by the local newspaper as the site of his June 1933 tent campaign.[38] Newspaper articles reported the original name of Branham's new church to be the Pentecostal Tabernacle. The church was officially registered with the City of Jeffersonville as the Billie Branham Pentecostal Tabernacle in November 1936. Newspaper articles continued to refer to his church as the Pentecostal Tabernacle until 1943.[49][50][51][52][53][54][55] Branham served as pastor until 1946, and the church name eventually shortened to the Branham Tabernacle.[47] The church flourished at first, but its growth began to slow. Because of the Great Depression, it was often short of funds, so Branham served without compensation.[47] continued traveling and preaching among Pentecostal churches while serving as pastor of his new church. obtained a truck and had it painted with advertisements for his healing ministry which he toured in. September 1934, he traveled to Mishawaka, Indiana where he was invited to speak at the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ (PAJC) General Assembly meetings organized by Bishop G. B. Rowe. was "not impressed with the multi-cultural aspects of the PAJC as it was contrary to the dogmas advanced by his friends in the Ku Klux Klan."[32][56][34] and his future wife Amelia Hope Brumbach (b. July 16, 1913) attended the First Pentecostal Baptist Church together beginning in 1929 where Brumbach served as young people's leader.[15] couple began dating in 1933.[48] Branham married Brumbach in June 1934.[57] Their first child, William "Billy" Paul Branham was born soon after their marriage; the date given for his birth varies by source. In some of Branham's biographies, his first son's birth date is reported as September 13, 1935, but in government records his birth date is reported as September 13, 1934.[57][58] wife became ill during the second year of their marriage. According to her death certificate, she was diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis in January 1936, beginning a period of declining health. her diagnosis, the couple had a second child, Sharon Rose, who was born on October 27, 1936.[57] In September 1936, the local news reported that Branham held a multi-week healing revival at the Pentecostal Tabernacle in which he reported eight healings.[59] following year, disaster struck when Jeffersonville was ravaged by the Ohio River flood of 1937.[34] congregation was badly impacted by the disaster and his family was displaced from their home.[60] By February 1937, the floodwaters had receded, his church survived intact and Branham resumed holding services at the Pentecostal Tabernacle. the January flood, Hope's health continued to decline, and she succumbed to her illness and died on July 22, 1937. Rose, who had been born with her mother's illness, died four days later (July 26, 1937).[60] obituaries reported Branham as pastor of the Pentecostal Tabernacle, the same church where their funerals were held.[61] frequently related the story of the death of his wife and daughter during his ministry and evoked strong emotional responses from his audiences. told his audiences that his wife and daughter had become suddenly ill and died during the January flood as God's punishment because of his failure to embrace Pentecostalism.[39][34] said he made several suicide attempts following their deaths.[39][34] Duyzer noted that Branham's story of the events surrounding the death of his wife and daughter conflicted with historical evidence; they did not die during the flood, he and his wife were both already Pentecostals before they married, and he was pastor of a Pentecostal church at the time of their deaths.[15] the summer of 1940, Branham had resumed traveling and held revival meetings in other nearby communities.[54] Branham married his second wife Meda Marie Broy in 1941, and together they had three children; Rebekah (b. 1946), Sarah (b. 1950), and Joseph (b. 1955).[15] revival[edit] is known for his role in the healing revivals that occurred in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s,[62] and most participants in the movement regarded him as its initiator.[63] writer John Crowder described the period of revivals as "the most extensive public display of miraculous power in modern history".[64] like Christian author and countercult activist Hank Hanegraaff, rejected the entire healing revival as a hoax and condemned the movement as cult in his 1997 book Counterfeit Revival.[65] healing is a tradition and belief that was historically held by a majority of Christians but it became increasingly associated with Evangelical Protestantism.[66] fascination of most of American Christianity with divine healing played a significant role in the popularity and inter-denominational nature of the revival movement.[67] held massive inter-denominational meetings, from which came reports of hundreds of miracles.[63] David Harrell described Branham and Oral Roberts as the two giants of the movement and called Branham its "unlikely leader."[63] campaigns[edit] Two middle-aged men stand side-by-side wearing overcoats and holding their hats in their hands William Branham and F. F. Bosworth, c. 1950 had been traveling and holding revival meetings since at least 1940 before attracting national attention.[54] popularity began to grow following the 1942 meetings in Milltown, Indiana where it was reported that a young girl had been healed of tuberculosis. news of the reported healing was slow to spread, but was eventually reported to a family in Missouri who in 1945 invited Branham to pray for their child who was suffering from a similar illness; Branham reported that the child recovered after his prayers.[68] of two events eventually reached W. E. Kidston. Kidston was intrigued by the reported miracles and invited Branham to participate in revival meetings that he was organizing. E. Kidston, was editor of The Apostolic Herald and had many contacts in the Pentecostal movement.[68] served as Branham's first campaign manager and was instrumental in helping organize Branham's early revival meetings.[68] held his first large meetings as a faith healer in 1946.[69] His healing services are well documented, and he is regarded as the pacesetter for those who followed him.[70] At the time they were held, Branham's revival meetings were the largest religious meetings some American cities he visited had ever seen;[71] reports of 1,000 to 1,500 converts per meeting were common.[71] name his June 1946 St. Louis meetings as the inauguration of the healing revival period.[72] said he had received an angelic visitation on May 7, 1946, commissioning his worldwide ministry.[73] In his later years, he also connected the angelic visitation with the establishment of the nation of Israel, at one point mistakenly stating the vision occurred on the same day.[74][74][d][e] first reported revival meetings of the period were held over 12 days during June 1946 in St. Louis.[68] Time magazine reported on his St. Louis campaign meetings,[77] and according to the article, Branham drew a crowd of over 4,000 sick people who desired healing and recorded him diligently praying for each.[68] Branham's fame began to grow as a result of the publicity and reports covering his meetings.[68] of Faith magazine which was edited by prominent Pentecostal minister Joseph Mattsson-Boze and published by Philadelphia Pentecostal Church in Chicago began following and exclusively publishing stories from the Branham campaigns, giving Branham wide exposure to the Pentecostal movement. the St. Louis meetings, Branham launched a tour of small Oneness Pentecostal churches across the Midwest and southern United States, from which stemmed reports of healing and one report of a resurrection.[68] August his fame had spread widely. He held meetings that month in Jonesboro, Arkansas, and drew a crowd of 25,000 with attendees from 28 different states.[78] size of the crowds presented a problem for Branham's team as they found it difficult to find venues that could seat large numbers of attendees.[78] Thousands of spectators in a large arena look towards a man standing behind a podium on a platform F. F. Bosworth counsels attendees on the doctrine of divine healing at a Branham Campaign meeting in Tacoma, Washington, April 1948. revivals were interracial from their inception and were noted for their "racial openness" during the period of widespread racial unrest.[79] African American minister participating in the St. Louis meetings claimed to be healed during the revival, helping to bring Branham a sizable African American following from the early days of the revival. held interracial meetings even in the southern states. To satisfy segregation laws when ministering in the south, Branham's team would use a rope to divide the crowd by race.[79] and researcher Patsy Sims noted that venues used to host campaign meetings also hosted KKK rallies just days prior to the revival meetings, which sometimes led to racial tensions. Sims, who attended both the KKK rallies and the healing revivals, was surprised to see some of the same groups of people at both events.[79] According to Steven Hassan, KKK recruitment was covertly conducted through Branham's ministry.[25] holding a very successful revival meeting in Shreveport during mid-1947, Branham began assembling an evangelical team that stayed with him for most of the revival period.[80] first addition to the team was Jack Moore and Young Brown, who periodically assisted him in managing his meetings.[81] Following the Shreveport meetings, Branham held a series of meetings in San Antonio, Phoenix, and at various locations in California.[80] invited his friend Gordon Lindsay to join the campaign team, which he did beginning at a meeting in Sacramento, California, in late 1947.[81] was a successful publicist and manager for Branham, and played a key role in helping him gain national and international recognition.[82][83] 1948, Branham and Lindsay founded Voice of Healing magazine, which was originally aimed at reporting Branham's healing campaigns.[82][f] The story of Samuel the Prophet, who heard a voice speak to him in the night, inspired Branham's name for the publication.[84] was impressed with Branham's focus on humility and unity, and was instrumental in helping him gain acceptance among Trinitarian and Oneness Pentecostal groups by expanding his revival meetings beyond the United Pentecostal Church to include all of the major Pentecostal groups.[85][77] The front page of the Voice of Healing magazine with headline stating; "Branham Campaign stirs Pensacola and Kansas City" The April 1948 cover of Voice of Healing magazine first meetings organized by Lindsay were held in northwestern North America during late 1947.[81][77] At the first of these meetings, held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canadian minister Ern Baxter joined Branham's team.[81] Lindsay reported 70,000 attendees to the 14 days of meetings and long prayer lines as Branham prayed for the sick.[81] Hawtin, a Canadian Pentecostal minister, attended one of Branham's Vancouver meetings in November 1947 and was impressed by Branham's healings. Branham was an important influence on the Latter Rain revival movement, which Hawtin helped initiate.[86] January 1948, meetings were held in Florida;[81] F. F. Bosworth met Branham at the meetings and also joined his team.[87] Bosworth was among the pre-eminent ministers of the Pentecostal movement and a founding minister of the Assemblies of God; Bosworth lent great weight to Branham's campaign team.[87] He remained a strong Branham supporter until his death in 1958.[87] Bosworth endorsed Branham as "the most sensitive person to the presence and working of the Holy Spirit" he had ever met.[88][8] early 1947, a major campaign was held in Kansas City, where Branham and Lindsay first met Oral Roberts.[81] Roberts and Branham had contact at different points during the revival.[89] Roberts said Branham was "set apart, just like Moses".[89] Five men wearing suites stand side by side From left: Young Brown, Jack Moore, William Branham, Oral Roberts, Gordon Lindsay; photo taken at Kansas City in 1948 spent many hours ministering and praying for the sick during his campaigns, and like many other leading evangelists of the time he suffered exhaustion.[90] one year of campaigning, his exhaustion began leading to health issues. Branham reported to his audiences that he suffered a nervous breakdown and required treatment by the Mayo Clinic.[91] Branham's illness coincided with a series of allegations of fraud in his healing revivals. Attendees reported seeing him "staggering from intense fatigue" during his last meetings.[81] as Branham began to attract international attention in May 1948, he announced that due to illness he would have to halt his campaign.[81][92] illness shocked the growing movement,[93] his abrupt departure from the field caused a rift between him and Lindsay over the Voice of Healing magazine.[81] insisted that Lindsay take over complete management of the publication.[81] With the main subject of the magazine no longer actively campaigning, Lindsay was forced to seek other ministers to promote.[81] He decided to publicize Oral Roberts during Branham's absence, and Roberts quickly rose to prominence, in large part due to Lindsay's coverage.[87] partially recovered from his illness and resumed holding meetings in October 1948; in that month he held a series of meetings around the United States without Lindsay's support.[87] Branham's return to the movement led to his resumed leadership of it.[87] November 1948, he met with Lindsay and Moore and told them he had received another angelic visitation, instructing him to hold a series of meetings across the United States and then to begin holding meetings internationally.[94] As a result of the meeting, Lindsay rejoined Branham's campaigning team.[94] Two men stand facing each other on a platform as thousands of spectators on the ground floor and a balcony watch Branham at a healing campaign meeting revivalists of the era were flamboyant but Branham was usually calm and spoke quietly, only occasionally raising his voice.[89] His preaching style was described as "halting and simple", and crowds were drawn to his stories of angelic visitation and "constant communication with God".[63] tailored his language usage to best connect to his audiences. When speaking to poor and working-class audiences, he tended to use poor grammar and folksy language; when speaking to more educated audiences and ministerial associations, he generally spoke using perfect grammar and avoided slang usage.[95] refused to discuss controversial doctrinal issues during the healing campaigns,[96][97] and issued a policy statement that he would only minister on the "great evangelical truths".[98] He insisted his calling was to bring unity among the different churches he was ministering to and to urge the churches to return to the roots of early Christianity.[89] the first part of his meetings, one of Branham's companion evangelists would preach a sermon.[81] Ern Baxter or F. F. Bosworth usually filled this role, but other ministers like Paul Cain also participated in Branham's campaigns in later years.[81] generally focused on bible teaching; Bosworth counseled supplicants on the need for faith and the doctrine of divine healing.[99] Following their build-up, Branham would take the podium and deliver a short sermon,[81] in which he usually related stories about his personal life experiences.[96] would often request God to "confirm his message with two-or-three faith inspired miracles".[99] Supplicants seeking healing submitted prayer cards to Branham's campaign team stating their name, address, and condition; Branham's team would select a number of submissions to be prayed for personally by Branham and organized a prayer line.[99] After completing his sermon, he would proceed with the prayer line where he would pray for the sick. Branham would often tell supplicants what they suffered from, their name, and their address.[100] would pray for each of them, pronouncing some or all healed. Branham generally prayed for a few people each night and believed witnessing the results on the stage would inspire faith in the audience and permit them to experience similar results without having to be personally prayed for.[100] Branham would also call out a few members still in the audience, who had not been accepted into the prayer line, stating their illness and pronouncing them healed.[89] A prayer card from a William Branham healing campaign. told his audiences that he was able to determine their illness, details of their lives, and pronounce them healed as a result of an angel who was guiding him. Describing Branham's method, Bosworth said "he does not begin to pray for the healing of the afflicted in body in the healing line each night until God anoints him for the operation of the gift, and until he is conscious of the presence of the Angel with him on the platform. Without this consciousness he seems to be perfectly helpless."[101] explained to his audiences that the angel that commissioned his ministry had given him two signs by which they could prove his commission.[101] described the first sign as vibrations he felt in his hand when he touched a sick person's hand, which communicated to him the nature of the illness, but did not guarantee healing.[101][102] Branham's use of what his fellow evangelists called a word of knowledge gift separated him from his contemporaries in the early days of the revival.[69][96] second sign did not appear in his campaigns until after his recovery in 1948, and was used to "amaze tens of thousands" at his meetings.[96] As the revival progressed, his contemporaries began to mirror the practice.[96] According to Bosworth, this gift of knowledge allowed Branham "to see and enable him to tell the many events of [people's] lives from their childhood down to the present".[96][103] caused many in the healing revival to view Branham as a "seer like the old testament prophets".[96] amazed even fellow evangelists, which served to further push him into a legendary status in the movement.[96] Branham's audiences were often awestruck by the events during his meetings.[89][104] At the peak of his popularity in the 1950s, Branham was widely adored and "the neo-Pentecostal world believed Branham to be a prophet to their generation".[8] fame and international campaigns[edit] A man stands at a podium with a light colored object above his head Branham at the Sam Houston Coliseum in 1950 January 1950, Branham's campaign team held their Houston campaign, one of the most significant series of meetings of the revival.[87] The location of their first meeting was too small to accommodate the approximately 8,000 attendees, and they had to relocate to the Sam Houston Coliseum.[87] On the night of January 24, 1950, Branham was photographed during a debate between Bosworth and local Baptist minister W. E. Best regarding the theology of divine healing.[105][94] argued in favor, while Best argued against.[105] The photograph showed a light above Branham's head, which he and his associates believed to be supernatural.[105][94] The photograph became well-known in the revival movement and is regarded by Branham's followers as an iconic relic.[106] Branham believed the light was a divine vindication of his ministry;[105] others believed it was a glare from the venue's overhead lighting.[107] January 1951, former US Congressman William Upshaw was sent by Roy Davis to a Branham campaign meeting in California.[g] Upshaw had limited mobility for 59 years as the result of an accident, and said he was miraculously healed in the meeting. The publicity of the event took Branham's fame to a new level.[106] Upshaw sent a letter describing his healing claim to each member of Congress.[108][106] The Los Angeles Times reported on the healing in an article titled "Ex-Rep. Upshaw Discards Crutches After 59 Years". Upshaw explained to reporters that he had been able to walk two or three steps without the aid of his crutches prior to attending Branham's meeting, but following Branham's prayer his strength increased so that he had walked four blocks.[109] Upshaw died in November 1952, at the age of 86.[110] to Pentecostal historian Rev. Walter Hollenweger, "Branham filled the largest stadiums and meeting halls in the world" during his five major international campaigns.[94][111] Branham held his first series of campaigns in Europe during April 1950 with meetings in Finland, Sweden, and Norway.[112][94] Attendance at the meetings generally exceeded 7,000 despite resistance to his meetings by the state churches.[98] Branham was the first American deliverance minister to successfully tour in Europe.[113] 1952 campaign in South Africa had the largest attendance in Branham's career, with an estimated 200,000 attendees.[98][7] According to Lindsay, the altar call at his Durban meeting received 30,000 converts.[98] During international campaigns in 1954, Branham visited Portugal, Italy, and India.[98] Branham's final major overseas tour in 1955 included visits to Switzerland and Germany.[114] meetings were regularly attended by journalists,[115] who wrote articles about the miracles reported by Branham and his team throughout the years of his revivals, and claimed patients were cured of various ailments after attending prayer meetings with Branham.[115] Durban Sunday Tribune and The Natal Mercury reported wheelchair-bound people rising and walking.[116][117] Winnipeg Free Press reported a girl was cured of deafness.[118] El Paso Herald-Post reported hundreds of attendees at one meeting seeking divine healing.[119] Despite such occasional glowing reports, most of the press coverage Branham received was negative.[111] of fraud[edit] his American audiences, Branham claimed several high profile events occurred during his international tours. Branham claimed to visit and pray for King George VI while en route to Finland in 1950. He claimed the king was healed through his prayers. Researchers found no evidence that Branham ever met King George; King George was chronically ill and died about a year after Branham claimed to heal him.[113][120] also claimed to pray for and heal the granddaughter of Florence Nightingale at a London airport. Branham's campaign produced photos of an emaciated woman who they claimed to be Nightingale's granddaughter. However, Florence Nightingale never married and had no children or grandchildren. Investigators of Branham's claim were unable to identify the woman in the photograph.[121] similarly claimed to pray for King Gustaf V while in Sweden in April 1950. Investigators found no evidence for the meeting; King Gustaf V died in October 1950. Branham claimed to stop in Egypt in 1954 while en route to India to meet with King Farouk; however Farouk had been deposed in 1952 and was not living in Egypt at the time. Branham claimed to visit the grave of Buddha while in India, however Buddha was cremated and has no grave. In total, critics of Branham identified many claims which appeared to be false when investigated. Weaver accused Branham of major embellishments.[44][122] faced criticism and opposition from the early days of the healing revival, and he was repeatedly accused of fraud throughout his ministry.[123] According to historian Ronald Kydd, Branham evoked strong opinions from people with whom he came into contact; "most people either loved him or hated him".[124][125] Kydd stated that it "is impossible to get even an approximate number of people healed in Branham's ministry."[126] No consistent record of follow-ups of the healing claims were made, making analysis of many claims difficult to subsequent researchers.[127][128] Additionally, Branham's procedures made verification difficult at the time of his revivals. Branham believed in positive confession. He required supplicants to claim to be healed to demonstrate their faith, even if they were still experiencing symptoms. He frequently told supplicants to expect their symptoms to remain for several days after their healing. This led to people professing to be healed at the meetings, while still suffering from the condition. Only follow up after Branham's waiting period had passed could ascertain the result of the healing.[127][128] A 1947 Vancouver Sun Headline about Branham Campaign the early days of the healing revival, Branham received overwhelmingly unfavorable coverage in the news media, which was often quite critical.[111] At his June 1947 revivals in Vandalia, Illinois, the local news reported that Beck Walker, a man who was deaf and mute from birth, was pronounced healed but failed to recover. Branham claimed Walker failed to recover his hearing because he had disobeyed Branham's instruction to stop smoking cigarettes. Branham was lambasted by critics who asked how it was possible the deaf man could have heard his command to stop smoking.[129] his 1947 meetings in Winnipeg, Branham claimed to have raised a young man from the dead at a Jeffersonville funeral parlor. Branham's sensational claim was reported in the news in the United States and Canada, leading to a news media investigation to identify the funeral home and the individual raised from the dead. Reporters subsequently found no evidence of a resurrection; no funeral parlor in the city corroborated the story.[130] The same year the news media in Winnipeg publicized Branham's cases of failed healing. In response, the churches which hosted Branham's campaign conducted independent follow-up interviews with people Branham pronounced healed to gather testimonies which they could use to counter the negative press. To their surprise, their investigation failed to confirm any cases of actual healing; every person they interviewed had failed to recover.[123][128][131] meetings in Vancouver during 1947, newspaper reporters discovered that one young girl had been in Branham's prayer lines in multiple cities posing as a cripple, but rising to walk after Branham pronounced her healed each time. An investigative reporter suspected Branham had staged the miracle. Reporters at the meeting also attempted to follow up on the case of a Calgary woman pronounced healed by Branham who had died shortly after he left the city. Reporters attempted to confront Branham over these issues, but Branham refused to be interviewed.[132] was also accused of fraud by fellow ministers and churches that hosted his meetings. In 1947, Rev. Alfred Pohl, the Missionary-Secretary of Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, served as Branham's guide and host at meetings across western Canada. Pohl stated that many people Branham pronounced as healed later died and produced witnesses to validate his allegations. Pohl stated that the numerous deaths "severely tested the faith" of many ministers who had trusted in Branham.[123][128] Pohl also claimed Branham was frequently given and accepted large financial gifts from individuals who he pronounced as healed, including those who subsequently died.[133] 1948, W. J. Taylor, a district superintendent with the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, raised concerns again following another wave of Branham meetings and asked for a thorough investigation.[106] Taylor presented evidence that claims of the number of people healed were vastly overestimated, and that multiple people pronounced healed by Branham had subsequently died.[97] While he stated his personal admiration for Branham, the troubling number of deaths led him to suggest "there is a possibility that this whole thing is wrong".[134][106] in Canada continued to experience crises following Branham campaign meetings as they attempted to explain the numerous failed healings to their congregations.[128] At meetings in Regina, Branham pronounced the wife of a prominent minister healed of cancer. The minister and his wife were overjoyed, and the minister excitedly shared the details of the healing with his radio audience in Ontario later that week. To his surprise, his wife died only days later of her illness. The confusion created by the situation led ministers to claim Branham had deceived them.[135] to Kydd, "the controversy surrounding Branham deepened" with time.[97] Kydd reported that by watching films of the revival meetings, "the viewer would assume almost everyone was healed", but "results were less promising whenever follow-up was made."[127] One such case was Carol Strubler, who at age nine in 1954 was prayed for by Branham at a recorded revival in Washington, D.C., when he preached a sermon entitled "The Deep Calleth Unto The Deep". One newspaper reported, "Rev. William Branham of Jeffersonville, Ind., prayed for her and assured the heartbroken mother her daughter would live.[136] A week later the mother told this newspaper she was confident the evangelist's words were true and had cancelled a scheduled visit to St. Christopher's Hospital in Philadelphia." However, Strubbler died "of acute leukemia, just three weeks after [Branham] told her mother she was healed of the fatal sickness."[136] Another case was four-year-old Donny Morton, who was diagnosed with a rare brain condition. At recorded meetings in California during April 1951, Branham pronounced Morton healed, but the child subsequently died in October. His story was published in Reader's Digest.[137][138] allegations came from Branham's European campaigns. Rev. Walter Hollenweger, who served as a translator on Branham's European tours, reported that "very few were actually healed" in the campaigns, and the overwhelming majority pronounced healed by Branham failed to recover. Hollenweger said that while there were a few "well-attested cases of miraculous healing", Branham was "naïve" and "dishonest" and misled his audiences when he reported the number of people healed. Hollenweger was disappointed that Branham refused to acknowledge the numerous failed pronouncements of healings.[139][140] 1955, Leonard Steiner, pastor of a Pentecostal church in Zurich Switzerland that hosted a Branham meeting reported cases of failed healing and the negative consequences for members of his congregation.[141] Allegations in Norway led authorities to limit Branham's ability to hold meetings; the Directorate of Health forbade Branham from laying hands on the sick and sent police to his meetings to enforce the order.[142] allegations also were made following Branham's meetings in South Africa during 1952 and complaints were lodged with government authorities.[143] Michael Plaff, a doctor, was pronounced healed of cancer by Branham during one meeting. In February 1952, the Branham campaign published an article claiming Plaff had visited the hospital the day after he was prayed for and his cure was confirmed by medical tests. However, Plaff had died of his cancer just days after being pronounced healed.[144] A minister attending meetings in Durban with his congregation reported that over twenty people suffering from tuberculosis were pronounced healed by Branham, but all failed to recover. In another case, a woman suffering a heart condition was pronounced healed by Branham, but died less than a week later. A 23-year-old leukemia patient was pronounced healed by Branham, but failed to recover and died about thirteen months later.[144] Branham campaign published a book entitled "A Prophet Visit South Africa" to publicize the success of the tour. The book related the details of dozens of healings. Investigators in South Africa followed up on the reported healings and found that 46 of the people Branham said had been healed had failed to recover.[144] After reviewing the results of the investigation, one minister concluded "that the cures claimed are so largely exaggerated as to be almost fraudulent in their claim."[144] When Branham attempted to visit South Africa again in 1965, the South African government placed restrictions on his visa preventing him from holding any healing revivals while he was in the country.[143] Baxter, who participated in most of Branham's campaigns between November 1947 and 1953 including his tours to India and Europe, reflected on the exaggerated reports of miracles in the healing revival in a 1978 interview. He explained that the allegations eroded the trust of the crowds who attended the healing services.[145] remember in the beginning of the healing movement, simply to report a healing would produce great jubilation and praise from congregations. However, the cynicism became so deep that the people's confidence was diminished. Even to this day, people are affected. People began to circulate healing testimonies which, when they were checked out by reputable journalists and reporters, even those who were friendly to the movement, were found to be false. The percentage of healings that stood up after investigation was embarrassingly low.[145] — Ern Baxter attendees of Branham's meetings believed that some healings were staged and accused him of selectively choosing who could enter the prayer line.[146] Some people left his meetings disappointed after finding Branham's conviction that everyone in the audience could be healed without being in the prayer line proved incorrect.[146] Branham generally attributed the failure of supplicants to receive healing to their lack of faith.[147] According to Pohl, Hollenweger, and Steiner, Branham's practice of blaming the supplicant for lack of faith was severely damaging in multiple churches and left many people who failed to receive healing in despair.[128][148] expectations had been raised so high, only to be dashed after all the excitement was over. Some seemed to experience a momentary relief from pain, but all too many would discover no lasting benefit. And by that time the healer would be too far away to be questioned or to explain. The sick person would then simply be forced to accuse himself of lack of faith, or in some cases, throw his faith overboard.[149] — Alfred Pohl "word of knowledge" gift used by Branham was also subject to much criticism.[124] Hollenweger investigated Branham's use of the "word of knowledge gift" and found no instances in which Branham was mistaken in his often-detailed pronouncements.[124] Criticism of Branham's use of this gift was primarily around its nature; some asserted that it was a non-Christian practice and accused him of witchcraft and telepathy.[127] Branham was openly confronted with such criticisms and rejected the assertions.[127] alleged that Branham's discernments were not genuine. Many people Branham prayed for were required to first write their name, address, and what they were seeking prayer for on prayer cards. The cards were submitted to Branham's team who would choose the supplicants to be prayed for by Branham and organize the prayer line. Some critics accused Branham's team of sharing prayer card information with Branham before he began his prayer lines.[127][122] difficulties[edit] 1955, Branham's campaigning career began to slow following financial setbacks.[8][150] Even after he became famous, Branham continued to wear inexpensive suits and refused large salaries; he was not interested in amassing wealth as part of his ministry[12] and was reluctant to solicit donations during his meetings.[151] During the early years of his campaigns, donations had been able to cover costs, but from 1955, donations failed to cover the costs of three successive campaigns,[8] one of which incurred a $15,000 deficit. ($144,913 in 2020 dollars)[150] of Branham's business associates thought he was partially responsible because of his lack of interest in the financial affairs of the campaigns and tried to hold him personally responsible for the debt.[8] Branham briefly stopped campaigning and said he would have to take a job to repay the debt, but the Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International ultimately offered financial assistance to cover the debt.[151] Branham became increasingly reliant on the Full Gospel Businessmen to finance his campaign meetings as the Pentecostal denominations began to withdraw their financial support.[151] became an issue again in 1956 when the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) charged Branham with tax evasion.[8] The American government targeted the other leading revivalists with lawsuits during the same time period, including Oral Roberts, Jack Coe, and A. A. Allen.[152] The IRS asserted income reported by the ministers as non-taxable gifts was taxable,[150] despite the fact Branham had not kept the gifts for himself.[153] Except Allen, who won his legal battle, the evangelists settled their cases out of court.[150] IRS investigation showed Branham did not pay close attention to the amount of money flowing through his ministry,[154] and had failed to document gifts and donations he received or how the proceeds were used.[150] It also revealed that others assisting in his campaigns were taking financial advantage of the campaigns.[154] Branham reported his annual salary to the IRS as $7,000 ($66,633 in 2020 dollars) while his manager Gordon Lindsay's was reported at $80,000. ($761,518 in 2020 dollars)[150] Comparatively, Oral Roberts earned a salary of $15,000 in the same years.[155] Branham's case was eventually settled out of court when Branham admitted to tax evasion and agreed to pay of a $40,000 penalty. ($380,759 in 2020 dollars)[8][156] Branham was never able to completely pay off the tax liability.[8][156] of the revival[edit] the mid-1950s, dozens of the ministers associated with Branham and his campaigns had launched similar healing campaigns.[157] In 1956, the healing revival reached its peak, as 49 separate evangelists held major meetings.[158] Branham and Lindsay ineffectively attempted to encourage the other evangelists to help their local churches rather than launch national careers.[157] The Branham campaign held meetings across the United States in 1956, and a large meeting in Mexico City that had 20,000 in attendance. However the swelling number of competitors and emulators were further reducing attendance at Branham's meetings.[157] correspondence also decreased sharply. Whereas he had once received "a thousand letters a day", by 1956 his mail dropped to 75 letters a day. Branham thought the decline was temporary.[159] He continued expecting something greater, which he said "nobody will be able to imitate".[157] In 1955, he reported a vision of a renewed tent ministry and a "third pull which would be dramatically different" than his earlier career; he began to increasingly refer to the vision as his popularity began to decline.[157] the financial issues in 1956, Lindsay left Branham's campaign team. Branham eventually criticized the Voice of Healing magazine which he had helped create as a "massive financial organization" that put making money ahead of promoting good.[93] The loss of Lindsay as a manager and the publicity of Voice of Healing was a major setback for Branham. After 1956, attendance at Branham's meetings dwindled and his appeal became limited to the loyal following that developed around him during the earlier years. Branham came to depend on The Herald of Faith published by Joseph Mattsson-Bose as his primary publicity tool for the final years of his ministry.[93] also began to criticize other leading contemporaries in the healing revival leading to open hostilities between the evangelists. In 1957 Branham openly criticized A. A. Allen concerning the validity of a miracle reported in his campaigns. Allen replied by circulating a letter at the Christian Fellowship Convention criticizing Branham for creating divisions and suggesting Branham may soon die as a result of his actions. [160] Branham also began to criticize Oral Roberts and Billy Graham.[161] The bad feelings and breakdown of cooperation between the leaders of the movement contributed to the end of the healing revival.[160] the closing years of the revival, Branham helped launch and popularize the ministry of Jim Jones, the founder and leader of the Peoples Temple.[162] According to Historian Catherine Wessinger, while rejecting Christianity as a false religion, Jones covertly used popular Christian figures to advance his own ideology.[163] Jones needed a religious headliner to endorse his ministry and invited Branham to share the platform with him at a self-organized religious convention held at the Cadle Tabernacle auditorium in Indianapolis from June 11 to 15, 1956.[162] critics Peter Duyzer and John Collins reported that Branham "performed numerous miracles", drawing a crowd of 11,000.[164] Branham was an important influence on Jones, who copied many of his styles, methods, and teachings. Jones later became known for the mass murder and suicide at Jonestown in November 1978.[162] to Collins, Jim Jones and Paul Schäfer were influenced to move to South America by Branham's 1961 prophecy concerning the destruction of the United States in a nuclear war. Jones later said that he and Branham "did not see eye to eye", and accused Branham of being disingenuous.[165][166][h] among historians is that the healing revival ended in 1958.[127] By 1960, the number of evangelists holding national campaigns dropped to 11.[158] Several perspectives on the decline of the healing revival have been offered. Crowder suggested Branham's gradual separation from Gordon Lindsay played a major part in the decline.[167] Harrell attributed the decline to the increasing number of evangelists crowding the field and straining the financial resources of the Pentecostal denominations.[157] agreed that Pentecostal churches gradually withdrew their support for the healing revival, mainly over the financial stresses put on local churches by the healing campaigns.[168] The Assemblies of God were the first to openly withdraw support from the healing revival in 1953.[168] Weaver pointed to other factors that may have helped destroy the initial ecumenism of the revival; tension between the independent evangelists and the Pentecostal churches caused by the evangelists' fund-raising methods, denominational pride, sensationalism, and doctrinal conflicts – particularly between the Oneness and Trinitarian factions within Pentecostalism.[168] Weaver also believed that "fraud and chicanary" by the revivals evangelists also played a major role in the decline.[169] life[edit] ministry[edit] the healing revival began to wane, many of Branham's contemporaries moved into the leadership of the emerging Charismatic movement, which emphasized use of spiritual gifts.[150] The Charismatic movement is a global movement within both Protestant and non-Protestant Christianity that supports the adoption of traditionally Pentecostal beliefs, especially the spiritual gifts (charismata). The movement began in the teachings of the healing revival evangelists and grew as their teachings came to receive broad acceptance among millions of Christians.[170] the same time the Charismatic movement was gaining broad acceptance, Branham began to transition to a teaching ministry. He began speaking on the controversial doctrinal issues he had avoided for most of the revival.[171] By the 1960s, Branham's contemporaries and the Pentecostal denominations that had supported his campaigns regarded him as an extremely controversial teacher.[172] leadership of the Pentecostal churches pressed Branham to resist his urge to teach and to instead focus on praying for the sick.[173] Branham refused, arguing that the purpose of his healing ministry was to attract audiences and, having thus been attracted, it was time to teach them the doctrines he claimed to have received through supernatural revelation.[174] Branham argued that his entire ministry was divinely inspired and could not be selectively rejected or accepted, saying, "It's either all of God, or none of God".[173] first, Branham taught his doctrines only within his own church at Jeffersonville, but beginning in the 1960s he began to preach them at other churches he visited.[173] His criticisms of Pentecostal organizations, and especially his views on holiness and the role of women, led to his rejection by the growing Charismatic movement and the Pentecostals from whom he had originally achieved popularity.[175] Branham acknowledged their rejection and said their organizations "had choked out the glory and Spirit of God".[175] As a result of their view of his teachings, many Pentecostals judged that Branham had "stepped out of his anointing" and had become a "bad teacher of heretical doctrine".[176] his rejection by the growing Charismatic movement, Branham's followers became increasingly dedicated to him during his later life. Some even claimed he was the Messiah, treated him as deity, and began to baptise and pray in his name.[177] Branham quickly condemned their belief as heresy and threatened to stop ministering, but the belief persisted.[177] Many followers moved great distances to live near his home in Jeffersonville and, led by Leo Mercer, subsequently set up a colony in Arizona following Branham's move to Tucson in 1962.[177] believed the rapture was imminent and that it was necessary to be near Branham in Arizona to take part.[177] Branham lamented Mercer and the actions of his group as he worried that a cult was potentially being formed among his most fanatical followers.[177] Before he died, some of his followers had already begun compiling his sermons and treating them as oral scripture, with a significant minority of his followers believing in his divinity.[172] "Branhamism" redirects here. For Brahmanism, see historical Vedic religion. developed a unique theology and placed emphasis on a few key doctrines, including his eschatological views, annihilationism, oneness of the Godhead, predestination, eternal security, and the serpent's seed.[178] His followers refer to his teachings collectively as "The Message".[179] Kydd and Weaver have both referred to Branham's teachings as "Branhamology"; other sources refer to his teachings as "Branhamism".[180][179] of Branham's teachings have precedents within sects of the Pentecostal movement or in other non-Pentecostal denominations.[181] The doctrines Branham imported from non-Pentecostal theology and the unique combination of doctrines that he created as a result led to widespread criticism from Pentecostal churches and the Charismatic movement.[181][182] His unique arrangement of doctrines, coupled with the highly controversial nature of the serpent seed doctrine, caused the alienation of many of his former supporters.[181][182][183] Full Gospel tradition, which has its roots in Wesleyan Arminianism, is the theology generally adhered to by the Charismatic movement and Pentecostal denominations.[179] Branham's doctrines are a blend of both Calvinism and Arminianism, which are considered contradictory by many theologians; the teachings have been described as "jumbled and contradictory and difficult to categorize".[184] As a result, the theology he developed in the later years of his life seemed "complicated and bizarre" to many people who admired him personally during the years of the healing revival.[182] Many of his followers regard his sermons as oral scripture and believe Branham had rediscovered the true doctrines of the early church.[179] healing[edit] Further information: Faith healing § Christianity, and Deliverance ministry his ministry, Branham taught a doctrine of faith healing that was often the central teaching he espoused during the healing campaign.[185] He believed healing was the main focus of the ministry of Jesus Christ and believed in a dual atonement; "salvation for the soul and healing for the body".[185] He believed and taught that miracles ascribed to Christ in the New Testament were also possible in modern times.[185] believed that all sickness was a result of demonic activity and could be overcome by the faith of the person desiring healing.[185] Branham argued that God was required to heal when faith was present.[185] This led him to conclude that individuals who failed to be healed lacked adequate faith.[185] Branham's teaching on divine healing were within the mainstream of Pentecostal theology and echoed the doctrines taught by Smith Wigglesworth, Bosworth, and other prominent Pentecostal ministers of the prior generation.[185] Further information: Restorationism all of Branham's doctrines, his teachings on Christian restorationism have had the most lasting influence on modern Christianity.[186] Charismatic writer Michael Moriarty described his teachings on the subject as "extremely significant" because they have "impacted every major restoration movement since".[187] As a result, Moriarty concluded Branham has "profoundly influenced" the modern Charismatic movement.[188] Branham taught the doctrine widely from the early days of the healing revival, in which he urged his audiences to unite and restore a form of church organization like the primitive church of early Christianity.[186] teaching was accepted and widely taught by many of the evangelists of the healing revival, and they took it with them into the subsequent Charismatic and evangelical movements. Paul Cain, Bill Hamon, Kenneth Hagin, and other restoration prophets cite Branham as a major influence. They played a critical role in introducing Branham's restoration views to the Apostolic-Prophetic Movement, the Association of Vineyard Churches, and other large Charismatic organizations.[186] The Toronto Blessing, the Brownsville Revival, and other nationwide revivals of the late 20th century have their roots in Branham's restorationist teachings.[186] teaching holds that Christianity should return to a form mirroring the primitive Christian church.[186] It supports the restoration of apostles and prophets, signs and wonders, spiritual gifts, spiritual warfare, and the elimination of non-primitive features of modern Christianity.[186] Branham taught that by the end of the first century of Christianity, the church "had been contaminated by the entrance of an antichrist spirit".[187] As a result, he believed that from a very early date, the church had stopped following the "pure Word of God" and had been seduced into a false form of Christianity.[187] stated the corruption came from the desire of early Christianity's clergy to obtain political power, and as a result became increasingly wicked and introduced false creeds.[187] This led to denominationalism, which he viewed as the greatest threat to true Christianity.[187] Branham viewed Martin Luther as the initiator of a process that would result in the restoration of the true form of Christianity, and traced the advancement of the process through other historic church figures.[189] He believed the rapture would occur at the culmination of this process.[189] Although Branham referred in his sermons to the culmination of the process as a future event affecting other people, he believed he and his followers were fulfilling his restoration beliefs.[9] Charles Parham, an early leader of Pentecostalism and preacher of annihilationism Further information: Annihilationism the doctrine that the damned will be totally destroyed after the final judgment so as to not exist, was introduced to Pentecostalism in the teachings of Charles Fox Parham (1873–1929).[190] Not all Pentecostal sects accepted the idea.[191] Prior to 1957, Branham taught a doctrine of eternal punishment in hell.[192] By 1957 he began promoting an annihilationist position in keeping with Parham's teachings.[190] believed that "eternal life was reserved only for God and his children".[190] In 1960, Branham claimed the Holy Spirit had revealed this doctrine to him as one of the end-time mysteries.[193] Promoting annihilationism led to the alienation of Pentecostal groups that had rejected Parham's teaching on the subject.[193] Further information: Oneness Pentecostalism other doctrines, the Godhead formula was a point of doctrinal conflict within Pentecostalism.[193] As Branham began offering his own viewpoint, it led to the alienation of Pentecostal groups adhering to Trinitarianism.[193] Branham shifted his theological position on the Godhead during his ministry.[193] Early in his ministry, Branham espoused a position closer to an orthodox Trinitarian view.[193] the early 1950s, he began to privately preach the Oneness doctrine outside of his healing campaigns.[193] By the 1960s, he had changed to openly teaching the Oneness position, according to which there is one God who manifests himself in multiple ways; in contrast with the Trinitarian view that three distinct persons comprise the Godhead.[172] came to believe that trinitarianism was tritheism and insisted members of his congregation be re-baptized in Jesus's name in imitation of Paul the Apostle.[194] Branham believed his doctrine had a nuanced difference from the Oneness doctrine and to the end of his ministry he openly argued that he was not a proponent of Oneness doctrine.[194] He distinguished his baptismal formula from the Oneness baptism formula in the name of Jesus by teaching that the baptismal formula should be in the name of Lord Jesus Christ.[194] He argued that there were many people named Jesus but there is only one Lord Jesus Christ.[194] By the end of his ministry, his message required an acceptance of the oneness of the Godhead and baptism in the name of Lord Jesus Christ.[184] to modern culture[edit] Further information: Holiness movement § Relation and reaction to Pentecostalism, and Asceticism § Christianity As Branham's ministry progressed, he increasingly condemned modern culture.[173] to Weaver, Branham's views on modern culture were the primary reason the growing Charismatic movement rejected him; his views also prevented him from following his contemporaries who were transitioning from the healing revival to the new movement.[173] He taught that immoral women and education were the central sins of modern culture.[195] Branham viewed education as "Satan's snare for intellectual Christians who rejected the supernatural" and "Satan's tool for obscuring the 'simplicity of the Message and the messenger'".[195] Weaver wrote that Branham held a "Christ against Culture" opinion,[195] according to which loyalty to Christ requires rejection of non-Christian culture.[196] inherited the Wesleyan doctrine of entire sanctification and outward holiness from its founders, who came from Wesleyan-influenced denominations of the post-American Civil War era.[197] The rigid moral code associated with the holiness movement had been widely accepted by Pentecostals in the early twentieth century.[172][198] Branham's strict moral code echoed the traditions of early Pentecostalism but became increasingly unpopular because he refused to accommodate mid-century Pentecostalism's shifting viewpoint.[172][199] He denounced cigarettes, alcohol, television, rock and roll, and many forms of worldly amusement.[200] strongly identified with the lower-class roots of Pentecostalism and advocated living an ascetic lifestyle.[200] When he was given a new Cadillac, he kept it parked in his garage for two years out of embarrassment.[200] Branham openly chastised other evangelists, who seemed to be growing wealthy from their ministries and opposed the prosperity messages being taught.[200] Branham did not view financial prosperity as an automatic result of salvation.[200] He rejected the financial aspects of the prosperity gospel that originated in the teachings of Oral Roberts and A. A. Allen.[200] Branham condemned any emphasis on expensive church buildings, elaborate choir robes, and large salaries for ministers, and insisted the church should focus on the imminent return of Christ.[200][95] opposition to modern culture emerged most strongly in his condemnation of the "immorality of modern women".[200] He taught that women with short hair were breaking God's commandments and "ridiculed women's desire to artificially beautify themselves with makeup".[201] Branham believed women were guilty of committing adultery if their appearance was intended to motivate men to lust, and viewed a woman's place as "in the kitchen".[201] Citing the creation story in which Eve is taken from Adam's side, Branham taught that woman was not part of God's original creation, and she was a byproduct of man.[199] is nothing designed to stoop so low, or be filthy, but a woman. A dog can't do it, a hog can't do it, a bird can't do it. No animal is immoral, nor it can be, for it is not designed so it can be. A female hog can't be immoral, a female dog can't be immoral, a female bird can't be immoral. A woman is the only thing can do it. She is designed, alone, for filth and unclean living. ... A dog can't, and no other female can. It's just the woman that can. A dog or any other animals, once a year, and that for her babies; not for sexual pleasure, but for her babies. The old sow hog, the old slut dog, once a year, one moment, that's for her babies. But a woman is designed for any time she desires. ... A woman is a by-product of a man. She's not even in the original creation. That's exactly right. ... By her beauty and her sex control, her shape that was given to her by Satan, the by-product that Satan did, she is sent to deceive sons of God. And she can sway more of them to hell than any other instrument Satan has got. That's exactly right. Only a piece, scrap, made of a man, to deceive him by; God made it, right here has proved it. That's what she was made for. — William Branham, Marriage and Divorce, February 21, 1965 According to Weaver, "his pronouncements with respect to women were often contradictory".[199] Branham once told women who refused to dress according to his instructions "not to call themselves Christians" but qualified his denunciations by affirming that obedience to the holiness moral code was not a requirement for salvation.[199] While he did not condemn women who refused the holiness moral code to Hell, he insisted they would not be part of the rapture.[199] wrote that Branham's attitude to women concerning physical appearance, sexual drive, and marital relations was misogynistic,[202] and that Branham saw modern women as "essentially immoral sexual machines who were to blame for adultery, divorce and death. They were the tools of the Devil."[195] Some of Branham's contemporaries accused him of being a "woman hater", but he insisted he only hated immorality.[199] According to Edward Babinski, women who follow the holiness moral code Branham supported regard it as "a badge of honor".[203] seed, Predestination, & Race[edit] Further information: Serpent Seed, Original Sin, Conditional election, and Unconditional election taught an unorthodox doctrine on the source of original sin.[181] He believed that the story of the fall of man in the Garden of Eden is allegorical and interpreted it to mean that the serpent had sexual intercourse with Eve, and their offspring was Cain.[181][204][25] Branham also taught the belief that Cain's modern descendants were masquerading as educated people and scientists,[205] and were "a big religious bunch of illegitimate bastard children"[206][103] who comprised the majority of society's criminals.[207] He believed that the serpent was an intelligent human-like ape he described as the missing link between the chimpanzee and man.[208][209] Branham believed that the serpent was transformed into a reptile snake after it was cursed by God.[210] believed the term "predestination" was widely misunderstood and preferred to use the word "foreknowledge" to describe his views. Branham's teachings on Predestination were deeply connected to his serpent seed doctrine.[211] Branham taught that humanity's choice in salvation was negated by their ancestry, and that genetics determined one's eternal destiny; the offspring of Cain were foreordained to damnation while the offspring of Seth were foreordained to salvation.[212] commented that Branham seemed unaware that his teachings conflicted with free will,[211] and that he taught a Calvinistic form of the doctrine of predestination and openly supported Calvin's doctrine of Eternal Security, both of which were at odds with the Arminian view of predestination held by Pentecostalism.[184] Unlike his views on the Godhead and Annihilationism, there was no precedent within Pentecostalism for his views on predestination, and opened him to widespread criticism.[194] Branham lamented that more so than any other teaching, Pentecostals criticized him for his predestination teachings.[211] to Steven Hassan, "Branham's sermons lay the foundation to believe that black people are the inferior race."[25] Branham used the term "hybrid" to describe anything he believed to be tainted by the serpent.[25] Branham accused Eve of producing a "hybrid" race, and he provided a way to trace the hybrid line of the Serpent's Seed to Africans and Jews through Ham the biblical progenitor of the African peoples, King Ahab, and Judas Iscariot.[209][210][122] --------------------------

US, 1930-1970, A. A. Allen, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, faith healing, deliverance, prosperity, racial integration, black musical talent
US, 1930-1970, A. A. Allen, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Sulphur Rock, Arkansas (White River 1), pentecostal evangelist, faith healing, deliverance, prosperity, racial integration, black musical talent, attacks on dead religion, Miracle Valley Property donation; Sulphur Rock, Arkansas ; A. A. Allen, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1970, Commemorated June 11; A. Allen (March 27, 1910 – June 11, 1970), better known as A. A. Allen, an American Pentecostal evangelist known for his faith healing and deliverance ministry. was, for a time, associated with the "Voice of Healing" movement founded by Gordon Lindsay and later started his own publication called "Miracle Magazine". died at the age of 60 in San Francisco, California, and was buried at his ministry headquarters in Miracle Valley, Arizona.[1] life[edit] A. Allen's early life was lived in an often unpleasant environment. Having been born of mixed race to white and Native American parents, his family was very poor and his father was an alcoholic.[2] the age of 23, Allen became a Christian at the Onward Methodist Church in Miller, Missouri.[3] he learned of the Baptism with the Holy Spirit from a Pentecostal preacher who was conducting meetings in his home. soon felt the call to preach and affiliated himself with the Assemblies of God, subsequently obtaining ordination from them in 1936. He then began to pastor a small church in Colorado. By 1947, Allen was pastoring a large Assemblies of God church in Corpus Christi, Texas.[2] attending a tent revival meeting hosted by Oral Roberts in 1949, Allen testified that as he left that meeting he hoped to form a divine healing ministry. Allen asked his church board to allow him to start a radio program, but they refused. Allen soon resigned from his church and began holding healing revival meetings.[2] in part from many reported healings, Allen established a large following.[4] became one of the first ministers to develop a national television ministry, which frequently included excerpts from his "healing line" ministry. the late 1960s, however, music formed an increasingly dominant part of Allen's programs, which was generally performed by African-American singer and choir leader Gene Martin.[5] 1955, Allen purchased a large tent for $8,500.[4] He was soon one of the major healing evangelists on the healing revival circuit. revival meetings were similar to the other leading evangelists of the time (such as Roberts, Jack Coe, and William Branham)[6] in that meetings were typically characterized by preaching, testimony, music, and praying for the sick.[5][7] was the case with other ministers of the time, Allen's healing ministry was facilitated by the use of "prayer cards" obtained in advance by those requesting prayer for healing.[8][9] continued on the revival circuit, and in 1958 he purchased a tent previously used by Coe that could seat over 22,000. became one of the first evangelists to propagate the prosperity gospel, calling poverty a "spirit" and expounding God's ability to perform miracles financially.[10] his peak, Allen appeared on fifty-eight radio stations daily, as well as forty-three television stations.[11] the time of his death, his headquarters in Miracle Valley, Arizona was 2,400 acres (9.7 km2) with its own airfield. that time, A. A. Allen Revivals, Inc. was publishing "well over" 60 million pieces of literature a year. The circulation of Miracle Magazine, published monthly by the Allen ministry, was 450,000 at the time of his death.[12] magazine included, at times, accounts of healings, but gave a disclaimer that the magazine does not "assume legal responsibility" of its accuracy.[3] W. King, the business manager of Miracle Valley, was quoted in 1969, shortly before Allen's death, as saying, "We take in $2 million a year, and our expenses are $2 million a year." He added that Miracle Valley's annual payroll was $84,000.[13] his television programs, Allen or his ministry associates made frequent mention of the fact that his meetings were racially integrated. sat alongside whites in the choir, the ministers' section, and the congregation. musical talent was frequently highlighted in Allen's television programs, especially in the 1960s. This racial attitude also found its expression in Allen's sermon record album titled, Did God Call the Apostle Paul to Preach the Gospel to the Black Man? The album cover refers to Allen as "no doubt the first evangelist on a great national or international scale to preach integration to huge crowds in the North and the South ..."[14] This was something of an exaggeration, though perhaps in keeping with Allen's personality. Mainstream revivalist Billy Graham, while not always consistent, had desegregated many of his revivals as early as 1953 in Chattanooga, Tennessee, and integrated all his revivals following the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954.[15] major theme in Allen's ministry was his unrelenting attacks on what he characterized as dead, formal, denominational religion. This was a theme of a number of his televised messages and of such Miracle Valley publications as Allen's book titled Let My People Go![16] This was also the theme of a book authored by Clarence G. Mitchell and published by Allen's ministry, titled Starving Sheep and Overfed Shepherds (1963). Allen regarded "denominationalism" as a sin. This is reflected in the subtitle of Mitchell's book: "Takes the Cover Off! Brings the Sin of Denominationalism Out into the Open!" a revival meeting on January 1, 1958, in Phoenix, Arizona, recent convert Urbane Leiendecker approached Allen and offered him 1,280 acres (5.2 km2) of land.[17] This property, later expanded, was then named "Miracle Valley." As such, it served as the ministry headquarters for A. A. Allen Revivals, Inc. This location housed Miracle Valley Bible College and its dorms and classrooms; a domed church; administrative buildings; a large warehouse; a residential neighborhood called Miracle Valley Estates; a publishing and printing plant; a four-press phonograph record plant; and Miracle Valley Fellowship, which served as a ministerial fellowship with about 10,000 ministers as members.[12] In spite of the presence of its own print shop, however, Miracle Valley business manager Gerald King said in 1969 that the ministry spent $27,000 per month "farming out" jobs to other print shops that could not be handled on site.[13] 1963, A. A. Allen Revivals, Inc. successfully sued the Internal Revenue Service (IRS)[18] in an attempt to get the government to refund collections of the Federal Insurance Contributions Act taxes for 1958–59.[19][20] A. Allen and his wife, Lexie E. (Scriven) Allen had three sons and one daughter. The third son, Paul Asa Allen, is the author of In the Shadow of Greatness – Growing Up Allen. Allen died at the Jack Tar Hotel in San Francisco, California, on June 11, 1970, at the age of 60. Allen was buried at Miracle Valley, Arizona, on June 15, 1970.[21]

US Presidents Folder, 1933-2009

US, 1933-1945, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, progressive dem, 4 elections, Depression New Deal exec orders, WWII
US President, 1933-1945, Franklin D. Roosevelt; Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. member of the Democratic Party, he won a record four presidential elections and became a central figure in world events during the first half of the 20th century. Roosevelt directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing his New Deal domestic agenda in response to the worst economic crisis in U.S. history. As a dominant leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, which defined modern liberalism in the United States throughout the middle third of the 20th century. His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II, which ended shortly after he died in office. was born in Hyde Park, New York, to the Roosevelt family made well known by the reputation of Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the United States, as well as by the reputation of prominent businessman William Henry Aspinwall. graduated from the Groton School and Harvard College, and attended Columbia Law School but left after passing the bar exam to practice law in New York City. 1905, he married his fifth cousin once removed Eleanor Roosevelt. They had six children, of whom five survived into adulthood. He won election to the New York State Senate in 1910, and then served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson during World War I. was James M. Cox's running mate on the Democratic Party's 1920 national ticket, but Cox was defeated by Republican Warren G. Harding. 1921, Roosevelt contracted a paralytic illness, believed at the time to be polio, and his legs became permanently paralyzed. While attempting to recover from his condition, Roosevelt founded a polio rehabilitation center in Warm Springs, Georgia. In spite of being unable to walk unaided, Roosevelt returned to public office by winning election as Governor of New York in 1928. He served as governor from 1929 to 1933, promoting programs to combat the economic crisis besetting the United States. the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated Republican incumbent Herbert Hoover in a landslide. Roosevelt took office in the midst of the Great Depression, the worst economic crisis in U.S. history. During the first 100 days of the 73rd United States Congress, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Deal—a variety of programs designed to produce relief, recovery, and reform. created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the National Recovery Administration and other programs. also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of Prohibition. used radio to speak directly to the American people, giving 30 "fireside chat" radio addresses during his presidency and became the first American president to be televised. With the economy having improved rapidly from 1933 to 1936, Roosevelt won a landslide reelection in 1936. After the 1936 election, Roosevelt sought passage of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 (the "court packing plan"), which would have expanded the size of the Supreme Court of the United States. bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented passage of the bill and blocked the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms. The economy then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 and 1938. Major surviving programs and legislation implemented under Roosevelt include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Social Security, and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. was reelected in 1940 for his third term, making him the only U.S. president to serve for more than two terms. With World War II looming after 1938, the U.S. remained officially neutral, Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China, the United Kingdom, and eventually the Soviet Union. the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, an event he called "a date which will live in infamy", Roosevelt obtained a congressional declaration of war on Japan, and, a few days later, on Germany and Italy. by his top aide Harry Hopkins and with very strong national support, he worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in leading the Allied Powers against the Axis Powers. supervised the mobilization of the U.S. economy to support the war effort, and implemented a Europe first strategy, making the defeat of Germany a priority over that of Japan. also initiated the development of the world's first atomic bomb and worked with other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the United Nations and other post-war institutions. It was under his wartime leadership that the United States would become a superpower on the world stage. won reelection in 1944, but with his physical health declining during the war years, he died in April 1945, less than three months into his fourth term. Axis Powers surrendered to the Allies in the months following Roosevelt's death, during the presidency of his successor, Harry S. Truman. Roosevelt is usually rated by scholars among the nation's greatest presidents, alongside George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. However in the decades following his death, his legacy has come under scrutiny. THE RIGHTEOUS GENTILES, Raoul Wallenberg and Carl Lutz, Commemorated July 16 ; ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, 1948, Commemorated July 19; CHARLES RAYMOND BARNES, PRIEST, 26 July 1938; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; THE MARTYRS OF NEW GUINEA, (2 SEP 1942); PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); THOMAS MERTON, MONK, POET, SPIRITUAL WRITER, 1968, Commemorated December 10; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961, Commemorated December 19; HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969); SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; DORCHESTER CHAPLAINS: Lieutenant George Fox, Lieutenant Alexander D. Goode, Lieutenant Clark V. Poling, Lieutenant John P. Washington, 1943, Commemorated February 3 ; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Ida B. Robinson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1946, Commemorated April 20; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1938-1956, Jack Coe, PENTACOSTAL, Evangelist, faith healer, the man of reckless faith, tent revivals in the south
US, 1938-1956, Jack Coe, PENTACOSTAL, Evangelist, faith healer, the man of reckless faith, tent revivals, the south, man oReckless faith, faith healer, touring tent, ordained 1944 Assemblies oGod, still Army WWII, center oControversy, employed 80, fOklahoma City, orphanage, left a17, heavy drinker, joined Army 1941, dynamic enthusiastic iBeliefs, impressed by size Oral Roberts' tent, ordered one bigger, said largest tent in world, larder Barnum Baily Circus tent, edited Gordon Lindsay's Voice oHealing mag til 1950, then began own mag, Herald oHealing. 1956 circulation 250K, opened orphanage, large church Dallas Revival Center, healing no medicines or doctors, expelled AOG misleading public, also extravegent lifestyle, printed pictures large homes AOG officials, smaller homes his & other revivalists, Polio boy not healed, charges dropped practicing medicine without license; Oklahoma City, OK (Canadian River 8); Jack Coe, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1956, Commemorated December 17 ; Coe (March 11, 1918 – December 16, 1956) was a Pentecostal evangelist, nicknamed "the man of reckless faith". He was one of the first faith healers in the United States with a touring tent ministry after World War II. was ordained in the Assemblies of God in 1944, and began to preach while still serving in World War II. the following twelve years, he traveled the U.S. organizing tent revivals to spread his message. was frequently the center of controversy, preached extensively through the South, and employed some 80 persons."[1] life Coe was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, the seventh child of George Henry and Blanche Zoe (Mays) Coe of Pleasantville, Venango County, Pennsylvania, and Oklahoma City.[citation needed] parents later placed him in an orphanage. He left there in 1935 at the age of 17. A heavy drinker, he joined the Army after World War II began. later claimed to have experienced a miracle during his time in the military that caused him to become a Christian minister. had close ties with the Assemblies of God, and preached several meetings while he was in the Army. He was ordained in 1944, and began his career as an itinerant preacher.[2] evangelist and ministries was dynamic and enthusiastic in his beliefs.[2] He knew Oral Roberts and was impressed by the size of Roberts' revival tent. One day Coe went to a Roberts' tent meeting and measured the tent; he then ordered a larger one.[3] Coe was not bashful about announcing that his tent was the largest in the world; bigger, he claimed, than the one Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus used.[4] was co-editor of fellow evangelist Gordon Lindsay's Voice of Healing magazine until 1950, when he began his own magazine, the Herald of Healing. By 1956 its circulation was approximately 250,000.[4] also opened a children's orphanage[5] and built a large church building known as the Dallas Revival Center.[6] with denomination and controversy ’s revival messages centered upon healing, and he was adamant about not taking medicines and not visiting doctors.[7] 1953, the Assemblies of God expelled him on the grounds that he was "misleading the public" and "antagonizing Dallas Civil Authorities". was also accused of having an extravagant lifestyle and home. hearing that, Coe printed pictures of four large homes owned by some top officials in the Assemblies of God the smaller homes of himself and three other revivalists. also charged that the Assemblies of God were "fighting divine healing". revivalists soon came into conflict with Pentecostal denominations as well.[8] arrest and case dismissed taught and preached fervently on divine healing, claiming to have healed visitors to his revivals. a 1955 revival service in Miami, Florida, Coe told the parents of a three-year-old boy that he had healed their son of polio.[9] Coe then told the parents to remove the boy's leg braces.[9] the boy was not cured, and removing the braces left him in constant pain.[9] a result, Coe was arrested and on February 6, 1956 and was charged with practicing medicine without a license, a felony in the state of Florida. judge dismissed the case on grounds that Florida exempts divine healing from the law.[10][11][12] November, a few months after the charges were dismissed, Coe became sick while in Hot Springs, Arkansas.[13] returned to Texas and underwent a tracheotomy to help his breathing after his muscles became paralyzed.[13] was diagnosed with bulbar polio, and died a few weeks later at Dallas' Parkland Hospital on December 16, 1956. He was 38.[14][15][16] his death, A. A. Allen bought his tent and continued to hold large tent meetings.[17] The Dallas Revival Center was later led by W. V. Grant.[18] wife, Rev. Juanita Geneva Scott of Lancaster, Texas, died on September 27, 1996, and was buried in Laurel Land Memorial Park in Dallas.[19] Coe's son, Jack Coe, Jr., also became a preacher with a healing ministry.[20]

US, 1938-2009, Oral Roberts PS, Tulsa, OK, Charismatic televangelist, , first preach prosperity gospel, healing ministry
US, 1938-2009, Oral Roberts PS, Tulsa, OK, Charismatic Christian televangelist, first preach prosperity gospel, of most recognized US preachers, ordained Pentecostal Holiness and United Methodist churches, forerunner charismatic movement, founded Oral Roberts University, seed faith preaching, healing ministry most impact, also pioneered televangelism, laid foundation prosperity gospel & abundant life teachings, funding appeals critised, fPontotoc County, OK, Preachers kid, Cherokee mother, poverty, tuberculosis a17, 2yrs each Oklahoma Baptist&Phillips Universities, married preachers daughter, after College traveling faith healer w3k person tent, healing started 1945 aTaccoa GA, part time OK preacher till 1947, hundreds national conventions, 300 crusades on 6Continents, hands on 2M people, successful 1955 Johannesburg, S Africa, apartheid, for both black and white, whole year, Also that year direct mail campaigns of seed faith, 1980's at its peak Roberts led $120m/yr org employing 2,300, incl university, medical school, hospital, 50 acres of buildings valued at $500m, 1963 founded ORU, command fGod, students signed honor code, 1947 radio pioneer televangelist, television 1954 revivals, 1957 Abundant Life reaching 80%, and quarterly Prime Time Specials f1969-80, 1996 founded Golden Eagle Broadcasting, 1968 joined United Methodist from Pentecostal Holiness for more leeway, from 1968-87; Oral Roberts University ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2009, Commemorated December 15 ; Oral Roberts (January 24, 1918 – December 15, 2009[1][2]) an American Charismatic Christian televangelist, was one of the first to propagate Prosperity Gospel Theology. was ordained in both the Pentecostal Holiness and United Methodist churches. is considered one of the forerunners of the charismatic movement, at the height of his career was one of the most recognized preachers in the US.[3] founded the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association and Oral Roberts University. of the most well-known and controversial American religious leaders of the 20th century, preaching emphasized seed-faith.[4] ministries reached millions of followers worldwide spanning a period of over six decades.[5] healing ministry and his bringing American Pentecostalism into the mainstream had the most impact,[6] he also pioneered televangelism, and laid the foundations of the prosperity gospel[5] and abundant life teachings.[7] The breadth and style of his ministry, including his widely publicized funding appeals, made him a consistent subject of contention among critics and supporters.[5] life[edit] was born on January 24, 1918, in Pontotoc County, Oklahoma, the fifth and youngest child of the Reverend Ellis Melvin Roberts (1881–1967) and Claudius Priscilla Roberts (née Irwin) (1885–1974).[8] an interview on Larry King Live, Roberts claimed his mother was of Cherokee descent.[9] Roberts also claimed Choctaw heritage. However, census records indicate that Roberts and his family are listed as "white", including his mother despite her claims to be "one-quarter Cherokee."[10] began life in poverty, and nearly died of tuberculosis when he was 17.[11] finishing high school, Roberts studied for two years each at Oklahoma Baptist University and Phillips University. 1938, he married a preacher's daughter, Evelyn Lutman Fahnestock. became a traveling faith healer after ending his college studies without a degree. to a TIME Magazine profile of 1972, Roberts originally made a name for himself with a large mobile tent "that sat 3,000 on metal folding chairs".[12] and university[edit] 1945, Roberts resigned from his pastorate in Shawnee, Oklahoma, to hold revivals in the area and attend Oklahoma Baptist. But in the late summer of 1945, while preaching in a North Carolina camp meeting, Roberts was asked by Robert E. "Daddy" Lee of Toccoa, Georgia, to consider becoming pastor of his small, eighty-member church. Roberts suggested they pray about it, and unexpectedly, decided to accept. By the end of the year, Roberts resigned and moved back to Shawnee. Apparently, the Georgia conference of the International Pentecostal Holiness Church frowned on having a minister from outside its conference as a pastor. though it was, the Toccoa detour had a lasting effect on Roberts and his family. was there that their daughter Rebecca, then five years old, first met her future husband, Marshall. were also reportedly two instances of healing, which Roberts would later look back on as his first realization "that I was approaching 'my hour'."[13] 1947, Roberts struggled as a part-time preacher in Oklahoma, when he was 29, Roberts said he picked up his Bible and it fell open at the Third Epistle of John, where he read verse 2: "I wish above all things that thou mayest prosper and be in health, even as thy soul prospereth." next day, he said, he bought a Buick and God appeared, directing him to heal the sick.[14] resigned his pastoral ministry with the Pentecostal Holiness Church to found Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association (OREA).[15] conducted evangelistic and faith healing drives across the United States and around the world, claiming he could raise the dead.[16][17] November 1947, he started Healing Waters, a monthly magazine as a means to promote his meetings.[18] of sick people waited in line to stand before Oral Roberts so he could pray for them. appeared as a guest speaker for hundreds of national and international meetings and conventions. Through the years, he conducted more than 300 "crusades" on six continents, and personally laid hands in prayer on more than 2 million people.[11][19][20] January 1955, Oral Roberts held a "salvation and healing" campaign in Johannesburg, South Africa. It was an era of apartheid. He was bitterly assailed by the Sunday Express for the hysteria and traffic jams of 20,000 people that packed big Wembley stadium and playing field. Other newspapers reported on the healings and 25,000 people saved. Roberts left behind a residual campaign fund in South Africa of $37,000 less expenses, with the hope that "his campaign will save 100,000 during the coming year".[21] Three of the four sponsoring churches were Pentecostal, including Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) and the Assemblies of God – White Group (AG). The campaign committee consisted entirely of white Afrikaner missionaries and ministers, H.R. Carter, D.D. Freeman, A.J. Schoeman (head of AFM), and W.F. Mullan (head of AG).[22] The campaign committee had plans to use the Oral Roberts' 100,000 Souls for Africa Campaign residual fund to hold revivals in 1955 to win souls for Christ, both Afrikaners (white) and Africans (black).[23] The campaign committee sponsored a young evangelist from the U.S.A. Emanuele Cannistraci,[24] and paid for his revivals in Johannesburg at the Fairview Assemblies Hall and a portion of Bethshan Tabernacle's costs for Cannistraci's revival in Durban South Africa, a congregation of mixed race.[25][26] Cannistraci's photos, including his claims of healing two deaf and dumb brothers during the revival, were published in Oral Roberts' America's Healing Magazine. also ran direct mail campaigns of seed-faith, which appealed to poor Americans, often from ethnic minorities. its peak in the early 1980s, Roberts was the leader of a $120 million-a-year organization employing 2,300 people. This included not only a university but also a medical school and hospital as well as buildings on 50 acres (200,000 m2) south of Tulsa valued at $500 million.[5][14] Another part of the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association, the Abundant Life Prayer Group (ALPG), was founded in 1958.[15] The Praying Hands, on the ORU campus in Tulsa, Oklahoma 1963, he founded Oral Roberts University (ORU)[15] in Tulsa, Oklahoma, stating he was obeying a command from God. The university was chartered during 1963 and received its first students in 1965. Students were required to sign an honor code pledging not to drink, smoke, or engage in premarital sexual activities. The Prayer Tower, opened in 1967, is located at the center of the campus. From left: Young Brown, Jack Moore, William Branham, Oral Roberts, Gordon Lindsay; photo taken at Kansas City in 1948 was a pioneer televangelist, and attracted a vast viewership. He began broadcasting by radio in 1947,[27][28] and began broadcasting his revivals by television in 1954.[5] His television ministry continued with The Abundant Life program reaching 80% of the United States by 1957, and quarterly Prime Time Specials from 1969 through 1980. In 1996, he founded Golden Eagle Broadcasting.[15] March 17, 1968, Roberts and his wife were received as members of the Boston Avenue United Methodist Church in Tulsa, Oklahoma, by Dr. Finis Crutchfield, its then pastor. United Methodist Church offered more leniency in doctrinal and moral issues than the Pentecostal Holiness Church had. granted Roberts some leeway, as it was expected that the strictness of the Pentecostal tradition may have impeded his rise in popularity.[29] Roberts' switch to Methodism, Crutchfield arranged a meeting between Roberts and Bishop William Angie Smith, at which the Bishop told Roberts, "We need you, but we need the Holy Spirit more than we need you and we've got to have the Holy Spirit in the Methodist Church."[30] became an elder in the Oklahoma Conference of the United Methodist Church. 1968 through 1987, Roberts was a member of the United Methodist Church's ministry.[31][32][33] affected the American Protestant community. According to one authority in conservative Protestant culture, his ministry's influence was second only to that of Billy Graham.[2][34][35] divine healing ministry called for prayer to heal the whole person—body, mind and spirit.[36] labeled him a faith healer, but he rejected this with the comment: "God heals—I don't."[2][6] played a major role in bringing American Pentecostal Christianity into the mainstream.[37] though Roberts was often associated with the prosperity gospel and the faith movement because of his close doctrinal and personal ties with Word-Faith teachers, his abundant life teachings did not fully identify him with that movement.[38] 1977, Roberts claimed to have had a vision from a 900-foot-tall Jesus who told him to build City of Faith Medical and Research Center, and the hospital would be a success.[39][40][41] 1980, Roberts said he had a vision that encouraged him to continue the construction of his City of Faith Medical and Research Center in Oklahoma, which opened in 1981. the time, it was among the largest health facilities of its kind in the world and was intended to merge prayer and medicine in the healing process. City of Faith operated for eight years before closing in late 1989. Orthopedic Hospital of Oklahoma still operates on its premises. 1983 Roberts said Jesus had appeared to him in person and commissioned him to find a cure for cancer.[42][43] fundraising was controversial. In January 1987, during a fundraising drive, Roberts announced to a television audience that unless he raised $8 million by that March, God would "call him home."[44][45] the year before on Easter he had told a gathering at the Dallas Convention Center that God had instructed him to raise the money "by the end of the year" or he would die.[46] of this new March deadline and the fact that he was still $4.5 million short of his goal,[47] some were fearful that he was referring to suicide, given the impassioned pleas and tears that accompanied his statement. in March 1987, while Roberts was fasting and praying in the Prayer Tower, Florida dog track owner Jerry Collins donated $1.3 million.[48][49] Highly worried from what he perceived as Roberts threatening to starve himself, Collins said, "I did it in order to save the guy from going to heaven in a hurry. It's got nothing to do with religion. I've been a Baptist and a Methodist. I believe in religion and not just the church. You have to help one another."[50] Roberts raised a total of $9.1 million.[51] Later that year, he announced that God had raised the dead through his ministry.[52] Some of Roberts' fundraising letters were written by Gene Ewing, who headed a business writing donation letters for other evangelicals such as Don Stewart and Robert Tilton.[53] maintained his love of finery; one obituary claimed that even when times became economically hard, "he continued to wear his Italian silk suits, diamond rings and gold bracelets—airbrushed out by his staff on publicity pictures".[14][32] The CityPlex office complex, originally built as Oral Roberts' City of Faith Medical and Research Center in Tulsa stirred up controversy when Time reported in 1987 that his son Richard Roberts claimed that he had seen his father raise a child from the dead.[45] year, the Bloom County comic strip recast its character Bill the Cat as a satirized televangelist, "Fundamentally Oral Bill". 1987, Time stated that he was "re-emphasizing faith healing and [is] reaching for his old-time constituency."[45] the income of his organization continued to decrease (from $88 million in 1980 to $55 million in 1986, according to the Tulsa Tribune) and his largely vacant City of Faith Medical Center continued to lose money.[45] McNevin said that in 1988 the ORU Board of Regents "rubber-stamped" the "use of millions in endowment money to buy a Beverly Hills property so that Oral Roberts could have a West Coast office and house."[54] addition, he said a country club membership was purchased for the Roberts' home. lavish expenses led to McNevin's resignation from the Board. 1988, Oral Roberts and his son Richard were sued for $15 million in federal court by patients at City of Faith Medical Center, who claimed the two were frauds who did not visit or heal patients in the hospital.[55][56][57] organizations were also affected by scandals involving other televangelists[2] and the City of Faith hospital was forced to close in 1989 after losing money. was forced to respond with the sale of his holiday homes in Palm Springs and Beverly Hills as well as three of his Mercedes cars.[14] Roberts resigned from the presidency of ORU on November 23, 2007, after being named as a defendant in a lawsuit alleging improper use of university funds for political and personal purposes, and improper use of university resources.[58][59] university was given a donation of $8 million by Hobby Lobby heir Mart Green, and although the lawsuit was still in process,[60] the school submitted to an outside audit, and with a good report an additional $62 million was given by Green.[61][62] Roberts continued in his role as ORU chancellor, helping in the leadership of ORU along with Billy Joe Daugherty, who was named as the executive regent to assume administrative responsibilities of the Office of the President by the ORU Board of Regents.[63] Roberts continued as the ORU chancellor until his death,[15] but in 2009, eleven months before his death, handed over the leadership of ORU to its incoming president, Mark Rutland.[64] Oklahoma Senate adopted a resolution honoring the life of Oral Roberts, and he accepted this honor in 2009 at the age of 91, seven months before his death.[65] Oklahoma Association of Broadcasters (OAB) elected Roberts to the OAB Hall of Fame one month before his death.[28][66] life[edit] was married to Evelyn Lutman Fahnestock (1917–2005) for 66 years from December 25, 1938, until her death from a fall, at the age of 88, on May 4, 2005.[67][68] Their daughter Rebecca Nash died with her husband, businessman Marshall Nash, in an airplane crash on February 11, 1977.[69][70] Their elder son, Ronald Roberts, died by suicide on June 10, 1982, five months after receiving a court order to undergo counseling at a drug treatment center and six months after coming out as gay.[71][72][73] The other two Roberts children are son Richard, an evangelist and former president of Oral Roberts University, and daughter Roberta Potts, an attorney. died of complications from pneumonia on December 15, 2009,[74][75] at the age of 91. He had been "semi-retired" and living in Newport Beach, California.[76] He was interred next to his wife at the Memorial Park Cemetery in Tulsa, Oklahoma (the same cemetery where T. L. Osborn would be interred nearly four years later).[77] to a 1987 article in The New York Review of Books by Martin Gardner, the "most accurate and best documented biography" is Oral Roberts: An American Life, an objective study by David Edwin Harrell Jr., a historian at Auburn University.

US, 1939-2010, G.A. Mangum, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Alexandria, Lousiana, large church, music, easter production
US, 1939-2010, G.A. Mangum, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Alexandria, Lousiana (near Red River Mouth), large church, music, easter production; Alexandria, Lousiana ; Gerald Archie (G.A.) Mangun, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2010, Commemorated June 17 ; Archie Mangun (March 11, 1919 – June 17, 2010), usually known as G. A. Mangun, built one of the largest churches of the United Pentecostal Church International denomination in the city of Alexandria, Louisiana.[1] life[edit] was born in La Paz in Marshall County in northern Indiana, to Walter Mangun and the former Bertha Birk. He was one of seven children: Woodrow Riddle, Mildred (Mangun) Shock, Gladys (Mangun) Starkweather, Grace (Mangun) Coleman, Dr. Ruth (Mangun) Holland, and Martha (Mangun) Spencer. After graduating in 1938 from Lincoln High School in Plymouth, Indiana, Mangun attended Apostolic Bible Institute in St. Paul, Minnesota. He was ordained a minister in 1942.[2] ministry[edit] leaving Bible college, Mangun traveled to the American South, where he held a Christian revival in Lou-Ann, Arkansas. Occasions to minister began to open in Indiana and Ohio, then in Louisiana and Texas. He preached at many revivals in small towns in Louisiana such as Starks, Clarks, Eros, and Hodge. He next traveled to Diboll, Texas, where he met Vesta Layne Gibson, a preacher's daughter, whom he married on September 10, 1943.[3] they traveled from state to state for seven years, in places such as St. Louis, Missouri; West Monroe, Provençal, and Camp Eight, Louisiana; Zavalla and Lufkin, Texas; DeQuincy, Louisiana, and back to his home state of Indiana in Gary, Plymouth, and Mishawaka; and on to Sunbury, Pennsylvania, where he received a call from a Reverend Pardue to hold a revival in his church in Alexandria, Louisiana.[3] Manguns' only child, Anthony, was born in January 1950.[citation needed] the Legacy[edit] June 1950, Mangun was elected pastor of the First United Pentecostal Church in Alexandria, since renamed The Pentecostals of Alexandria. At that time the small church was located at 16th and Day Streets, and was home to a congregation of only thirty-eight adult members.[4] Today, the church is situated on Rapides Avenue, and includes a Family Life Center, the G. A. Mangun Center – an auditorium and education building - and the main sanctuary, which seats approximately 2,200. 1951 to 2007, Mangun served as the presbyter over the United Pentecostal churches in the Louisiana District's Section 7, comprising approximately thirty-five churches in the Central Louisiana area. He also served as a member of the District Board of the Louisiana District United Pentecostal Church. He was the longest tenured District Board member in any district in United Pentecostal Church history. Following his retirement he was named as an honorary member of that board.[5] It was about this time that the title of bishop was bestowed upon him, as his son, Anthony, became senior pastor of the Alexandria congregation. served the United Pentecostal Church International as a member of its Foreign Missions Board beginning in 1982. He also served a single term as an Executive Presbyter of the UPCI General Board during 1986–87.[5] September 2004, he was inducted into the United Pentecostal Church International's "Order of the Faith," – a prestigious award honoring him "for outstanding achievement and exemplary service."[5] Mangun's almost 60-year tenure as pastor of The Pentecostals of Alexandria, his congregation became known for its music and the Easter production, Messiah.[6] President Bill Clinton and his wife, Hillary Clinton attended once while he was governor of Arkansas, and Clinton himself made a return visit during his presidency.[7] Peter Jennings attended the production while researching the ABC special Peter Jennings Reporting: The Search for Jesus.[8] service[edit] was formerly a chaplain for the Louisiana State Police (Troop E), the Rapides Parish Sheriff’s Department, and the Civil Air Patrol. He was a member of the Rapides Parish Airport Authority and the Alexandria Port Authority. He also served as a member of the St. Francis Cabrini Hospital’s Advisory Board.[5] He officiated at the first burial in Alexandria Memorial Gardens. Bishop Mangun’s 70th birthday, then Mayor Ned Randolph of Alexandria declared March 11, 1989 "G. A. Mangun Day." In 2002, the Louisiana National Guard presented Mangun with a Civilian Service Medal for his service to his community and nation.[5] June 23, 2010, U.S. Senator David Vitter entered into the Congressional Record a remembrance of G. A. Mangun for his community service.[9]

US and Great Britain, 1941, March 12, 1941: Joseph's Seal Date
US and Great Britain, 1941, March 12, 1941: Joseph's Seal Date ; US Policy, 1941-1945, Lend-Lease Policy; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1941-1945, US Policy, Lend-Lease Policy
US Policy, 1941-1945, Lend-Lease Policy; March 12, 1941: Joseph's Seal Date; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17;

US, 1943, DORCHESTER CHAPLAINS, England (Dorset Stour River 4), gave lives to save other soldiers
Dorchester (Dorset Stour River 4); DORCHESTER CHAPLAINS: Lieutenant George Fox, Lieutenant Alexander D. Goode, Lieutenant Clark V. Poling, Lieutenant John P. Washington, 1943, Commemorated February 3; Four Chaplains were four United States Army chaplains who gave their lives to save other soldiers during the sinking of the USAT Dorchester during World War II. They helped other soldiers board lifeboats and gave up their own life jackets when the supply ran out; 230 of the 904 men aboard the ship were rescued. Life jackets offered little protection from hypothermia which killed most men in the water. Water temperature was 34 °F (1 °C) and air temperature was 36 °F (2 °C). By the time additional rescue ships arrived "...hundreds of dead bodies were seen floating on the water, kept up by their life jackets." chaplains, who all held the rank of lieutenant, were the Methodist Reverend George L. Fox, the Jewish Rabbi Alexander D. Goode, the Roman Catholic Priest John P. Washington and the Reformed Church in America Reverend Clark V. Poling. were sailing on the USAT Dorchester troop transport on February 3, 1943, when the vessel, travelling in convoy, was torpedoed by the German submarine U-223 in the North Atlantic. As the vessel sank, the four chaplains calmed the frightened soldiers and sailors, aided in the evacuation of the ship, and helped guide wounded men to safety. The chaplains also gave up their own life jackets. I swam away from the ship, I looked back. The flares had lighted everything. The bow came up high and she slid under. The last thing I saw, the Four Chaplains were up there praying for the safety of the men. They had done everything they could. I did not see them again. They themselves did not have a chance without their life jackets.—Grady Clark, survivor December 19, 1944, all four chaplains were posthumously awarded the Purple Heart and the Distinguished Service Cross. The Four Chaplains' Medal was established by act of Congress on July 14, 1960, and was presented posthumously to their next of kin by Secretary of the Army Wilber M. Brucker at Ft. Myer, Virginia on January 18, 1961. chaplains were also honored with a stamp, issued in 1948 and by an act of Congress designating February 3 as "Four Chaplains Day." Poling and Washington had served as leaders in the Boy Scouts of America. — from Wikipedia Fox, Goode, Poling, and Washington responded to a high calling from God to represent his love among men of war. On the day they died, they personified the words of Jesus found in John 15:13"Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends." — from Holy Women, Holy Men

US, 1943, DORCHESTER CHAPLINS, Fox, Goode, Poling and Washington, USAT Dorchester sunk by German Sub U-223, North Sea
US, 1943, DORCHESTER CHAPLINS, Fox, Goode, Poling and Washington, USAT Dorchester sunk by German Sub U-223, North Sea, Dorchester England English Channel (Dorset Stour River 4), 4 US Army Chaplains, gave up their lives to save others, helped them board lifeboats, gave up own lifejackets, 230 of 904 saved, hypothermia killed most; Dorchester (Dorset Stour River 4); DORCHESTER CHAPLAINS: Lieutenant George Fox, Lieutenant Alexander D. Goode, Lieutenant Clark V. Poling, Lieutenant John P. Washington, 1943, Commemorated February 3; Four Chaplains were four United States Army chaplains who gave their lives to save other soldiers during the sinking of the USAT Dorchester during World War II. helped other soldiers board lifeboats and gave up their own life jackets when the supply ran out; of the 904 men aboard the ship were rescued. Life jackets offered little protection from hypothermia which killed most men in the water. temperature was 34 °F (1 °C) air temperature was 36 °F (2 °C). the time additional rescue ships arrived "...hundreds of dead bodies were seen floating on the water, kept up by their life jackets." chaplains, who all held the rank of lieutenant, were Methodist Reverend George L. Fox, Jewish Rabbi Alexander D. Goode, Roman Catholic Priest John P. Washington the Reformed Church in America Reverend Clark V. Poling. were sailing on the USAT Dorchester troop transport on February 3, 1943, the vessel, travelling in convoy, was torpedoed by the German submarine U-223 in the North Atlantic. the vessel sank, the four chaplains calmed the frightened soldiers and sailors, aided in the evacuation of the ship, and helped guide wounded men to safety. chaplains also gave up their own life jackets. I swam away from the ship, I looked back. The flares had lighted everything. The bow came up high and she slid under. The last thing I saw, the Four Chaplains were up there praying for the safety of the men. They had done everything they could. I did not see them again. They themselves did not have a chance without their life jackets.—Grady Clark, survivor December 19, 1944, all four chaplains were posthumously awarded the Purple Heart and the Distinguished Service Cross. Four Chaplains' Medal was established by act of Congress on July 14, 1960, and was presented posthumously to their next of kin by Secretary of the Army Wilber M. Brucker at Ft. Myer, Virginia on January 18, 1961. chaplains were also honored with a stamp, issued in 1948 and by an act of Congress designating February 3 as "Four Chaplains Day." Poling and Washington had served as leaders in the Boy Scouts of America. — from Wikipedia Fox, Goode, Poling, and Washington responded to a high calling from God to represent his love among men of war. the day they died, they personified the words of Jesus found in John 15:13"Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends." — from Holy Women, Holy Men

US, 1945-1953, President Harry S. Truman, Lib Dem, WWII End, Marshall Plan, Truman Doctrine, NATO, Atomic Bomb
US President, 1945-1953, Harry S. Truman; S. Truman[b] (May 8, 1884 – December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953, succeeding upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt after serving as the 34th vice president in early 1945. implemented the Marshall Plan to rebuild the economy of Western Europe and established the Truman Doctrine and NATO to contain communist expansion. He proposed numerous liberal domestic reforms, but few were enacted by the Conservative Coalition that dominated Congress. grew up in Independence, Missouri, and during World War I fought in France as a captain in the Field Artillery. Returning home, he opened a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and was later elected as a Jackson County official in 1922. was elected to the United States Senate from Missouri in 1934 and gained national prominence as chairman of the Truman Committee, which was aimed at reducing waste and inefficiency in wartime contracts. Soon after succeeding to the presidency, he authorized the first and only use of nuclear weapons in war. administration engaged in an internationalist foreign policy and renounced isolationism. He rallied his New Deal coalition during the 1948 presidential election and won a surprise victory that secured his own presidential term. the onset of the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift and Marshall Plan in 1948. When North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he gained United Nations approval to intervene in the Korean War. He did not ask for Congressional approval, and as the war stalemated his popularity fell. His administration successfully guided the U.S. economy through the postwar economic challenges; the expected postwar depression never happened. In 1948, he submitted the first comprehensive civil rights legislation. It did not pass, so he instead issued Executive Orders 9980 and 9981 to begin racial equality in federal agencies and the military. in the Truman administration became a central campaign issue in the 1952 presidential election. He was eligible for reelection in 1952, but with weak polls he decided not to run. Dwight D. Eisenhower attacked Truman's record and won easily. Truman went into a retirement marked by the founding of his presidential library and the publication of his memoirs. was long thought that his retirement years were financially difficult for Truman, resulting in Congress voting a pension for former presidents, but ample evidence eventually emerged that he amassed considerable wealth after leaving office. When he left office, Truman's presidency was heavily criticized, though critical reassessment of his tenure has been favorable. ADELAIDE TEAGUE CASE, TEACHER, 1948, Commemorated July 19; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; THOMAS MERTON, MONK, POET, SPIRITUAL WRITER, 1968, Commemorated December 10; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961, Commemorated December 19; HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969); SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader (4 April 1968); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1949-1968, MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader, Atlanta, GA (Flint River Source, Eastern Divide 8 )
US, 1949-1968, MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader, Atlanta, GA (Flint River Source, Eastern Divide 8 ); Atlanta, GA; MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader (4 April 1968); Luther King Jr. (born Michael King Jr.; January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesman and leader in the civil rights movement from 1955 until his assassination in 1968. African American church leader and the son of early civil rights activist and minister Martin Luther King Sr., King advanced civil rights for people of color in the United States through nonviolence and civil disobedience, inspired by his Christian beliefs and the nonviolent activism of Mahatma Gandhi. role in leading the cause of civil rights in the South differed in style from the previous accommodationist stances represented by Booker T. Washington and black-and-tan faction leader Perry Wilbon Howard II. participated in and led marches for the right to vote, desegregation, labor rights, and other civil rights.[1] oversaw the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and later became the first president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). As president of the SCLC, he led the unsuccessful Albany Movement in Albany, Georgia, and helped organize some of the nonviolent 1963 protests in Birmingham, Alabama. was one of the leaders of the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. The civil rights movement achieved pivotal legislative gains in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. SCLC put into practice the tactics of nonviolent protest with some success by strategically choosing the methods and places in which protests were carried out. There were several dramatic stand-offs with segregationist authorities, who sometimes turned violent.[2] times King would be jailed. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Director J. Edgar Hoover considered King a radical and made him an object of the FBI's COINTELPRO from 1963, forward. FBI agents investigated him for possible communist ties, spied on his personal life, and secretly recorded him, and in 1964, mailed King a threatening anonymous letter, which he interpreted as an attempt to make him commit suicide.[3] October 14, 1964, King won the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance. 1965, he helped organize two of the three Selma to Montgomery marches. his final years, he expanded his focus to include opposition towards poverty, capitalism, and the Vietnam War. 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D.C., to be called the Poor People's Campaign, when he was assassinated on April 4 in Memphis, Tennessee. death was followed by national mourning, as well as anger leading to riots in many U.S. cities. King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977 and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2003. Luther King Jr. Day was established as a holiday in cities and states throughout the United States beginning in 1971; the holiday was enacted at the federal level by legislation signed by President Ronald Reagan in 1986. Hundreds of streets in the U.S. have been renamed in his honor, and the most populous county in Washington State was rededicated for him. The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., was dedicated in 2011.

US, 1953-1961, President Dwight D. Eisenhower, NATO, anti communist, interstate HWY system, integration
US President, 1933-1961, Dwight D. Eisenhower; David "Ike" Eisenhower GCB, OM, RE, GCS, CCLH, KC, NPk (October 14, 1890 - March 28, 1969) was an American military officer and statesman who served as the 34th president of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe, and achieved the rare five-star rank of General of the Army. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–1943 and the successful invasion of Normandy in 1944–1945 from the Western Front. born David Dwight Eisenhower, was raised in Abilene, Kansas, in a large family of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry. His family had a strong religious background. His mother became a Jehovah's Witness. Eisenhower, however, did not belong to any organized church until 1952. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, with whom he had two sons. During World War I, he was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained tank crews. Following the war, he served under various generals and was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in 1941. After the United States entered World War II, Eisenhower oversaw the invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany. After the war, he served as Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), as president of Columbia University (1948–1953) and as the first Supreme Commander of NATO (1951–1952). 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft; Taft opposed NATO and wanted no foreign entanglements. Eisenhower won that election and the 1956 election in landslides, both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II. Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain the spread of communism and reduce federal deficits. In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end the Korean War, and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and an armistice resulted which remains in effect. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized inexpensive nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued Harry S. Truman's policy of recognizing Taiwan as the legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the Formosa Resolution. His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War. After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the Space Race. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, he failed to set up a summit meeting with the Soviets when a U.S. spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. He approved the Bay of Pigs invasion, which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out. the domestic front, Eisenhower was a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege. He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. His largest program was the Interstate Highway System. He promoted the establishment of strong science education via the National Defense Education Act. His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958. In his farewell address to the nation, he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending, particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the military–industrial complex". Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among the upper tier of American presidents. W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; THOMAS MERTON, MONK, POET, SPIRITUAL WRITER, 1968, Commemorated December 10; LILLIAN TRASHER, MISSIONARY IN EGYPT, 1961, Commemorated December 19; HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969); SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader (4 April 1968); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1954-2013, Paul Crouch, PS, Worlds Largest Religious Televison Net, TBN larger t CBS NBC FOX, K's worldwide 75 countries
US, 1954-2013, Paul Crouch, PENTECOSAL SAINT, Springfield, MO, Worlds Largest Religious Televison Network, missionary son, prophet of sending Gospel worldwide, theologian, TBN larger than CBS NBC FOX, Thousands stations worldwide in 75 countries, 5 films, affiliated networks ; Central Bible Institute and Seminary ; Paul Crouch, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2013, Commemorated November 30 ; Franklin Crouch /kraʊtʃ/ (March 30, 1934 – November 30, 2013) was an American television evangelist. and his wife, Jan, founded the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN) in 1973; the company has been described as "the world’s largest religious television network."[1] was born in St. Joseph, Missouri, the third son of oft-traveling Assemblies of God missionaries, Andrew F. Crouch (January 7, 1889 – June 1, 1941) and wife, the former Sara Swingle (September 26, 1891 – September 29, 1976). had two older brothers, the Rev. Philip Crouch (1918–2005), and John Mark Crouch (1923–1991). whose father died when he was seven years old, was mainly raised by his mother with the help of his grandparents. soon became interested in amateur radio and announced he would use such technology to send the Gospel around the world. graduated from the Central Bible College (Assemblies of God) in Springfield, Missouri in 1955 with a degree in theology.[2] also received three honorary doctorates: a Doctor of Litterarum (D.Litt.) on May 29, 1981, from the California Graduate School of Theology, Glendale, California; a Doctor of Divinity on May 29, 1983, from the American Christian Theological Seminary, Anaheim, California; and a Doctor of Laws degree on May 5, 1985, from Oral Roberts University, Tulsa, Oklahoma. and Janice Bethany met in 1957 and were married in Missouri. They have two sons, Paul Crouch, Jr. and Matthew Crouch. broadcasting career[edit] began his career in broadcasting by helping to build an educational AM station (KCBI) on campus while a student at Central Bible Institute and Seminary. 1957 he became a radio announcer at KRSD in Rapid City, South Dakota, and progressed rapidly to program director. thereafter he was promoted to manager of sister station KRSD-TV, the NBC affiliate in Rapid City. 1961, he was appointed by the general council of the Assemblies of God to organize and operate their newly formed Department of Television and Film Production in Burbank, California, a position he held for four years. was responsible for the ongoing production of films focusing largely on foreign missions and foreign missionary works, as well as the Assemblies of God's large inventory of audiovisual materials and children's teaching aids. 1965 to 1970 Crouch was general manager of KREL radio in Corona, California. 1966, he purchased a minority stock interest in KREL. During his time at KREL, he successfully completed the station's application for an increase in power to 5,000 watts. leaving KREL in 1970, Crouch was invited to serve as general manager for KHOF-FM and KHOF-TV in San Bernardino, California. Broadcasting Network (TBN) history[edit] Main article: Trinity Broadcasting Network left KHOF in 1973 and with his wife, Jan, founded the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN) along with Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker (the Bakkers left in 1975). 1974, TBN purchased its first TV station, KLXA-TV (now KTBN-TV). Since then, TBN has grown to become the United States' largest Christian television network,[3][4] the third largest group owner of broadcast TV stations in the U.S., CBS, FOX, and NBC holding fourth, fifth and sixth place, according to TV News Check's annual listing of the Top 30 Station Groups.[5] indicated that Paul F. Crouch had compensation of $402,244 in the Fiscal Year ending on 12/31/08.[6] is viewed globally on 70 satellites and over 18,000 TV and cable affiliates. is also seen on the web globally.[7] is carried on over 287 television stations in the U.S. and on thousands of other cable television and satellite systems around the world in over 75 countries, where their programming is translated into over eleven languages. was also executive producer for such Christian films as China Cry (1990), The Omega Code (1999), Carman: The Champion (2001), Megiddo: The Omega Code 2 (2001), and Time Changer (2002). the U.S., TBN's coverage grew through agreements with national cable operators. TBN is viewed via major cable and satellite companies such as Comcast, Cox, Time Warner, Verizon FIOS, DirecTV, AT&T, Dish Network, and Charter.[8] addition to TBN, Crouch and his wife developed and oversaw operations for TBN's affiliated television networks: Smile of a Child – children's channel,[9][better source needed] JCTV – youth network,[10] The Church Channel,[11] TBN Enlace USA – Spanish language network,[12][13][failed verification] TBNE-Italian, The Healing Channel – Arabic language network, TBN-Russia, TBN Nejat TV – Persian-language channel, and TBN-HD, TBN's new high definition network. died at his home in Orange, California, on November 30, 2013, after 10 years with degenerative heart disease.[14][15]

US, 1961-1963, President John F. Kennedy
US President, 1961-1963, John F. Kennedy; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; JONATHAN MYRICK DANIELS, SEMINARIAN (14 AUGUST 1965); Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; THOMAS MERTON, MONK, POET, SPIRITUAL WRITER, 1968, Commemorated December 10; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader (4 April 1968); FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1963-1969, President Lyndon B. Johnson
US President, 1963-1969, Lyndon B. Johnson; JONATHAN MYRICK DANIELS, SEMINARIAN (14 AUGUST 1965); Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; THOMAS MERTON, MONK, POET, SPIRITUAL WRITER, 1968, Commemorated December 10; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader (4 April 1968); THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1967, Holy Great Martyr Xenίa of Kalamata, Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church in New York City, Forgotten Martyr 1700yrs
Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church in New York City, 302 West 91st Street, New York, NY 10024; Greece, 1967, Holy Great Martyr Xenίa of Kalamata, Messenia, Peloponnese (Pamisos River Mouth, Gulf of Messini), forgotten martyr 1700yrs, 318-1967, asked Fr George Nsis, NYC to paint her Icon holding a cross, research found young woman blond blue eyes, since then many miracles, Kalamata church built 1993; Kalamata, Messenia, Peloponnese; Holy Great Martyr Xenίa of Kalamata, Commemorated on May 3; Holy Great Martyr Xenίa was born in Kalamata in 291 to devout and God-loving parents, Nicholas and Despina, were from the eastern part of Italy. Because of the persecution of Christians at that time, they fled to Kalamata in the Peloponnesos, where they had a farm outside the city, because her father was a farmer. a young age Saint Xenίa adorned her soul with fasting, temperance, silence, unceasing prayer, tears, vigils, and charity. Dometian, the eparch of that region, happened to meet the Saint, he was dazzled by her beauty and wanted to make her his wife. Xenίa absolutely refused to change her faith, or to become the wife of an idolater. Dometian had her arrested. The Saint was tortured mercilessly and then beheaded in 318. Thus, she entered into the joy of her Lord and received an unfading crown of glory from Christ God. George Nasis, the rector of Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church in New York City from 1942-1967 praying one day when a beautiful woman appeared to him. She said her name was Xenίa, martyr who had been forgotten for almost 1700 years. She asked him to paint an icon, depicting her holding a cross. first Father George did not mention this to anyone, thinking that perhaps people would mock him. Then he decided to inform the Archbishop. Researchers tried to find references to Saint Xenίa of Kalamata, but they were not successful. they found her name in a list of Saints, where she is described as a young woman with blonde hair and blue eyes. God's grace, the Saint has worked many miracles after her death. 1993, a new parish church of the Holy Trinity was built in the western part of Kalamata, which has a chapel dedicated to Saint Xenia.

US, 1969-1974, President Richard Nixon
US President, 1969-1974, Richard Nixon; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1974-1976, President Gerald Ford
US President, 1974-1976, Gerald Ford; FIRST ORDINATION OF WOMEN TO THE PRIESTHOOD IN THE EPISCOPAL CHURCH, (29 JULY 1974) ; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1976-1981, President Jimmy Carter
US President, 1976-1981, Jimmy Carter; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1981-1989, President Ronald Reagan
US President, 1981-1989, Ronald Reagan; Valaam Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on August 7 ; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1989-1993, President George H. W. Bush
US President, 1989-1993, George H. W. Bush; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17;

US, 1993-2001, President Bill Clinton
US President, 1993-2001, Bill Clinton; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17;

US, 1600, 17th Century Folder, Anne Hutchinson, woman minister, Elie Neau, taught Blacks&Indians

US, 1673, Mississippi River Folder, 1673

US, 1700, 18th Century Folder, Great Awakening, Declaration of I, Constitution, Presidents Washington and Adams

US, 1740, Great Awakening of 1740, First Great Awakening
Great Awakening of 1740, First Great Awakening; George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15 ;

US, 1775, Wilderness Road Folder (Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, to Ohio)
Wilderness Road

Wilderness Road - Gaps of the Allegheny Folder - 3 of only 5 ways west

US, 1797-1801, President, John Adams, statesman, diplomat, writer, Founding Father, dec of Indep, 1780 MA const, Thoughts on govt
US President, 1797-1801, John Adams; Adams Jr. (October 30, 1735[a] - July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. his presidency, he was a leader of the American Revolution that achieved independence from Great Britain, and he served as the first vice president of the United States. was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with many important figures in early American history, including his wife and adviser Abigail Adams and Thomas Jefferson. lawyer and political activist prior to the revolution, Adams was devoted to the right to counsel and presumption of innocence. He defied anti-British sentiment and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from the Boston Massacre. was a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776. As a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain and secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780, which influenced the United States constitution, as did his essay Thoughts on Government. was elected to two terms as vice president under President George Washington and was elected as the United States' second president in 1796. He was the only president elected under the banner of the Federalist Party. During his single term, Adams encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans and from some in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts and built up the Army and Navy in the undeclared Quasi-War with France. his term, he became the first president to reside in the executive mansion now known as the White House. his bid for reelection, opposition from Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his former friend Thomas Jefferson, and he retired to Massachusetts. eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by initiating a correspondence that lasted fourteen years. and his wife generated a family of politicians, diplomats, and historians now referred to as the Adams political family, which includes their son John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence – hours after Jefferson's death. Adams and his son are the only presidents of the first twelve that did not own slaves in their lives. Surveys of historians and scholars have favorably ranked his administration. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26;

US, 1800, 19th Century Folder, War of 1812, Civil War, Spanish American War

US, 1804-1806, Lewis and Clark Expedition Folder
Lewis and Clark Expedition;

US, 1817-1879, Innocent of Alaska, 45 yrs, 10,000 baptized, geography, alpahbet, Japan, Metropolitan of Moscow
Moscow, 1817-1879, Innocent of Alaska, Metropolitan of Moscow; Repose of St Jacob Netsvetov the Enlightener of the Peoples of Alaska, Commemorated on July 26; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated on August 7; Valaam Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on August 7; Glorification of St Innocent the Metropolitan of Moscow and Enlightener of the Aleuts, Apostle to the Americas, Commemorated on October 6; Innocent, Metropolitan of Moscow, Enlightener of the Aleuts and Apostle to America (in the world John Popov-Veniaminov), was born on August 26, 1797 in the village of Anginsk in the Irkutsk diocese, into the family of a sacristan. boy mastered his studies at an early age and by age seven, he was reading the Epistle in church. In 1806 they sent him to the Irkutsk seminary. In 1814, the new rector thought it proper to change the surnames of some of the students. John Popov received the surname Veniaminov in honor of the deceased Archbishop Benjamin of Irkutsk (+ July 8, 1814). May 13, 1817 he was ordained deacon for the Irkutsk Annunciation church, and on May 18, 1821, he was ordained priest. missionary service of the future Apostle of America and Siberia began with the year 1823. John spent 45 years laboring for the enlightenment of the peoples of Kamchatka, the Aleutian Islands, North America, Yakutsk, the Khabarov frontier, performing his apostolic exploit in severe conditions and at great risks to life. Innocent baptized ten thousand people, and built churches, beside which he founded schools and he himself taught the fundamentals of the Christian life. His knowledge of various crafts and arts aided him in his work. John was a remarkable preacher. During the celebration of the Liturgy, memorial services and the all-night Vigil, he incessantly guided his flock. During his time of endless travels, Father John studied the languages, customs and habits of the peoples, among whom he preached. work in geography, ethnography and linguistics received worldwide acclaim. composed an alphabet and grammar for the Aleut language and translated the Catechism, the Gospel and many prayers into that language. of the finest of his works was the Indication of the Way into the Kingdom of Heaven (1833), translated into the various languages of the peoples of Siberia and appearing in more than 40 editions. to the toil of Father John, the Yakut people in 1859 first heard the Word of God and divine services in their own native language. November 29, 1840, after the death of his wife, Father John was tonsured a monk with the name Innocent by Saint Philaret, the Metropolitan of Moscow, in honor of Saint Innocent of Irkutsk. December 15, Archimandrite Innocent was consecrated Bishop of Kamchatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands. On April 21, 1850 Bishop Innocent was elevated to the rank of archbishop. the Providence of God on January 5, 1868, Saint Innocent succeeded Metropolitan Philaret on the Moscow cathedra. Through the Holy Synod, Metropolitan Innocent consolidated the secular missionary efforts of the Russian Church (already in 1839 he had proposed a project for improving the organization of missionary service). the care of Metropolitan Innocent a Missionary Society was created, and the Protection monastery was reorganized for missionary work. 1870 the Japanese Orthodox Spiritual Mission headed by Archimandrite Nicholas Kasatkin [afterwards Saint Nicholas of Japan, (February 3)] was set up, with whom Saint Innocent had shared much of his own spiritual experience. guidance by Saint Innocent of the Moscow diocese was also fruitful, by his efforts, the church of the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos was built up into the Moscow Spiritual Academy. Innocent fell asleep in the Lord on March 31, 1879, on Holy Saturday, and was buried at the Holy Spirit Church of the Trinity-Saint Sergius Lavra. October 6, 1977, Saint Innocent was glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church. His memory is celebrated three times during the year: on March 31, the day of his blessed repose, on October 5 (Synaxis of the Moscow Hierarchs), and on October 6, the day of his glorification. Glorification of St Innocent the Metropolitan of Moscow and Enlightener of the Aleuts, Apostle to the Americas, Commemorated on October 6; Glorification of St Tikhon, the Apostle to America, Commemorated on October 9; Repose of St Philaret (Drozdov) the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on November 19; Repose of St Innocent the Metropolitan of Moscow the Enlightener of the Aleuts and Apostle to the Americas, Commemorated on March 31; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29;

US, 1821-1825, Erie Canal Folder
Erie Canal; Onondaga Formation (Escarpment);

US, 1821-1822, Santa Fe Trail Folder
Santa Fe Trail Folder, 1821-1822;

US, 1821-1822, Rio Grande River Folder
Rio Grande River, 1821-1822; Santa Fe Trail Folder, 1821-1822;

US, 1826, Pennsylvania Main Line Canal Folder, started 1826, completed 1834
Pennsylvania Main Line Canal ;

US, 1830, Old Spanish Trai, NM-CAl (same as auto trail - Jacksonville Beach, Florida to San Diego, California
Old Spanish Trail, 1830;

US, 1838-1895, Frederick Douglass, escaped slave and leader in abolition movement
Maryland, 1838-1895, Frederick Douglass, escaped slave and leader in abolition movement; Douglass (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, c. February 1817[a] - February 20, 1895) was an American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. escaping from slavery in Maryland, he became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York, becoming famous for his oratory[5] and incisive antislavery writings. Accordingly, he was described by abolitionists in his time as a living counterexample to slaveholders' arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens.[6][7] Likewise, Northerners at the time found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave.[8] wrote three autobiographies, describing his experiences as a slave in his Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845), which became a bestseller and was influential in promoting the cause of abolition, as was his second book, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855). Following the Civil War, Douglass was active campaigner for the rights of freed slaves and wrote his last autobiography, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass. First published in 1881 and revised in 1892, three years before his death, the book covers events both during and after the Civil War. Douglass also actively supported women's suffrage, and held several public offices. Without his permission, Douglass became the first African-American nominated for Vice President of the United States as the running mate and Vice Presidential nominee of Victoria Woodhull, on the Equal Rights Party ticket.[9] believed in dialogue and in making alliances across racial and ideological divides, as well as in the liberal values of the U.S. Constitution.[10] When radical abolitionists, under the motto "No Union with Slaveholders", criticized Douglass's willingness to engage in dialogue with slave owners, he replied: "I would unite with anybody to do right and with nobody to do wrong."[11] as a slave Augustus Washington Bailey was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Talbot County, Maryland. The plantation was between Hillsboro and Cordova;[12] his birthplace was likely his grandmother's cabin[b] east of Tappers Corner, (38.8845°N 75.958°W) and west of Tuckahoe Creek.[13][14][15] In his first autobiography, Douglass stated: "I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it."[16] However, based on the extant records of Douglass's former owner, Aaron Anthony, historian Dickson J. Preston determined that Douglass was born in February 1818.[3] Though the exact date of his birth is unknown, he chose to celebrate February 14 as his birthday, remembering that his mother called him her "Little Valentine."[17][18] family was of mixed race, which likely included Native American[19] and African on his mother's side, as well as European.[20] In contrast, his father was "almost certainly white", according to historian David W. Blight in his 2018 biography of Douglass.[21] Douglass said his mother Harriet Bailey gave him his name Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey and, after he escaped to the North in September 1838, he took the surname Douglass, having already dropped his two middle names.[22] later wrote of his earliest times with his mother:[23] The opinion was…whispered that my master was my father; but of the correctness of this opinion I know nothing. … My mother and I were separated when I was but an infant. … It is a common custom, in the part of Maryland from which I ran away, to part children from their mothers at a very early age. … I do not recollect of ever seeing my mother by the light of day. She was with me in the night. She would lie down with me, and get me to sleep, but long before I waked she was gone. separation from his mother during infancy, young Frederick lived with his maternal grandmother Betsy Bailey, who was also a slave, and his maternal grandfather Isaac, who was free.[24] Betsy would live until 1849.[25] mother remained on the plantation about 12 miles (19 km) away, only visiting Frederick a few times before her death when he was 7 years old. learning and experience Auld family of a series on Slavery the age of 6, Frederick was separated from his grandparents and moved to the Wye House plantation, where Aaron Anthony worked as overseer.[15] After Anthony died in 1826, Douglass was given to Lucretia Auld, wife of Thomas Auld, who sent him to serve Thomas' brother Hugh Auld in Baltimore. Douglass felt that he was lucky to be in the city, where he said slaves were almost freemen, compared to those on plantations. Douglass was about 12, Hugh Auld's wife Sophia began teaching him the alphabet. From the day he arrived, she saw to it that Douglass was properly fed and clothed, and that he slept in a bed with sheets and a blanket.[26] Douglass described her as a kind and tender-hearted woman, who treated him "as she supposed one human being ought to treat another."[27] Auld disapproved of the tutoring, feeling that literacy would encourage slaves to desire freedom. Douglass later referred to this as the "first decidedly antislavery lecture" he had ever heard. "'Very well, thought I,'" wrote Douglass. "'Knowledge unfits a child to be a slave.' I instinctively assented to the proposition, and from that moment I understood the direct pathway from slavery to freedom."[28] her husband's influence, Sophia came to believe that education and slavery were incompatible and one day snatched a newspaper away from Douglass.[29] She stopped teaching him altogether and hid all potential reading materials, including her Bible, from him.[26] In his autobiography, Douglass related how he learned to read from white children in the neighborhood, and by observing the writings of the men he worked with.[30] continued, secretly, to teach himself to read and write. He later often said, "knowledge is the pathway from slavery to freedom."[31] As Douglass began to read newspapers, pamphlets, political materials, and books of every description, this new realm of thought led him to question and condemn the institution of slavery. later years, Douglass credited The Columbian Orator, an anthology that he discovered at about age 12, with clarifying and defining his views on freedom and human rights. First published in 1797, the book is a classroom reader, containing essays, speeches, and dialogues, to assist students in learning reading and grammar. He later learned that his mother had also been literate, about which he would later declare: I am quite willing, and even happy, to attribute any love of letters I possess, and for which I have got—despite of prejudices—only too much credit, not to my admitted Anglo-Saxon paternity, but to the native genius of my sable, unprotected, and uncultivated mother—a woman, who belonged to a race whose mental endowments it is, at present, fashionable to hold in disparagement and contempt.[32] Freeland Douglass was hired out to William Freeland, he taught other slaves on the plantation to read the New Testament at a weekly Sunday school. As word spread, the interest among slaves in learning to read was so great that in any week, more than 40 slaves would attend lessons. For about six months, their study went relatively unnoticed. While Freeland remained complacent about their activities, other plantation owners became incensed about their slaves being educated. One Sunday they burst in on the gathering, armed with clubs and stones, to disperse the congregation permanently. Edward Covey In 1833, Thomas Auld took Douglass back from Hugh ("[a]s a means of punishing Hugh," Douglass later wrote). Thomas sent Douglass to work for Edward Covey, a poor farmer who had a reputation as a "slave-breaker". He whipped Douglass so frequently that his wounds had little time to heal. Douglass later said the frequent whippings broke his body, soul, and spirit.[33] The 16-year-old Douglass finally rebelled against the beatings, however, and fought back. After Douglass won a physical confrontation, Covey never tried to beat him again.[34][35] Recounting his beatings at Covey's farm in Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Douglass described himself as "a man transformed into a brute!"[36] Still, Douglass came to see his physical fight with Covey as life-transforming, and introduced the story in his autobiography as such: "You have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man."[37] From slavery to freedom Douglass first tried to escape from Freeland, who had hired him from his owner, but was unsuccessful. In 1837, Douglass met and fell in love with Anna Murray, a free black woman in Baltimore about five years his senior. Her free status strengthened his belief in the possibility of gaining his own freedom. Murray encouraged him and supported his efforts by aid and money.[38] Anna Murray Douglass, Douglass's wife for 44 years, portrait ca. 1860 On September 3, 1838, Douglass successfully escaped by boarding a northbound train of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad.[39] The area where he boarded was thought to be a short distance east of the train depot, in a recently developed neighborhood between the modern neighborhoods of Harbor East and Little Italy. This depot was at President and Fleet Streets, east of "The Basin" of the Baltimore harbor, on the northwest branch of the Patapsco River. Research cited in 2021, however, suggests that Douglass in fact boarded the train at the Canton Depot of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad on Boston Street, in the Canton neighborhood of Baltimore, further east.[40][41][42] Young Douglass reached Havre de Grace, Maryland, in Harford County, in the northeast corner of the state, along the southwest shore of the Susquehanna River, which flowed into the Chesapeake Bay. Although this placed him only some 20 miles (32 km) from the Maryland–Pennsylvania state line, it was easier to continue by rail through Delaware, another slave state. Dressed in a sailor's uniform provided to him by Murray, who also gave him part of her savings to cover his travel costs, he carried identification papers and protection papers that he had obtained from a free black seaman.[38][43][44] Douglass crossed the wide Susquehanna River by the railroad's steam-ferry at Havre de Grace to Perryville on the opposite shore, in Cecil County, then continued by train across the state line to Wilmington, Delaware, a large port at the head of the Delaware Bay. From there, because the rail line was not yet completed, he went by steamboat along the Delaware River further northeast to the "Quaker City" of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, an anti-slavery stronghold. He continued to the safe house of noted abolitionist David Ruggles in New York City. His entire journey to freedom took less than 24 hours.[45] Douglass later wrote of his arrival in New York City: I have often been asked, how I felt when first I found myself on free soil. And my readers may share the same curiosity. There is scarcely anything in my experience about which I could not give a more satisfactory answer. A new world had opened upon me. If life is more than breath, and the "quick round of blood," I lived more in one day than in a year of my slave life. It was a time of joyous excitement which words can but tamely describe. In a letter written to a friend soon after reaching New York, I said: "I felt as one might feel upon escape from a den of hungry lions." Anguish and grief, like darkness and rain, may be depicted; but gladness and joy, like the rainbow, defy the skill of pen or pencil.[46] Once Douglass had arrived, he sent for Murray to follow him north to New York. She brought the basics for them to set up a home. They were married on September 15, 1838, by a black Presbyterian minister, just eleven days after Douglass had reached New York.[45] At first they adopted Johnson as their married name, to divert attention.[38] Abolitionist and preacher Frederick Douglass, c. 1840s, in his 20s The couple settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts, (an abolitionist center, full of former slaves), in 1838, moving to Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1841.[47] After meeting and staying with Nathan and Mary Johnson, they adopted Douglass as their married name:[38] Douglass had grown up using his mother's surname of Bailey; after escaping slavery he had changed his surname first to Stanley and then to Johnson. In New Bedford, the latter was such a common name that he wanted one that was more distinctive, and asked Nathan Johnson to choose a suitable surname. Nathan suggested "Douglass",[48] after having read the poem The Lady of the Lake by Walter Scott, in which two of the principal characters have the surname "Douglas".[49] The home and meetinghouse of the Johnsons, where Douglass and his wife lived in New Bedford, Massachusetts Douglass thought of joining a white Methodist Church, but was disappointed, from the beginning, upon finding that it was segregated. Later, he joined the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, an independent black denomination first established in New York City, which counted among its members Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman.[50] He became a licensed preacher in 1839,[51] which helped him to hone his oratorical skills. He held various positions, including steward, Sunday-school superintendent, and sexton. In 1840, Douglass delivered a speech in Elmira, New York, then a station on the Underground Railroad, in which a black congregation would form years later, becoming the region's largest church by 1940.[52] Douglass also joined several organizations in New Bedford, and regularly attended abolitionist meetings. He subscribed to William Lloyd Garrison's weekly newspaper, The Liberator. He later said that "no face and form ever impressed me with such sentiments [of the hatred of slavery] as did those of William Lloyd Garrison." So deep was this influence that in his last biography, Douglass said "his paper took a place in my heart second only to The Bible."[53] Garrison was likewise impressed with Douglass, and had written about his anti-colonialist stance in The Liberator as early as 1839. Douglass first heard Garrison speak in 1841, at a lecture that Garrison gave in Liberty Hall, New Bedford. At another meeting, Douglass was unexpectedly invited to speak. After telling his story, Douglass was encouraged to become an anti-slavery lecturer. A few days later, Douglass spoke at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society's annual convention, in Nantucket. Then 23 years old, Douglass conquered his nervousness and gave an eloquent speech about his rough life as a slave. William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist and one of Douglass's first friends in the North While living in Lynn, Douglass engaged in early protest against segregated transportation. In September 1841, at Lynn Central Square station, Douglass and friend James N. Buffum were thrown off an Eastern Railroad train because Douglass refused to sit in the segregated railroad coach.[47][54][55][56] In 1843, Douglass joined other speakers in the American Anti-Slavery Society's "Hundred Conventions" project, a six-month tour at meeting halls throughout the eastern and midwestern United States. During this tour, slavery supporters frequently accosted Douglass. At a lecture in Pendleton, Indiana, an angry mob chased and beat Douglass before a local Quaker family, the Hardys, rescued him. His hand was broken in the attack; it healed improperly and bothered him for the rest of his life.[57] A stone marker in Falls Park in the Pendleton Historic District commemorates this event. In 1847, Frederick Douglass explained to Garrison, "I have no love for America, as such; I have no patriotism. I have no country. What country have I? The Institutions of this Country do not know me—do not recognize me as a man."[58] Further information: Abolitionism in New Bedford, Massachusetts Autobiography Douglass's best-known work is his first autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, written during his time in Lynn, Massachusetts[59] and published in 1845. At the time, some skeptics questioned whether a black man could have produced such an eloquent piece of literature. The book received generally positive reviews and became an immediate bestseller. Within three years, it had been reprinted nine times, with 11,000 copies circulating in the United States. It was also translated into French and Dutch and published in Europe. Douglass published three versions of his autobiography during his lifetime (and revised the third of these), each time expanding on the previous one. The 1845 Narrative was his biggest seller, and probably allowed him to raise the funds to gain his legal freedom the following year, as discussed below. In 1855, Douglass published My Bondage and My Freedom. In 1881, after the Civil War, Douglass published Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, which he revised in 1892. Travels to Ireland and Great Britain Plaque to Frederick Douglass, West Bell St., Dundee, Scotland Douglass in 1847, around 29 years of age Douglass's friends and mentors feared that the publicity would draw the attention of his ex-owner, Hugh Auld, who might try to get his "property" back. They encouraged Douglass to tour Ireland, as many former slaves had done. Douglass set sail on the Cambria for Liverpool, England, on August 16, 1845. He traveled in Ireland as the Great Famine was beginning. The feeling of freedom from American racial discrimination amazed Douglass:[60] Eleven days and a half gone and I have crossed three thousand miles of the perilous deep. Instead of a democratic government, I am under a monarchical government. Instead of the bright, blue sky of America, I am covered with the soft, grey fog of the Emerald Isle [Ireland]. I breathe, and lo! the chattel [slave] becomes a man. I gaze around in vain for one who will question my equal humanity, claim me as his slave, or offer me an insult. I employ a cab—I am seated beside white people—I reach the hotel—I enter the same door—I am shown into the same parlour—I dine at the same table—and no one is offended ... I find myself regarded and treated at every turn with the kindness and deference paid to white people. When I go to church, I am met by no upturned nose and scornful lip to tell me, 'We don't allow niggers in here!' Still, Douglass was astounded by the extreme levels of poverty he encountered, much of it reminding him of his experiences in slavery. In a letter to William Lloyd Garrison, Douglass wrote "I see much here to remind me of my former condition, and I confess I should be ashamed to lift up my voice against American slavery, but that I know the cause of humanity is one the world over. He who really and truly feels for the American slave, cannot steel his heart to the woes of others; and he who thinks himself an abolitionist, yet cannot enter into the wrongs of others, has yet to find a true foundation for his anti-slavery faith."[61] He also met and befriended the Irish nationalist and strident abolitionist Daniel O'Connell,[62][63] who was to be a great inspiration.[64][65] Douglass spent two years in Ireland and Great Britain, lecturing in churches and chapels. His draw was such that some facilities were "crowded to suffocation". One example was his hugely popular London Reception Speech, which Douglass delivered in May 1846 at Alexander Fletcher's Finsbury Chapel. Douglass remarked that in England he was treated not "as a color, but as a man."[66] In 1846, Douglass met with Thomas Clarkson, one of the last living British abolitionists, who had persuaded Parliament to abolish slavery in Great Britain's colonies.[67] During this trip Douglass became legally free, as British supporters led by Anna Richardson and her sister-in-law Ellen of Newcastle upon Tyne raised funds to buy his freedom from his American owner Thomas Auld.[66][68] Many supporters tried to encourage Douglass to remain in England but, with his wife still in Massachusetts and three million of his black brethren in bondage in the United States, he returned to America in the spring of 1847,[66] soon after the death of Daniel O'Connell.[69] In the 21st century, historical plaques were installed on buildings in Cork and Waterford, Ireland, and London to celebrate Douglass's visit: the first is on the Imperial Hotel in Cork and was unveiled on August 31, 2012; the second is on the façade of Waterford City Hall, unveiled on October 7, 2013. It commemorates his speech there on October 9, 1845.[70] The third plaque adorns Nell Gwynn House, South Kensington in London, at the site of an earlier house where Douglass stayed with the British abolitionist George Thompson.[71] Douglass spent time in Scotland and was appointed "Scotland's Antislavery agent."[72] He made anti-slavery speeches and wrote letters back to the USA. He considered the city of Edinburgh to be elegant, grand and very welcoming. Maps of the places in the city that were important to his stay are held by the National Library of Scotland.[73][74] A plaque and a mural on Gilmore Place in Edinburgh mark his stay there in 1846. "A variety of collaborative projects are currently [in 2021] underway to commemorate Frederick Douglass’s journey and visit to Ireland in the 19th century."[75] Return to the United States Douglass circa 1847–52, around his early 30s After returning to the U.S. in 1847, using £500 (equivalent to $46,030 in 2019) given to him by English supporters,[66] Douglass started publishing his first abolitionist newspaper, the North Star, from the basement of the Memorial AME Zion Church in Rochester, New York.[76] Originally, Pittsburgh journalist Martin Delany was co-editor but Douglass didn't feel he brought in enough subscriptions, and they parted ways.[77] The North Star's motto was "Right is of no Sex – Truth is of no Color – God is the Father of us all, and we are all brethren."[78] The AME Church and North Star vigorously opposed the mostly white American Colonization Society and its proposal to send blacks back to Africa. Douglass also soon split with Garrison, perhaps because the North Star competed with Garrison's National Anti-Slavery Standard and Marius Robinson's Anti-Slavery Bugle. Besides publishing the North Star and delivering speeches, Douglass also participated in the Underground Railroad. He and his wife provided lodging and resources in their home to more than four hundred escaped slaves.[79] Douglass also came to disagree with Garrison. Earlier Douglass had agreed with Garrison's position that the Constitution was pro-slavery, because of the three-fifths clause its compromises related to apportionment of Congressional seats, based on partial counting of slave populations with state totals; and protection of the international slave trade through 1807. Garrison had burned copies of the Constitution to express his opinion. However, Lysander Spooner published The Unconstitutionality of Slavery (1846), which examined the United States Constitution as an anti-slavery document. Douglass's change of opinion about the Constitution and his splitting from Garrison around 1847 became one of the abolitionist movement's most notable divisions. Douglass angered Garrison by saying that the Constitution could and should be used as an instrument in the fight against slavery.[80] In September 1848, on the tenth anniversary of his escape, Douglass published an open letter addressed to his former master, Thomas Auld, berating him for his conduct, and inquiring after members of his family still held by Auld.[81][82] In the course of the letter, Douglass adeptly transitions from formal and restrained to familiar and then to impassioned. At one point he is the proud parent, describing his improved circumstances and the progress of his own four young children. But then he dramatically shifts tone: Oh! sir, a slaveholder never appears to me so completely an agent of hell, as when I think of and look upon my dear children. It is then that my feelings rise above my control. … The grim horrors of slavery rise in all their ghastly terror before me, the wails of millions pierce my heart, and chill my blood. I remember the chain, the gag, the bloody whip, the deathlike gloom overshadowing the broken spirit of the fettered bondman, the appalling liability of his being torn away from wife and children, and sold like a beast in the market.[83] In a graphic passage, Douglass asked Auld how he would feel if Douglass had come to take away his daughter Amanda as a slave, treating her the way he and members of his family had been treated by Auld.[81][82] Yet in his conclusion Douglass shows his focus and benevolence, stating that he has "no malice towards him personally," and asserts that, "there is no roof under which you would be more safe than mine, and there is nothing in my house which you might need for comfort, which I would not readily grant. Indeed, I should esteem it a privilege, to set you an example as to how mankind ought to treat each other."[83] Women's rights In 1848, Douglass was the only African American to attend the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, in upstate New York.[84][85] Elizabeth Cady Stanton asked the assembly to pass a resolution asking for women's suffrage.[86] Many of those present opposed the idea, including influential Quakers James and Lucretia Mott.[87] Douglass stood and spoke eloquently in favor of women's suffrage; he said that he could not accept the right to vote as a black man if women could not also claim that right. He suggested that the world would be a better place if women were involved in the political sphere. In this denial of the right to participate in government, not merely the degradation of woman and the perpetuation of a great injustice happens, but the maiming and repudiation of one-half of the moral and intellectual power of the government of the world.[87] After Douglass's powerful words, the attendees passed the resolution.[87][88] In the wake of the Seneca Falls Convention, Douglass used an editorial in The North Star to press the case for women's rights. He recalled the "marked ability and dignity" of the proceedings, and briefly conveyed several arguments of the convention and feminist thought at the time. On the first count, Douglass acknowledged the "decorum" of the participants in the face of disagreement. In the remainder, he discussed the primary document that emerged from the conference, a Declaration of Sentiments, and the "infant" feminist cause. Strikingly, he expressed the belief that "[a] discussion of the rights of animals would be regarded with far more complacency...than would be a discussion of the rights of women," and Douglass noted the link between abolitionism and feminism, the overlap between the communities. His opinion as the editor of a prominent newspaper carried weight, and he stated the position of the North Star explicitly: "We hold woman to be justly entitled to all we claim for man." This letter, written a week after the convention, reaffirmed the first part of the paper's slogan, "right is of no sex." After the Civil War, when the 15th Amendment giving Blacks the right to vote was being debated, Douglass split with the Stanton-led faction of the women's rights movement. Douglass supported the amendment, which would grant suffrage to black men. Stanton opposed the 15th Amendment because it limited the expansion of suffrage to black men; she predicted its passage would delay for decades the cause for women's right to vote. Stanton argued that American women and black men should band together to fight for universal suffrage, and opposed any bill that split the issues.[89] Douglass and Stanton both knew that there was not yet enough male support for women's right to vote, but that an amendment giving black men the vote could pass in the late 1860s. Stanton wanted to attach women's suffrage to that of black men so that her cause would be carried to success.[90] Douglass thought such a strategy was too risky, that there was barely enough support for black men's suffrage. He feared that linking the cause of women's suffrage to that of black men would result in failure for both. Douglass argued that white women, already empowered by their social connections to fathers, husbands, and brothers, at least vicariously had the vote. African-American women, he believed, would have the same degree of empowerment as white women once African-American men had the vote.[90] Douglass assured the American women that at no time had he ever argued against women's right to vote.[91] Ideological refinement Frederick Douglass in 1856, around 38 years of age Meanwhile, in 1851, Douglass merged the North Star with Gerrit Smith's Liberty Party Paper to form Frederick Douglass' Paper, which was published until 1860. On July 5, 1852, Douglass delivered an address to the ladies of the Rochester Anti-Slavery Sewing Society. This speech eventually became known as "What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?"; one biographer called it "perhaps the greatest antislavery oration ever given."[92] In 1853, he was a prominent attendee of the radical abolitionist National African American Convention in Rochester. Douglass's was one of five names attached to the address of the convention to the people of the United States published under the title, The Claims of Our Common Cause, along with Amos Noë Freeman, James Monroe Whitfield, Henry O. Wagoner, and George Boyer Vashon.[93] Like many abolitionists, Douglass believed that education would be crucial for African Americans to improve their lives; he was an early advocate for school desegregation. In the 1850s, Douglass observed that New York's facilities and instruction for African-American children were vastly inferior to those for whites. Douglass called for court action to open all schools to all children. He said that full inclusion within the educational system was a more pressing need for African Americans than political issues such as suffrage. John Brown Douglass argued against John Brown's plan to attack the arsenal at Harpers Ferry, painting by Jacob Lawrence See also: Shields Green On March 12, 1859, Douglass met with radical abolitionists John Brown, George DeBaptiste, and others at William Webb's house in Detroit to discuss emancipation.[94] Douglass met Brown again when Brown visited his home two months before leading the raid on Harpers Ferry. Brown penned his Provisional Constitution during his two-week stay with Douglass. Also staying with Douglass for over a year was Shields Green, a fugitive slave that Douglass was helping, as he often did. The secret meeting in the Chambersburg stone quarry Shortly before the raid, Douglass, taking Green with him, travelled from Rochester, via New York City, to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, John Brown's communications headquarters. He was recognized there by Blacks, who asked him for a lecture. Douglass agreed, although he said his only topic was slavery. John Brown, incognito, sat in the audience; Shields Green joined him on the stage. A white reporter, referring to "Nigger Democracy", called it a "flaming address" by "the notorious Negro Orator".[95] There, in an abandoned stone quarry for secrecy, Douglass and Green met with Brown and John Henri Kagi, to discuss the raid. After discussions lasting, as Douglass put it, "a day and a night", he disappointed Brown by declining to join him, considering the mission suicidal. To Douglass's surprise, Green went with Brown instead of returning to Rochester with Douglass. Anne Brown said that Green told her that Douglass promised to pay him on his return, but David Blight called this "much more ex post facto bitterness than reality.[96]: 172–174  Almost all that is known about this incident comes from Douglass. It is clear that it was of immense importance to him, both as a turning point in his life—not accompanying John Brown—and its importance in his public image. The meeting was not revealed by Douglass for 20 years. He first disclosed it in his speech on John Brown at Storer College in 1881, trying unsuccessfully to raise money to support a John Brown professorship at Storer, to be held by a Black man. He again referred to it stunningly in his last Autobiography. After the raid, which took place between October 16 and 18, 1859, Douglass was accused both of supporting Brown and of not supporting him enough.[97] He was nearly arrested on a Virginia warrant,[98][99][100] and fled for a brief time to Canada before proceeding onward to England on a previously-planned lecture tour, arriving near the end of November.[101] During his lecture tour of Great Britain, on March 26, 1860, Douglass delivered a speech before the Scottish Anti-Slavery Society in Glasgow, "The Constitution of the United States: Is It Pro-Slavery or Antislavery?", outlining his views on the American Constitution.[102] That month, on the 13th, Douglass's youngest daughter Annie died in Rochester, New York, just days shy of her 11th birthday. Douglass sailed back from England the following month, traveling through Canada to avoid detection. Douglass's Storer College address (1881) Years later, in 1881, Douglass shared a stage at Storer College in Harpers Ferry with Andrew Hunter, the prosecutor who secured Brown's conviction and execution. Hunter congratulated Douglass.[103] Photography Douglass considered photography very important in ending slavery and racism, and believed that the camera would not lie, even in the hands of a racist white, as photographs were an excellent counter to the many racist caricatures, particularly in blackface minstrelsy. He was the most photographed American of the 19th century, consciously using photography to advance his political views.[104][105] He never smiled, specifically so as not to play into the racist caricature of a happy slave. He tended to look directly into the camera to confront the viewer, with a stern look.[106][107] Religious views As a child, Douglass was exposed to a number of religious sermons, and in his youth, he sometimes heard Sophia Auld reading the Bible. In time, he became interested in literacy; he began reading and copying bible verses, and he eventually converted to Christianity.[108][109] He described this approach in his last biography, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: I was not more than thirteen years old, when in my loneliness and destitution I longed for some one to whom I could go, as to a father and protector. The preaching of a white Methodist minister, named Hanson, was the means of causing me to feel that in God I had such a friend. He thought that all men, great and small, bond and free, were sinners in the sight of God: that they were by nature rebels against His government; and that they must repent of their sins, and be reconciled to God through Christ. I cannot say that I had a very distinct notion of what was required of me, but one thing I did know well: I was wretched and had no means of making myself otherwise. I consulted a good old colored man named Charles Lawson, and in tones of holy affection he told me to pray, and to "cast all my care upon God." This I sought to do; and though for weeks I was a poor, broken-hearted mourner, traveling through doubts and fears, I finally found my burden lightened, and my heart relieved. I loved all mankind, slaveholders not excepted, though I abhorred slavery more than ever. I saw the world in a new light, and my great concern was to have everybody converted. My desire to learn increased, and especially, did I want a thorough acquaintance with the contents of the Bible.[110] Douglass was mentored by Rev. Charles Lawson, and, early in his activism, he often included biblical allusions and religious metaphors in his speeches. Although a believer, he strongly criticized religious hypocrisy[111] and accused slaveholders of wickedness, lack of morality, and failure to follow the Golden Rule. In this sense, Douglass distinguished between the "Christianity of Christ" and the "Christianity of America" and considered religious slaveholders and clergymen who defended slavery as the most brutal, sinful, and cynical of all who represented "wolves in sheep's clothing".[112][113] Notably, in a famous oration given in the Corinthian Hall of Rochester,[114] he sharply criticized the attitude of religious people who kept silent about slavery, and held that religious ministers committed a blasphemy when they taught it as sanctioned by religion. He considered that a law passed to support slavery was "one of the grossest infringements of Christian Liberty" and said that pro-slavery clergymen within the American Church "stripped the love of God of its beauty, and leave the throne of religion a huge, horrible, repulsive form", and "an abomination in the sight of God".[111] Of ministers like John Chase Lord, Leonard Elijah Lathrop, Ichabod Spencer, and Orville Dewey, he said that they taught, against the Scriptures, that "we ought to obey man's law before the law of God". He further asserted, "in speaking of the American church, however, let it be distinctly understood that I mean the great mass of the religious organizations of our land. There are exceptions, and I thank God that there are. Noble men may be found, scattered all over these Northern States ... Henry Ward Beecher of Brooklyn, Samuel J. May of Syracuse, and my esteemed friend [Robert R. Raymonde]".[111] He maintained that "upon these men lies the duty to inspire our ranks with high religious faith and zeal, and to cheer us on in the great mission of the slave's redemption from his chains". In addition, he called religious people to embrace abolitionism, stating, "let the religious press, the pulpit, the Sunday school, the conference meeting, the great ecclesiastical, missionary, Bible and tract associations of the land array their immense powers against slavery and slave-holding; and the whole system of crime and blood would be scattered to the winds."[111] During his visits to the United Kingdom between 1846 and 1848, Douglass asked British Christians never to support American churches that permitted slavery,[115] and he expressed his happiness to know that a group of ministers in Belfast had refused to admit slaveholders as members of the Church. On his return to the United States, Douglass founded the North Star, a weekly publication with the motto "Right is of no sex, Truth is of no color, God is the Father of us all, and we are all Brethren." Douglass later wrote a letter to his former slaveholder, in which he denounced him for leaving Douglass's family illiterate: Your wickedness and cruelty committed in this respect on your fellow creatures, are greater than all the stripes you have laid upon my back or theirs. It is an outrage upon the soul, a war upon the immortal spirit, and one for which you must give account at the bar of our common Father and Creator. — Letter to His Old Master. To my Old Master Thomas Auld.[60] Sometimes considered a precursor of a non-denominational liberation theology,[116][117] Douglass was a deeply spiritual man, as his home continues to show. The fireplace mantle features busts of two of his favorite philosophers, David Friedrich Strauss, author of "The Life of Jesus", and Ludwig Feuerbach, author of "The Essence of Christianity"[dubious – discuss]. In addition to several Bibles and books about various religions in the library, images of angels and Jesus are displayed, as well as interior and exterior photographs of Washington's Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church.[52] Throughout his life, Douglass had linked that individual experience with social reform, and like other Christian abolitionists, he followed practices such as abstaining from tobacco, alcohol and other substances that he believed corrupted body and soul.[118] Civil War years Before the Civil War By the time of the Civil War, Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his orations on the condition of the black race and on other issues such as women's rights. His eloquence gathered crowds at every location. His reception by leaders in England and Ireland added to his stature. Fight for emancipation and suffrage A 1863 Broadside listing Douglass as a speaker calling men of color to arms Douglass and the abolitionists argued that because the aim of the Civil War was to end slavery, African Americans should be allowed to engage in the fight for their freedom. Douglass publicized this view in his newspapers and several speeches. In August 1861 he published an account of the First Battle of Bull Run, noting that some blacks were already in the Confederate ranks. A few weeks later, Douglass brought the subject up again, quoting a witness to the battle who said they saw black Confederates "with muskets on their shoulders and bullets in their pockets."[119] Douglass conferred with President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers,[120] and with President Andrew Johnson on the subject of black suffrage.[121] President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which took effect on January 1, 1863, declared the freedom of all slaves in Confederate-held territory. (Slaves in Union-held areas were not covered by this war-measures act; slaves in Union-held areas and Northern states were freed with the adoption of the 13th Amendment on December 6, 1865.) Douglass described the spirit of those awaiting the proclamation: "We were waiting and listening as for a bolt from the sky ... we were watching ... by the dim light of the stars for the dawn of a new day ... we were longing for the answer to the agonizing prayers of centuries."[122] During the U.S. Presidential Election of 1864, Douglass supported John C. Frémont, who was the candidate of the abolitionist Radical Democracy Party. Douglass was disappointed that President Lincoln did not publicly endorse suffrage for black freedmen. Douglass believed that since African-American men were fighting for the Union in the American Civil War, they deserved the right to vote.[123] With the North no longer obliged to return slaves to their owners in the South, Douglass fought for equality for his people. He made plans with Lincoln to move liberated slaves out of the South. During the war, Douglass also helped the Union cause by serving as a recruiter for the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment. His eldest son, Charles Douglass, joined the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, but was ill for much of his service.[51] Lewis Douglass fought at the Battle of Fort Wagner.[124] Another son, Frederick Douglass Jr., also served as a recruiter. After Lincoln's death The post-war (1865) ratification of the 13th Amendment outlawed slavery. The 14th Amendment provided for citizenship and equal protection under the law. The 15th Amendment protected all citizens from being discriminated against in voting because of race.[89] On April 14, 1876, Douglass delivered the keynote speech at the unveiling of the Emancipation Memorial in Washington's Lincoln Park. He spoke frankly about Lincoln, noting what he perceived as both positive and negative attributes of the late President. Calling Lincoln "the white man's president", Douglass criticized Lincoln's tardiness in joining the cause of emancipation, noting that Lincoln initially opposed the expansion of slavery but did not support its elimination. But Douglass also asked, "Can any colored man, or any white man friendly to the freedom of all men, ever forget the night which followed the first day of January 1863, when the world was to see if Abraham Lincoln would prove to be as good as his word?"[125] He also said: "Though Mr. Lincoln shared the prejudices of his white fellow-countrymen against the Negro, it is hardly necessary to say that in his heart of hearts he loathed and hated slavery ..." The crowd, roused by his speech, gave Douglass a standing ovation. Lincoln's widow Mary Lincoln supposedly gave Lincoln's favorite walking-stick to Douglass in appreciation. That walking-stick still rests in his final residence, "Cedar Hill", now preserved as the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site. delivering the speech, Frederick Douglass immediately wrote to the National Republican newspaper in Washington (which published five days later, April 19), criticizing the statue's design and suggesting the park could be improved by more dignified monuments of free Black people. "The negro here, though rising, is still on his knees and nude," Douglass wrote. "What I want to see before I die is a monument representing the negro, not couchant on his knees like a four-footed animal, but erect on his feet like a man."[126] era Frederick Douglass in 1876, around 58 years of age the Civil War, Douglass continued to work for equality for African-Americans and women. Due to his prominence and activism during the war, Douglass received several political appointments. He served as president of the Reconstruction-era Freedman's Savings Bank.[127] white insurgents had quickly arisen in the South after the war, organizing first as secret vigilante groups, including the Ku Klux Klan. Armed insurgency took different forms. Powerful paramilitary groups included the White League and the Red Shirts, both active during the 1870s in the Deep South. They operated as "the military arm of the Democratic Party", turning out Republican officeholders and disrupting elections.[128] Starting 10 years after the war, Democrats regained political power in every state of the former Confederacy and began to reassert white supremacy. They enforced this by a combination of violence, late 19th-century laws imposing segregation and a concerted effort to disfranchise African Americans. New labor and criminal laws also limited their freedom.[129] combat these efforts, Douglass supported the presidential campaign of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868. In 1870, Douglass started his last newspaper, the New National Era, attempting to hold his country to its commitment to equality.[51] President Grant sent a Congressionally sponsored commission, accompanied by Douglass, on a mission to the West Indies to investigate if the annexation of Santo Domingo would be good for the United States. Grant believed annexation would help relieve the violent situation in the South by allowing African Americans their own state. Douglass and the commission favored annexation, however, Congress remained opposed to annexation. Douglass criticized Senator Charles Sumner, who opposed annexation, stating if Sumner continued to oppose annexation he would "regard him as the worst foe the colored race has on this continent."[130] Douglass's former residence in the U Street Corridor of Washington, D.C. He built 2000–2004 17th Street, NW, in 1875. the midterm elections, Grant signed the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (also known as the Klan Act), and the second and third Enforcement Acts. Grant used their provisions vigorously, suspending habeas corpus in South Carolina and sending troops there and into other states. Under his leadership over 5,000 arrests were made. Grant's vigor in disrupting the Klan made him unpopular among many whites, but earned praise from Douglass. A Douglass associate wrote that African Americans "will ever cherish a grateful remembrance of [Grant's] name, fame and great services." 1872, Douglass became the first African American nominated for Vice President of the United States, as Victoria Woodhull's running mate on the Equal Rights Party ticket. He was nominated without his knowledge. Douglass neither campaigned for the ticket nor acknowledged that he had been nominated.[9] In that year, he was presidential elector at large for the State of New York, and took that state's votes to Washington, D.C.[131] in early June of that year, Douglass's third Rochester home, on South Avenue, burned down; arson was suspected.[132][133] There was extensive damage to the house, its furnishings, and the grounds; in addition, sixteen volumes of the North Star and Frederick Douglass' Paper were lost.[134] Douglass then moved to Washington, D.C. the Reconstruction era, Douglass continued speaking, emphasizing the importance of work, voting rights and actual exercise of suffrage. His speeches for the twenty-five years following the war emphasized work to counter the racism that was then prevalent in In a November 15, 1867, speech he said "A man's rights rest in three boxes. The ballot box, jury box and the cartridge box. Let no man be kept from the ballot box because of his color. Let no woman be kept from the ballot box because of her sex."[136][137] Douglass spoke at many colleges around the country, including Bates College in Lewiston, Maine, in 1873. 1881, Douglass delivered at Storer College, in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, a speech praising John Brown and revealing unknown information about their relationship, including their meeting in an abandoned stone quarry near Chambersburg shortly before the raid. [138] life Frederick Douglass after 1884 with his second wife Helen Pitts Douglass (sitting). The woman standing is her sister Eva Pitts. Further information: Douglass family and Anna Murray had five children: Rosetta Douglass, Lewis Henry Douglass, Frederick Douglass Jr., Charles Remond Douglass, and Annie Douglass (died at the age of ten). Charles and Rosetta helped produce his newspapers. Douglass remained a loyal supporter of her husband's public work. His relationships with Julia Griffiths and Ottilie Assing, two women with whom he was professionally involved, caused recurring speculation and scandals.[139] Assing was a journalist recently immigrated from Germany, who first visited Douglass in 1856 seeking permission to translate My Bondage and My Freedom into German. Until 1872, she often stayed at his house "for several months at a time" as his "intellectual and emotional companion."[77]: 387, 290–291  held Anna Douglass "in utter contempt" and was vainly hoping that Douglass would separate from his wife. Douglass biographer David W. Blight concludes that Assing and Douglass "were probably lovers."[77]: 387, 290–291  Though Douglass and Assing are widely believed to have had an intimate relationship, the surviving correspondence contains no proof of such a relationship.[77]: 521–522, 529, 570, 572–574  Anna died in 1882, in 1884 Douglass married again, to Helen Pitts, a white suffragist and abolitionist from Honeoye, New York. Pitts was the daughter of Gideon Pitts Jr., an abolitionist colleague and friend of Douglass's. graduate of Mount Holyoke College (then called Mount Holyoke Female Seminary), Pitts worked on a radical feminist publication named Alpha while living in Washington, D.C. She later worked as Douglass's secretary.[140] who had depression and was diagnosed with incurable breast cancer, committed suicide in France in 1884 after hearing of the marriage.[141] Upon her death, Assing bequeathed Douglass $13,000, albums, and his choice of books from her library.[142] marriage of Douglass and Pitts provoked a storm of controversy, since Pitts was both white and nearly 20 years younger. Her family stopped speaking to her; his children considered the marriage a repudiation of their mother. feminist Elizabeth Cady Stanton congratulated the couple.[143] Douglass responded to the criticisms by saying that his first marriage had been to someone the color of his mother, and his second to someone the color of his father.[144] years in Washington, D.C. Freedman's Savings Bank went bankrupt on June 29, 1874, just a few months after Douglass became its president in late March.[145] During that same economic crisis, his final newspaper, The New National Era, failed in September.[146] Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was elected president, he named Douglass as United States Marshal for the District of Columbia, the first person of color to be so named. The Senate voted to confirm him on March 17, 1877.[147] Douglass accepted the appoint, which helped assure his family's financial security.[51] his tenure, Douglass was urged by his supporters to resign from his commission, since he was never asked to introduce visiting foreign dignitaries to the President, which is one of the usual duties of that post. However, Douglass believed that no covert racism was implied by the omission, and stated that he was always warmly welcomed in presidential circles.[148][149] Cedar Hill, Douglass's house in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D.C., is preserved as a National Historic Site. 1877, Douglass visited his former slavemaster Thomas Auld on his deathbed, and the two men reconciled. Douglass had met Auld's daughter, Amanda Auld Sears, some years prior. She had requested the meeting and had subsequently attended and cheered one of Douglass's speeches. Her father complimented her for reaching out to Douglass. The visit also appears to have brought closure to Douglass, although some criticized his effort.[81] same year, Douglass bought the house that was to be the family's final home in Washington, D.C., on a hill above the Anacostia River. He and Anna named it Cedar Hill (also spelled CedarHill). They expanded the house from 14 to 21 rooms, and included a china closet. One year later, Douglass purchased adjoining lots and expanded the property to 15 acres (61,000 m2). The home is now preserved as the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site. 1881, Douglass published the final edition of his autobiography, The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass. That year he was appointed as Recorder of Deeds for the District of Columbia. His wife Anna Murray Douglass died in 1882, leaving the widower devastated. After a period of mourning, Douglass found new meaning from working with activist Ida B. Wells. He remarried in 1884, as mentioned above. also continued his speaking engagements and travel, both in the United States and abroad. With new wife Helen, Douglass traveled to England, Ireland, France, Italy, Egypt and Greece from 1886 to 1887. He became known for advocating Irish Home Rule and supported Charles Stewart Parnell in Ireland. addition to his travel abroad during those years, he lectured in small towns in the United States. On December 28, 1885, the aging orator spoke to the literary society in Rising Sun, a town in northeastern Maryland below the Mason–Dixon line.[150] The program, "The Self-Made Man," attracted a large audience including students from Lincoln University in Chester County, PA, the Oxford Press reported. "Mr. Douglass is growing old and has lost much of his fire and vigor of mind as well as body, but he is still able to interest an audience. He is a remarkable man and is a bright example of the capability of the colored race, even under the blighting influence of slavery, from which he emerged and became one of the distinguished citizens of the country," the Chester County PA newspaper remarked.[151] The gravestone of Frederick Douglass located in Mount Hope Cemetery, Rochester the 1888 Republican National Convention, Douglass became the first African American to receive a vote for President of the United States in a major party's roll call vote.[152][153][154] That year, Douglass spoke at Claflin College, a historically black college in Orangeburg, South Carolina, and the state's oldest such institution.[155] African Americans, called Exodusters, escaped the Klan and racially discriminatory laws in the South by moving to Kansas, where some formed all-black towns to have a greater level of freedom and autonomy. Douglass did not favor this, nor the Back-to-Africa movement. He thought the latter resembled the American Colonization Society which he had opposed in his youth. In 1892, at an Indianapolis conference convened by Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, Douglass spoke out against the separatist movements, urging blacks to stick it out.[51] He made similar speeches as early as 1879, and was criticized both by fellow leaders and some audiences, who even booed him for this position.[156] Speaking in Baltimore in 1894, Douglass said, "I hope and trust all will come out right in the end, but the immediate future looks dark and troubled. I cannot shut my eyes to the ugly facts before me."[157] Harrison appointed Douglass as the United States's minister resident and consul-general to the Republic of Haiti and Chargé d'affaires for Santo Domingo in 1889.[158] but Douglass resigned the commission in July 1891 when it became apparent that the American President was intent upon gaining permanent access to Haitian territory regardless of that country's desires.[159] In 1892, Haiti made Douglass a co-commissioner of its pavilion at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.[160] 1892, Douglass constructed rental housing for blacks, now known as Douglass Place, in the Fells Point area of Baltimore. The complex still exists, and in 2003 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[161][162] Death February 20, 1895, Douglass attended a meeting of the National Council of Women in Washington, D.C. During that meeting, he was brought to the platform and received a standing ovation. Shortly after he returned home, Douglass died of a massive heart attack.[163] He was 77. funeral was held at the Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church. Thousands of people passed by his coffin to show their respect. Although Douglass had attended several churches in the nation's capital, he had a pew here and had donated two standing candelabras when this church had moved to a new building in 1886. He also gave many lectures there, including his last major speech, "The Lesson of the Hour."[52] coffin was transported to Rochester, New York, where he had lived for 25 years, longer than anywhere else in his life. He was buried next to Anna in the Douglass family plot of Mount Hope Cemetery. Helen was also buried there in 1903.[164] JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911):;

US, 1843, Oregon Trail Folder
Oregon Trail - 1843;

US, 1849, California Trail Folder, followed Oregon Trail to avoid Mts
US, 1849, California Trail Folder;

US, 1859, Central Overland Route Folder, straight through high mountains, using passes
US, 1859, Central Overland Route Folder;

US, 1874-1935, JAMES O S HUNTINGTON, Boston, MA, religious order founder, lower ease side, labor union mvmt, H George, land tax
US, 1874-1935, JAMES O S HUNTINGTON, Boston, MA, religious order founder, lower ease side, labor union movement, Henry George, land tax; Boston; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935) ; Huntington was born in Boston in 1854, studied at Harvard and at St Andrew's Divinity School in Syracuse, was ordained to the priesthood around 1880, and served a working-class congregation. a few years, he felt called to found a monastic order for priests of the Episcopal Church, and with two companions he began working among poor immigrants on New York's Lower East Side. a slow start, he with others became the Order of the Holy Cross, which now has a monastery in West Park, New York, and priests involved in parish work and social work scattered elsewhere. was Superior of the order for several non-consecutive terms, but devoted himself chiefly to preaching, teaching, and counselling until his death on 28 June 1935. this is the feast of Irenaeus of Lyons, he is commemorated on the anniversary of the receiving of his monastic vows by the Bishop of New York on 25 November 1884. the course of his work, he became involved in the labor-union movement and the land-tax movement. The latter of these may require some explanation. (Those who have no interest in proposals for social reform may wish to skip to the closing prayer.) George, author of Progress and Poverty, argued that, while some forms of wealth are produced by human activity, and are rightly the property of the producers (or those who have obtained them from the previous owners by voluntary gift or exchange), land and natural resources are bestowed by God on the human race, and that every one of the N inhabitants of the earth has a claim to 1/Nth of the coal beds, 1/Nth of the oil wells, 1/Nth of the mines, and 1/Nth of the fertile soil. God wills a society where everyone may sit in peace under his own vine and his own fig tree. The Law of Moses undertook to implement this by making the ownership of land hereditary, with a man's land divided among his sons (or, in the absence of sons, his daughters), and prohibiting the permanent sale of land. (See Leviticus 25:13-17,23.) The most a man might do with his land is sell the use of it until the next Jubilee year, an amnesty declared once every fifty years, when all debts were cancelled and all land returned to its hereditary owner. Henry George's proposed implementation is to tax all land at about 99.99% of its rental value, leaving the owner of record enough to cover his bookkeeping expenses. The resulting revenues would be divided equally among the natural owners of the land, viz. the people of the country, with everyone receiving a dividend check regularly for the use of his share of the earth (here I am anticipating what I think George would have suggested if he had written in the 1990's rather than the 1870's). This procedure would have the effect of making the sale price of a piece of land, not including the price of buildings and other improvements on it, practically zero. The cost of being a landholder would be, not the original sale price, but the tax, equivalent to rent. A man who chose to hold his "fair share," or 1/Nth of all the land, would pay a land tax about equal to his dividend check, and so would break even. By 1/Nth of the land is meant land with a value equal to 1/Nth of the value of all the land in the country. Naturally, an acre in the business district of a great city would be worth as much as many square miles in the open country. Some would prefer to hold more than one N'th of the land and pay for the privilege. Some would prefer to hold less land, or no land at all, and get a small annual check representing the dividend on their inheritance from their father Adam. Note that, at least for the able-bodied, this solves the problem of poverty at a stroke. If the total land and total labor of the world are enough to feed and clothe the existing population, then 1/Nth of the land and 1/Nth of the labor are enough to feed and clothe 1/Nth of the population. A family of 4 occupying 4/Nths of the land (which is what their dividend checks will enable them to pay the tax on) will find that their labor applied to that land is enough to enable them to feed and clothe themselves. Of course, they may prefer to apply their labor elsewhere more profitably, but the situation from which we start is one in which everyone has his own plot of ground from which to wrest a living by the strength of his own back, and any deviation from this is the result of voluntary exchanges agreed to by the parties directly involved, who judge themselves to be better off as the result of the exchanges. Some readers may think this a very radical proposal. In fact, it is extremely conservative, in the sense of being in agreement with historic ideas about land ownership as opposed to ownership of, say, tools or vehicles or gold or domestic animals or other movables. The laws of English-speaking countries uniformly distinguish between real property (land) and personal property (everything else). In this context, "real" is not the opposite of "imaginary." It is a form of the word "royal," and means that the ultimate owner of the land is the king, as symbol of the people. Note that English-derived law does not recognize "landowners." The term is "landholders." The concept of eminent domain is that the landholder may be forced to surrender his landholdings to the government for a public purpose. Historically, eminent domain does not apply to property other than land, although complications arise when there are buildings on the land that is being seized. I will mention in passing that the proposals of Henry George have attracted support from persons as diverse as Felix Morley, Aldous Huxley, Woodrow Wilson, Helen Keller, Winston Churchill, Leo Tolstoy, William F Buckley Jr, and Sun Yat-sen. To the Five Nobel Prizes authorized by Alfred Nobel himself there has been added a sixth, in Economics, and the Henry George Foundation claims eight of the Economics Laureates as supporters, in whole or in part, of the proposals of Henry George (Paul Samuelson, 1970; Milton Friedman, 1976; Herbert A Simon, 1978; James Tobin, 1981; Franco Modigliani, 1985; James M Buchanan, 1986; Robert M Solow, 1987; William S Vickrey, 1996). The immediate concrete proposal favored by most Georgists today is that cities shall tax land within their boundaries at a higher rate than they tax buildings and other improvements on the land. (In case anyone is about to ask, "How can we possibly distinguish between the value of the land and the value of the buildings on it?" let me assure you that real estate assessors do it all the time. It is standard practice to make the two assessments separately, and a parcel of land in the business district of a large city very often has a different owner from the building on it.) Many cities have moved to a system of taxing land more heavily than improvements, and most have been pleased with the results, finding that landholders are more likely to use their land productively -- to their own benefit and that of the public -- if their taxes do not automatically go up when they improve their land by constructing or maintaining buildings on it. An advantage of this proposal in the eyes of many is that it is a Fabian proposal, "evolution, not revolution," that it is incremental and reversible. If a city or other jurisdiction does not like the results of a two-level tax system, it can repeal the arrangement or reduce the difference in levels with no great upheaval. It is not like some other proposals of the form, "Distribute all wealth justly, and make me absolute dictator of the world so that I can supervise the distribution, and if it doesn't work, I promise to resign." The problem is that absolute dictators seldom resign. For those who wish to inquire further, I recommend reading the book Progress and Poverty, by Henry George. It is available from the Robert Schalkenbach Foundation or from your local bookstore or library. It should be on every list of Great Books of the Western World, or of books that every educated person is assumed to have read. Ask for their catalog, and make a similar request of the Henry George Foundation of America, 2000 Century Plaza, Suite 238, Columbia, MD 21044-3210 (Tel 1-410-740-1177). I repeat, this is not an argument for a political or economic proposal, but simply background material on the founder of a religious order. You did not expect me to tell you that James Huntington was a disciple of Henry George and leave you wondering who Henry George was, did you? by James Kiefer

US, 1875-1890, HENRY WINTER SYLE, Hartford, CT, deaf f early age, became first deaf ordained, estab congregation f deaf 1888
US, 1875-1890, Henry Winter Syle, Hartford, CT (Connecticut River 24), deaf from early age, became first deaf ordained, estab congregation for deaf 1888, died 1890; Hartford, Connecticut; Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Henry Winter Syle of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Gallaudet was born in 1822, in Hartford, Connecticut. mother, Sophia was deaf, and his father, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, was the founder of the West Hartford School for the deaf, which was the principal institution for the education of the deaf in America from 1806 to 1857 (the year of the founding of Gallaudet College in Washington, DC). father had intended to become a priest, but had become an educator of the deaf instead. son also intended to seek ordination, but was persuaded by his father to work for a while first as a teacher of the deaf. did, and so met and married Miss Elizabeth Budd, who was deaf. was ordained in 1851, and the next year established St. Ann's Church in New York, especially for deaf persons, with services primarily in sign language. a result of his work, congregations for the deaf were established in many cities. (Alternatively, some congregations that are mostly hearing will have someone standing near the front and signing the service for the benefit of deaf parishioners.) died 27 August 1902. Photo of Henry Winter Syle (Photo courtesy Episcopal Conference of the Deaf) of Gallaudet's students and parishioners was Henry Winter Syle, deaf from an early age, who had attended Trinity College (Hartford, Conn), St John's (Cambridge, England), and Yale. encouraged him to become a priest, and in 1876 he became the first deaf person to be ordained by the Episcopal Church in the United States. He established a congregation for the deaf in 1888, and died 6 January 1890. HW Syle signature by James Kiefer

US, 1880-1940, GREGORIO AGLIPAY, Illocos Sur, Luzon, Philippines, communist founder of Philippine Independent Church
Philipines, 1880-1940, GREGORIO AGLIPAY, Illocos Sur, Northern Luzon, Philippines, communist founder of Philipine Independent Church; Illocos Sur, Philippines; GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; Labayan Aglipay (May 8, 1860 – September 1, 1940) the first Filipino Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church. was an activist Catholic priest from Ilocos Norte who, despite his intercession and defense of some of the Spanish Catholic clergy from liberal-nationalist Filipino revolutionaries, was excommunicated by the Vatican for inciting rebellion within the Filipino clergy. the brief interlude between independence from the Spanish and the subsequent reoccupation by the Americans, Isabelo de los Reyes (also known as Don Belong) and Aglipay reformed the Filipino Catholic clergy into the Philippine Independent Church, officially established in 1902. at Wikipedia) for inciting patriotic rebellion among the Filipino clergy, he was also a political activist who became acquainted with Isabelo de los Reyes, who would start an Independent Christian Filipino Church named after Aglipay in 1902. was previously excommunicated by Archbishop Bernardino Norzaleda y Villa of Manila in May 1899, upon the expressed permission of Pope Leo XIII. later joined Freemasonry in May 1918, a society excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church. later married Pilar Jamias y Ver from Sarrat, Ilocos Norte in 1939 and then died one year later. Followers of Aglipay through the church colloquially sometimes refer to their membership as Aglipayans. life in Batac, Ilocos Norte, Aglipay was an orphan who grew up in the tobacco fields in the last volatile decades of the Spanish occupation of the Philippines. bore deep grievances against the colonial Spanish government of the islands, stemming from abuses within the agricultural system. at fourteen when a tobacco-picking worker for not meeting his tobacco quota, later moved to the capital of Manila to study law under the private tutelage of Julian Carpio.[1] two years of study under Carpio, Aglipay continued his studies at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran and at the University of Santo Tomas. obtaining his degree, he then entered the seminary in Ilocos Sur in 1883 and was ordained to the priesthood seven years later. began a career as an assistant priest in various parishes around the main northern island of Luzon. in Victoria, Tarlac, Aglipay gave aid to the revolutionaries and employed thirty carpenters who in reality were revolutionists in touch with the Katipunan group. Despite being a priest, Aglipay, like other revolutionaries, joined Freemasonry.[2] Revolution 1896, the Katipunan was led by the Supremo, Andrés Bonifacio. Bernardino Nozaleda asked Aglipay to confront the revolutionary leaders, offering them a level of autonomy in the future for the Philippines if they would end the rebellion. Aguinaldo, in turn, sent Colonel Luciano San Miguel to Aglipay with the intention of getting him to join the rebellion. the course of Aglipay's journey north, the Philippine–American War started. –American War Aglipay returned to Manila and discovered that the Americans had attacked, he joined the revolution. 20 October 1898, Gen. Aguinaldo appointed Aglipay Military Vicar General of the revolutionaries. Aglipay interpreted this as making him Ecclesiastical Superior to all Filipino priests who, as such, should all be appointed Military Chaplains for the duration of the war.[3] which broke out between the U.S. and Filipino forces on February 4, 1899 prompted Aglipay to withdraw to Ilocos Norte to organize an armed resistance. 29 April 1899, Aglipay was excommunicated for "usurpation of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.[4] the war the end of the war in 1902, Isabelo de los Reyes was working towards the formation of a national church, that is independent of Rome. 3 August he suggested that Aglipay be its first bishop. a devout Catholic at the time, was reluctant, but accepted de los Reyes' offer to establish an independent church. 18 January 1903, Aglipay was appointed Supreme Bishop of the "Philippine Independent Church". Supreme Bishop he allied himself with the nationalist and most radical political parties during his time like the Sakdalistas and later on even with the Socialist and Communist Parties.[4] the theological discussions while visiting other churches while travelling abroad, Aglipay rejected the belief in the Trinity, becoming theologically accepting of the main Unitarian belief however, his own church refused to accept his amended theology. unitarian and progressive theological ideas were evident in his "novena", "Pagsisiyam sa Birhen sa Balintawak", 1925[5] and its English translation, "Novenary of the Motherland", 1926.[6] Bishop Gregorio Aglipay bust (Samal, Bataan, "Iglesia Filipina Independiente" (Philippine Independent Church). life ran for elections as President of the Commonwealth along with the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas Norberto Nabong in a joined Republican-Communist Party ticket in 1935,[4] lost to Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party. married D. Pilar Jamias year in 1939 since his church permits married clergy, but Aglipay died the following year on 1 September 1940. is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States on 5 September.

US, 1883-1942, RALPH ADAMS CRAM, Prolific influential Architect, collegiate&eccelsiastical buildings, often Gothic
US, 1883-1942, RALPH ADAMS CRAM, oPrinceton University, New Jersey, Prolific influential Architect, collegiate&eccelsiastical buildings, often Gothic, 1867 conversion iRome, fervent Anglo-Catholic, Gothic revival architecture, Collegiat Gothic, Princeton Doctor oLetters&supervising Architect, often mentioned in press, most prominect Episcopal layman; Princeton University; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; Adams Cram (December 16, 1863 - September 22, 1942), a prolific and influential American architect of collegiate and ecclesiastical buildings, often in the Gothic style. an 1887 Christmas Eve mass in Rome, he had a dramatic conversion experience. For the rest of his life, he remained a fervent Anglo-Catholic. leading proponent of disciplined Gothic Revival architecture in general and Collegiate Gothic in particular, is most closely associated with Princeton, where he was awarded a Doctor of Letters and served as Supervising Architect from 1907 to 1929. the 1920s Cram was a public figure and frequently mentioned in the press. New York Times called him "one of the most prominent Episcopalian laymen in the country". Cram's buildings include: All Saints' Church, Ashmont, Massachusetts, 1892 Church of St. John Evangelist, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1892 Emmanuel Church, Newport, Rhode Island, 1900 Calvary Episcopal Church, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1904 Holy Cross Monastery, West Park, New York, with Henry Vaughan, 1904 All Saints' Chapel, Sewanee, begun 1904, finished 1959 Saint Thomas Church, New York City, 1905-1913 Cathedral Church of St. Paul, Detroit, Michigan, 1908 All Saints Cathedral, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1910 Cathedral of St. John the Divine Cathedral of St. John the Divine Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, New York City, begun 1912, unfinished multiple buildings at Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 1913-1927 Cole Memorial Chapel, Wheaton College, Norton, Massachusetts, 1917 Trinity Episcopal Church, Houston, Texas, 1919 St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral, Hastings, Nebraska, 1921-1929 St. Paul's Episcopal Church, Winston-Salem, NC Winston-Salem, 1928 more at Wikipedia

US, 1885-1890, Southern Pacific Railroad, acquired Central Pacific 1885
Southern Pacific Railroad; Central Pacific Railroad

US, 1889-1893, Great Northern Hi-Line Road, b in stages, profitable lines, contests, Maris Pass, Steven's Pass
US, 1889-1893, Great Northern Hi-Line Road;

Marias Pass, through the Rocky Mountains, for the Great Northern RWY
Marias Pass, through the Rocky Mountains, for the Great Northern RWY;

US, 1898, Spanish-American War, US gets Guam, Phillipines, Puerto Rico, Cuba, R the Maine
Spanish-American War, 1898; Spanish–American War (April 21 – August 13, 1898, Spanish: Guerra hispano-estadounidense or Guerra hispano-americana; Filipino: Digmaang Espanyol-Amerikano)[d] was an armed conflict between Spain and the United States. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. The war led to the U.S. emerging predominant in the Caribbean region,[14] and resulted in U.S. acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions. It led to U.S. involvement in the Philippine Revolution and later to the Philippine–American War. main issue was Cuban independence. had been occurring for some years in Cuba against Spanish colonial rule. The U.S. backed these revolts upon entering the Spanish–American War. There had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873. But in the late 1890s, American public opinion swayed in support of the rebellion due to reports of concentration camps (death estimates range from 150,000 to 400,000 people) set up to control the populace.[15][16] Yellow journalism exaggerated the atrocities to further increase public fervor and to sell more newspapers and magazines.[17] business community had just recovered from a deep depression and feared that a war would reverse the gains. Accordingly, most business interests lobbied vigorously against going to war.[18] President William McKinley ignored the exaggerated news reporting and sought a peaceful settlement.[19] However, after the United States Navy armored cruiser Maine mysteriously exploded and sank in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed McKinley into a war that he had wished to avoid. April 20, 1898, McKinley signed a joint Congressional resolution demanding Spanish withdrawal and authorizing the President to use military force to help Cuba gain independence.[20] response, Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba.[21] Both sides declared war; neither had allies. 10-week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. As U.S. agitators for war well knew,[22] U.S. naval power would prove decisive, allowing expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already facing nationwide Cuban insurgent attacks and further wasted by yellow fever.[23] invaders obtained the surrender of Santiago de Cuba and Manila despite the good performance of some Spanish infantry units, and fierce fighting for positions such as San Juan Hill.[24] sued for peace after two Spanish squadrons were sunk in the battles of Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay, and a third, more modern fleet was recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts.[25] result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. which allowed it temporary control of Cuba and ceded ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine islands. cession of the Philippines involved payment of $20 million ($620 million today) to Spain by the U.S. to cover infrastructure owned by Spain.[26] defeat and loss of the Spanish Empire's last remnants was a profound shock to Spain's national psyche and provoked a thorough philosophical and artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of '98.[25] The United States gained several island possessions spanning the globe, which provoked rancorous debate over the wisdom of expansionism.[27] Philippine-“American War 1899-1902; GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922;

US, 1900, 20th Century Folder, World War I, World War II, Korean War, Viet Nam War, Gulf War

US, 1905-1913, Los Angeles Aquaduct, Colorado Aquaduct 1933, California Aquaduct, 1963
Los Angeles Aqueduct, 1905-1913; Los Angeles Aqueduct system, comprising the Los Angeles Aqueduct (Owens Valley aqueduct) and the Second Los Angeles Aqueduct, is a water conveyance system, built and operated by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.[6] Owens Valley aqueduct was designed and built by the city's water department, at the time named The Bureau of Los Angeles Aqueduct, under the supervision of the department's Chief Engineer William Mulholland.[7] The system delivers water from the Owens River in the Eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains to Los Angeles, California. as the California water wars, its construction was controversial from the start, as water diversions to Los Angeles eliminated the Owens Valley as a viable farming community.[8] The continued operation has led to public debate, legislation, and court battles over the environmental impacts of the aqueduct on Mono Lake and other ecosystems. Los Angeles Aqueduct[edit] aqueduct project began in 1905 when the voters of Los Angeles approved a US$1.5 million bond for the 'purchase of lands and water and the inauguration of work on the aqueduct'. On June 12, 1907, a second bond was passed with a budget of US$24.5 million to fund construction.[9][10] began in 1908 and was divided into eleven divisions and a cement plant. The number of men who were on the payroll the first year was 2,629 and this number peaked at 6,060 in May 1909. In 1910, employment dropped to 1,150 due to financial reasons but rebounded later in the year. Between 1911 and 1912 employment ranged from 2,800 to 3,800 workers. The number of laborers working on the aqueduct at its peak was 3,900.[11][12][13][14] In 1913, the City of Los Angeles completed construction of the first Los Angeles Aqueduct.

Los Angeles Aqueduct, 1905-1913
Los Angeles Aqueduct, 1905-1913; Los Angeles Aqueduct system, comprising the Los Angeles Aqueduct (Owens Valley aqueduct) and the Second Los Angeles Aqueduct, is a water conveyance system, built and operated by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.[6] Owens Valley aqueduct was designed and built by the city's water department, at the time named The Bureau of Los Angeles Aqueduct, under the supervision of the department's Chief Engineer William Mulholland.[7] The system delivers water from the Owens River in the Eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains to Los Angeles, California. as the California water wars, its construction was controversial from the start, as water diversions to Los Angeles eliminated the Owens Valley as a viable farming community.[8] The continued operation has led to public debate, legislation, and court battles over the environmental impacts of the aqueduct on Mono Lake and other ecosystems. Los Angeles Aqueduct[edit] aqueduct project began in 1905 when the voters of Los Angeles approved a US$1.5 million bond for the 'purchase of lands and water and the inauguration of work on the aqueduct'. On June 12, 1907, a second bond was passed with a budget of US$24.5 million to fund construction.[9][10] began in 1908 and was divided into eleven divisions and a cement plant. The number of men who were on the payroll the first year was 2,629 and this number peaked at 6,060 in May 1909. In 1910, employment dropped to 1,150 due to financial reasons but rebounded later in the year. Between 1911 and 1912 employment ranged from 2,800 to 3,800 workers. The number of laborers working on the aqueduct at its peak was 3,900.[11][12][13][14] In 1913, the City of Los Angeles completed construction of the first Los Angeles Aqueduct.

US, 1913, West Coast Railroad, After LA Aquaduct
See Northern Pacific RWY

US, 1935-1968, THOMAS MERTON, monk, poet, spiritual writer, Trappist monastery of Gethsemani, Kentucky, silence
US, 1935-1968, THOMAS MERTON, monk, poet, spiritual writer, Trappist monastery of Gethsemani, Kentucky, American Parents, born iFrance, school iFrance&England, graduated Columbia 1938, MA 1939 Joined Roman Catholic Church & taught St Bonaventure 2yrs, 1941 monk Trappist Monastery Louisville, Ky, extremely strict silence except for communal prayer chanting, manual labor, study, developed interest in Buddhist mysticism end of life, died electrical accident at Christian Buddhist conference iBankok; Trappist monastery of Gethsemani near Louisville, KY.; THOMAS MERTON, MONK, POET, SPIRITUAL WRITER, 1968, Commemorated December 10 ; Merton was born in 1915 in France, of American parents. early education was in France (Lycee de Montauban 1927-8) and England (Oakham School, 1929-32; Clare College, Cambridge, 1933-4). came to America and attended Columbia University, graduated in English in 1938, worked there one year as a teaching assistant, and got his M.A. in 1939. 1939 he joined the Roman Catholic Church, and taught at St Bonaventure for the next two years. 1941 he entered the Trappist monastery of Gethsemani near Louisville, Kentucky. Trappists, called more formally Cistercians of the Strict Observance, are (or were before Vatican II) an extremely strict Roman Catholic monastic order, devoted to communal prayer (they spend at least four hours a day in chapel, chanting the praises of God), to private prayer and contemplation, to study, and to manual labor. for those whose special duties require otherwise, they are vowed not to speak except in praise of God. Thus, when not singing in chapel, they are silent. the end of his life, Merton developed an interest in Buddhist and other Far Eastern approaches to mysticism and contemplation, and their relation to Christian approaches. He was attending an international conference on Christian and Buddhist monasticism in Bangkok, Thailand, when he was accidentally electrocuted on 10 December 1968. published books include the following. I have starred those that one biographer of his considers his best work. After some titles, I have inserted quotations from the work (from a selection made by another reader). 1944 Thirty Poems. 1946 a Man in the Divided Sea. 1947 Figures For an Apocalypse, a book of poems. * 1948 Seven Storey Mountain, a spiritual autobiography. This is the book that made him famous. 1949 Exile Ends in Glory. * 1949 Seeds of Contemplation, about prayer. * 1949 Waters of Siloe, a history of the Trappist order. "Siloe," More commonly spelled "Siloam," is a pool in Jerusalem. Jesus healed A blind man by daubing clay on his eyes and sending him to wash it off in the pool of Siloam. 1949 Tears of the Blind Lions. 1950 What Are These Wounds? 1951 the Ascent To Truth * 1953 Sign of Jonas 1953 Bread in the Wilderness 1954 Last of the Fathers * 1955 No Man Is an Island "Music and art and poetry attune the soul to God because they induce a kind of contact with the Creator and Ruler of the Universe." 1956 the Living Bread, about the Lord's Supper. 1957 the Silent Life 1957 the Strange Islands 1958 Thoughts in Solitude 1959 the Secular Journal of Thomas Merton 1959 Selected Poems of Thomas Merton 1960 Disputed Questions 1960 Spiritual Direction and Meditation 1961 Behavior of Titans 1961 Wisdom of the Desert 1962 a Thomas Merton Reader 1962 New Seeds of Contemplation 1962 Original Child Bomb 1963 Life and Holiness 1963 Emblems of a Season of Fury 1964 Seeds of Destruction 1965 Seasons of Celebration 1965 the Way of Chuang Tzu 1966 Raids On the Unspeakable * 1966 Conjectures of a Guilty Bystander "Businesses, are, in reality, quasi-religious sects. When you go to work in one, you embrace A New Faith. And if they are really big businesses, you progress from faith to a kind of mystique. Belief in the product, preaching the product, in the end the product becomes the focus of a transcendental experience. Through 'the product' one communes with the vast forces of life, nature, and history that are expressed in business." "Advertising treats all products with the reverence and the seriousness due to sacraments." "Technology is not in itself opposed to spirituality and to religion. But it presents a great temptation." 1967 Mystics and Zen Masters 1968 Cables To the Ace 1968 Faith and Violence 1968 Zen and the Birds of Appetite death occurs here. Later works were presumably edited by others after his death, and are either previously unpublished material or anthologies of work already published.) 1969 My Argument With the Gestapo 1969 the Geography of Lograire 1969 the Climate of Monastic Prayer 1969 Contemplative Prayer 1970 the True Solitude: Selections From the Writings of Thomas Merton. * 1971 Contemplation in a World of Action, a series of essays. 1971 Thomas Merton On Peace 1971 Opening the Bible 1973 the Asian Journals of Thomas Merton, a collection of his writings about Oriental philosophy and mysticism. 1980 Love and Living, a collection from his writings. superficial freedom to wander aimlessly here or there, to taste this or that, to make a choice of distractions (in Pascal's sense) is simply a sham. It claims to be a freedom of 'choice' when it has evaded the basic task of discovering who it is that chooses." danger of education, I have found, is that it so easily confuses means with ends. Worse than that, it quite easily forgets both and devotes itself merely to the mass production of uneducated gradtuates--people literally unfit for anything except to take part in an elaborate and completely artificial charade which they and their contemporaries have conspired to call 'life'." "The least of the work of learning is done in classrooms." who regards love as a deal made on the basis of 'needs' is in danger of falling into a purely quantitative ethic. If love is a deal, then who is to say that you should not make as many deals as possible?" publisher asked me to write something on 'The Secret of Success,' and I refused.] If I had a message to my contemporaries, I said, it was surely this: Be anything you like, be madmen, drunks, and bastards of every shape and form, but at all costs avoid one thing: success. ... If you have learned only how to be a success, your life has probably been wasted. If a university concentrates on producing successful people, it is lamentably failing in its obligation to society and to the students themselves." represents a vice that mankind would like to get rid of but which it cannot do without. Man is like an alcoholic who knows that drink will destroy him but who always has a reason for drinking. So with war." by James Kiefer

US, 1941-1945, Lend-Lease Policy, US supplied UK, Soviet Union, France, China, free food, oil, material
US Policy, 1941-1945, Lend-Lease Policy; March 12, 1941: Joseph's Seal Date; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17;

US, 1961-1963, President John F. Kennedy, Bay of Pigs, Cold War Cuban Missle Chrisis, Space Race, tax rate down, tax revenue up
US President, 1961-1963, John F. Kennedy; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; JONATHAN MYRICK DANIELS, SEMINARIAN (14 AUGUST 1965); Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; THOMAS MERTON, MONK, POET, SPIRITUAL WRITER, 1968, Commemorated December 10; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader (4 April 1968); FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1963-1969, President Lyndon Johnson, 1964 War on Poverty, insured s loans, C Rights Act, Viet Nam esc, 1965 riots, 1968 Tet
US President, 1963-1969, Lyndon B. Johnson, his Great Society, War on Poverty domestic policy was to create programs to expand civil rights, public broadcasting, Medicare, Medicaid, aid to education and arts, urban and rural development, and public services, he bolstered the Space Program, he federally insured student loans, Immigration Act the groundwork for policy today, Civil Rights Act, Political Landscape transformed, (Christian) Democrats (and only one of the Dixicrats) moved Republican, African Americans moved to Democrat party, Cold War 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave Johnson power to launch full military campaign in Viet Nam, 1965 summer riots in major cities, crime rates soared, need for law and order, 1968 Tet Offensive inflamed Anti War Sentiment, he quit reelection bid in 1968 US President, 1963-1969, Lyndon B. Johnson; Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 - January 22, 1973), often referred to by his initials LBJ, was an American educator and politician who served as the 36th president of the United States from 1963 to 1969. He had previously served as the 37th vice president from 1961 to 1963 under President John F. Kennedy. Democrat from Texas, Johnson also served as a U.S. representative, U.S. senator and the Senate's majority leader. He holds the distinction of being one of the few presidents who served in all elected offices at the federal level. in a farmhouse in Stonewall, Texas, to a local political family, Johnson worked as a high school teacher and a congressional aide before winning election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1937. won election to the United States Senate in 1948 after narrowly winning the Democratic Party's nomination.[2] was appointed to the position of Senate Majority Whip in 1951. He became the Senate Democratic leader in 1953 and majority leader in 1954. 1960 Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination for president. During the convention he came into conflict with the Democratic front-runner, fellow senator John F. Kennedy. The two men compromised and the Kennedy-Johnson ticket won in the 1960 presidential election. President Johnson would assume the presidency on November 22, 1963 after President Kennedy was assassinated. following year Johnson was elected to the presidency when he won in a landslide against Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater. Johnson received 61.1% of the popular vote in the 1964 presidential election; this makes his victory the largest share of the popular vote of any candidate since James Monroe's victory in 1820. domestic policy was aimed to create programs that would expand civil rights, public broadcasting, Medicare, Medicaid, aid to education and the arts, urban and rural development, and public services. coined the term the "Great Society" in 1964 to describe these efforts. In addition, he sought to create better living conditions for low income Americans by spearheading a campaign unofficially called the "War on Poverty"; by a strong economy, the effort helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration.[3] followed his predecessor's actions in bolstering the space program, and it was under his presidency that NASA's efforts became a top national priority and the Apollo Program was expanded. enacted the Higher Education Act of 1965 which established federally insured student loans. signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 which laid the groundwork for U.S. immigration policy today. opinion on the issue of civil rights put him at odds with other white, southern Democrats. civil rights legacy was shaped by signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. his presidency the American political landscape transformed significantly,[4] as white southerners who were Democratic stalwarts gradually moved to the Republican Party and African-Americans began moving towards the Democratic Party.[5] Because of his domestic agenda, Johnson's presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States.[6] presidency took place in Cold War America and thus he prioritized halting the expansion of Marxist-Leninist governments. Prior to 1964, the U.S. already had a noticeable presence in Vietnam by providing weapons, training, and aid to South Vietnam in order to stem the communist movement in the region. In 1964, following a naval skirmish, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to launch a full military campaign in Southeast Asia, marking the escalation of American involvement in the Vietnam War. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, and as the war progressed, American casualties soared along with deaths of Vietnamese civilians. 1968, the Tet Offensive inflamed the anti-war movement and public opinion dramatically turned against the war. Many called an end to U.S. involvement, and opposition to the war surged among draft-age students on university campuses. home, Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots began in major cities in 1965 and crime rates soared. His political opponents seized the opportunity and raised demands for "law and order" policies. Johnson began his presidency with widespread approval, support for him declined as the public became frustrated with both the war and social unrest. the 1968 presidential election, he ended his bid for re-nomination after a disappointing result in the New Hampshire primary, and the election was eventually won by Republican candidate Richard Nixon. returned to his Texas ranch and kept a low profile until he died of a heart attack in 1973. of the most controversial presidents in American history, public opinion of his legacy has continuously evolved since his death. and scholars rank Johnson in the upper tier because of his domestic policies; his administration passed many major laws that made serious advancements in civil rights, health care, and welfare.[7] he is widely condemned for his role in escalating the Vietnam War and the consequences that came along with it, including the deaths of 58,220 American service members, dropping over 7.5 million tons of explosives over Vietnam, and the use of the noxious herbicide Agent Orange.[8][9][10][11] JONATHAN MYRICK DANIELS, SEMINARIAN (14 AUGUST 1965); Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; THOMAS MERTON, MONK, POET, SPIRITUAL WRITER, 1968, Commemorated December 10; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader (4 April 1968); THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1969-1974, President Richard Nixon, ended Vietnam War, detente with Soviet Union and China, moon landings, and EPA, resigned
US President, 1969-1974, Richard Nixon, A member of the Republican Party, Nixon previously served as the 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961, having risen to national prominence as a representative and senator from California, After five years in the White House that saw the conclusion to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, détente with the Soviet Union and China, the first manned moon landings, and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency, he became the only president to resign from the office, following the Watergate scandal; US President, 1969-1974, Richard Nixon; Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. member of the Republican Party, Nixon previously served as the 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961, having risen to national prominence as a representative and senator from California. five years in the White House that saw the conclusion to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, détente with the Soviet Union and China, the first manned moon landings, and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency, he became the only president to resign from the office, following the Watergate scandal. was born into a poor family of Quakers in a small town in Southern California. He graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government. He served on active duty in the Naval Reserve during World War II. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-Communist which elevated him to national prominence. In 1950, he was elected to the Senate. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the 1952 election, subsequently serving for eight years as the vice president. He unsuccessfully ran for president in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy. Nixon then lost a race for governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected, defeating Hubert Humphrey and George Wallace in a close election. ended American involvement in Vietnam in 1973, ending the military draft that same year. Nixon's visit to China in 1972 eventually led to diplomatic relations between the two nations, and he gained the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union the same year. His administration generally transferred power from federal control to state control. He imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools, established the Environmental Protection Agency, and began the War on Cancer. He also presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing, which signaled the end of the Space Race. He was re-elected in one of the largest electoral landslides in American history in 1972 when he defeated George McGovern. his second term, Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses in the Yom Kippur War, a war which led to the oil crisis at home. By late 1973, Watergate escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain impeachment and removal from office, he became the first American president to resign. Afterwards, he was issued a pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford. In 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote his memoirs and nine other books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18, 1994, and died four days later at age 81. Surveys of historians and political scientists have ranked Nixon as a below-average president.[2][3][4] However, evaluations of him have proven complex, with his successes as president contrasted against the circumstances of his departure from office. Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1974-1976, President, Gerald Ford
US President, 1974-1976, Gerald Ford; FIRST ORDINATION OF WOMEN TO THE PRIESTHOOD IN THE EPISCOPAL CHURCH, (29 JULY 1974) ; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1976-1981, President, Jimmy Carter
US President, 1976-1981, Jimmy Carter; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1981-1989, President, Ronald Reagan
US President, 1981-1989, Ronald Reagan; Valaam Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on August 7 ; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

US, 1989-1993, President, George H. W. Bush
US President, 1989-1993, George H. W. Bush; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17;

US, 1993-2001, President, Bill Clinton
US President, 1993-2001, Bill Clinton; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17;

US, 2000, 21st Century Folder, Iraq and Afghanastan Wars

US, 2001-2009, President, George W. Bush
US President, 2001-2009, George W. Bush; Valaam Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on August 7 ; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; Oral Roberts, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 12;

US Capitol, Washington, DC, 10 Mile Square Folder, Patomac and Anacostia Rivers

Potomac River Mouth (Chesapeake Bay)

Potomac River

Anacostia River Source (Prince George's County, MD)

Anacostia River 1

Anacostia River Mouth (Washington Channel, Potomac River)

Anaostia River

Orthodox Parish, Washington, DC, US Capital, 1950
Russia, Kiev, 1916-1966, St John oSan Francisco, fKharkov, Ukraine (High Point, Three Rivers source of the Seversky Donets, Vorskla River), born to pious aristocrats, sickly youth, poor appetite, intense religious interest, military school ed, Kharkiv U, law degree 1918, theological ed Belgrade 1925, Bishop Russian Church Outside Russia ROCOR, fled Bolsheviks, emigrated tYugoslavia, tonsured monk by ROCOR primate, taught iSerbian High School, hieromonk 1926, served iGreek, Bishop i1934, tShanghai, 1946 China Archbishop, ONationalities unity, built large cathedral w large Bell tower& lParish house, Churches, hospitals, orphanages, intensely active, barefoot Fool, end WWII exodus fCommunists 1949, 5,000 refuges Tubabao, Philippines, Wash DC lobbing tEnter US, parish in DC, 1951 Western Europe Archdiocese from Paris, restored Gaullican liturgy, consecrated ordained Bishops, 1962 Diocese San Francisco after friend Tikhon, sorrowful disunity days there, but peace there & new cathedral; US Capital, Washington, DC; Saint John [Maximovitch], Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, Commemorated on July 2; Father among the Saints John (Maximovitch), Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco (1896-1966), a diocesan bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) served widely from China to France to the United States. John departed this life on June 19 (O.S.) / July 2 (N.S.), 1966, was officially glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad on July 2, 1994. glorification was later recognized for universal veneration by the Patriarchate of Moscow on July 2, 2008. future Saint John was born on June 4, 1896, in the village of Adamovka in Kharkiv province pious aristocrats, Boris and Glafira Maximovitch. was given the baptismal name of Michael, after the Holy Archangel Michael. In his youth, Michael was sickly and had a poor appetite, but he displayed an intense religious interest. was educated at the Poltava Military School (1907-14); Kharkiv Imperial University, from which he received a law degree (in 1918); and the University of Belgrade (where he completed his theological education in 1925). and his family fled their country as the Bolshevik revolutionaries descended on the country, emigrating to Yugoslavia. he enrolled in the Department of Theology of the University of Belgrade. was tonsured a monk in 1926 by Metropolitan Anthony (Khrapovitsky) of Kharkov the first primate of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia). Anthony later in 1926 ordained him hierodeacon. Gabriel of Chelyabinsk ordained him hieromonk on November 21, 1926. to his ordination he began an active life of teaching in a Serbian high school serving, at the request of local Greeks and Macedonians, in the Greek language. the growth of his popularity, the bishops of the Russian Church Aboard resolved to elevate him to the episcopate. John was consecrated bishop on May 28, 1934, with Metropolitan Anthony serving as principal consecrator, which he was assigned to the Diocese of Shanghai. years later he was named Archbishop of China. his arrival in Shanghai, Bishop John began working to restore unity among the various Orthodox nationalities. time, he worked to build a large cathedral church that was dedicated to Surety of Sinners Icon to the Mother of God, with a bell tower and large parish house. he inspired many activities: building of churches, hospitals, and orphanages among the Orthodox and Russians of Shanghai. was intensely active, constantly praying and serving the daily cycle of services, while also visiting the sick with the Holy Gifts. often would walk barefooted even in the coldest days. Yet to avoid the appearance of secular glory, he would pretend to act the fool. the end of World War II and the coming to power of the communists in China, Bishop John led the exodus of his community from Shanghai in 1949. Initially, he helped some 5,000 refugees to a camp on the island of Tubabao in the Philippines, he travelled successfully to Washington, D.C., to lobby to amend the law to allow these refugees to enter the United States. was while on this trip that Bishop John took time to establish a parish in Washington dedicated to Saint John the Forerunner. 1951, Archbishop John was assigned to the Archdiocese of Western Europe with his cathedra in Paris. his time there, he also served as archpastor of the Orthodox Church of France, restored Gallican liturgy he studied and then celebrated. was the principal consecrator of the Orthodox Church of France's first modern bishop, Jean-Nectaire (Kovalevsky) of Saint-Denis, ordained to the priesthood the man who would become its second bishop, Germain (Bertrand-Hardy) of Saint-Denis. 1962, Archbishop John was assigned to the Diocese of San Francisco, his long time friend Archbishop Tikhon. John's days in San Francisco were to prove sorrowful as he attempted to heal the great disunity in his community. was able to bring peace such that the new cathedral, dedicated to the Joy of all Who Sorrow Icon of the Mother of God, was completed. revering Saint John of Kronstadt, Archbishop John played an active role in preparation of his canonization. reposed during a visit to Seattle on July 2, 1966, accompanying a tour of the Kursk-Root Icon of the Mother of God. was laid to rest in a crypt chapel under the main altar of the new cathedral. CREDIT: www.monasteryofstjohn.org/?p=about_st_john

District of Columbia (DC, inside the blue square)
District of Columbia; FREDERICK DOUGLASS;

Washington Monument
Washington Monument; This Satanic Masonic phallic symbol is at the heart of both Washington DC's ten mile square. In the spirit of Humanism and the One World Government, Religion and Economy of the Anti-Christ, the Satanic Masonic Casket the faces east to the sun rise and the Capitol Building. Masonic Deliverance - Exposing Freemasonry; Masonic Deliverance - Prayers;

Capitol Building
Capitol Building;

Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington DC
Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington DC ; THOMAS TRAHERNE, PRIEST AND POET, 27 Sept. 1674;

Lincoln Memorial
Lincoln Memorial;

1963, March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Martin Luther King Jr
1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom; MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., Civil Rights Leader (4 April 1968) ;

Jefferson Memorial
Jefferson Memorial;

Virginia Theological Seminary, near Washington, DC
Virginia Theological Seminary; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893) ;

Satanic Masonic Egyptian Coffin
All secret sin will be revealed. The Satanic Masonic Egyptian Coffin binds the initiate to the spirit of death and destruction. It symbolizes the ancient Egyptian death cult worshipping the god of the dead who is that ugly lord of the underworld. Masonic Deliverance - Exposing Freemasonry; Masonic Deliverance - Prayers;

Ten Mile Square Dedicated to Satan
Every mile of this Ten Mile Square has a monument dedicated with Satanic symbols. In other words, there are 40 monuments surrounding Washington, DC dedicated to Satan. These monuments are just like the Satanic Masonic Phallic monuments we see across the Canada US border and along the Mexico US border, four or five foot high Phallic Symbols like the Washington Monument in the center of the Satanic Masonic Egyptian Coffin at the center of the Ten Mile Square. Masonic Deliverance - Exposing Freemasonry; Masonic Deliverance - Prayers;

Frelinghuysen University, Washington D.C.
Frelinghuysen University; ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER, Educator (1964), Commemorated Febraury 28 ;

Freedmen's Hospital, Howard University Hospital
Freedmen's Hospital, Howard University Hospital; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17;

Howard University, Washington, DC
Howard University, Washington, DC; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

Gallaudet College in Washington, DC, 1864
Gallaudet College in Washington, DC; Henry Winter Syle of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ;

White House
White House; FRANCES PERKINS, PUBLIC SERVANT AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1965, Commemorated May 13 ; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893) ;

America
America; RICHARD HOOKER, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (3 NOV 1600) ; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1947, Commemorated March 12 ;

Anacostia (neighborhood), Washington DC
Anacostia (neighborhood of Washington, DC); FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 18;

Howard University School of Law, Washington, DC
Howard University School of Law; THURGOOD MARSHALL, LAWER AND JURIST, 1993, Commemorated May 17;

Untitled Placemark

USA (Clean), Roads, Eastern Rivers, Western Railroads

United States (Clean), Continental US, its Area
United States, Continental US, its Area

United States (Clean), its Area, includes Russian Alaska, Hawaii Separate in Red
United States, its Area, includes Russian Alaska, Hawaii Separate in Red

United States (Clean), 13 Colonies of England, New England, New World
New England; 13 Colonies;

United States (Clean), Greenland etc. Potential For Defence
Greenland etc. Potential For Defence

USA, America (United States)
America (United States); Repose of St Nikolai of Zhicha, Commemorated on March 18;

US and Canadian Western Railroads

Continental Divide - North American Divides
Continental divides ;

Continental Divide of the Americas

Continental Divide - United States

Continental Divide - Canada and Alaska

Continental Divide - Panama thru Mexico

Continental Divide - South America to Panama

Continental Divide - South America

Playas Valley, east of the Continental Divide
Playas Valley, forms eastern edge of the Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Animas Valley, east of Continental Divide
Animas Valley, just east of the Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Gila National Forest, Continental Divide
Gila National Forest, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Reserve, New Mexico, Continental Divide
Reserve, New Mexico, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Pie Town, New Mexico, Continental Divide
Pie Town, New Mexico, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Cibola National Forest, west of Continental Divide
Cibola National Forest, western border of Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

El Malpais National Monument, Continental Divide
El Malpais National Monument, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

San Pedro Parks Wilderness. Continental Divide
San Pedro Parks Wilderness. Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Chama River Canyon Wilderness, near Continental Divide
Chama River Canyon Wilderness; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Carson National Forest, west of Continental Divide
Carson National Forest, west of Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Cumbres Pass, NM, Continental Divide
Cumbres Pass, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Wolf Creek Pass, CO, Continental Divide
Wolf Creek Pass, CO, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Canby Mt., CO, Continental Divide
Rio Grande River Source, Canby Mt., CO, Continental Divide;

Collegiate Peaks Wilderness, Continental Divide
Collegiate Peaks Wilderness, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Mount Elbert, Continental Divide
Mount Elbert, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Grays Peak, Continental Divide
Grays Peak, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Rocky Mountain National Park, Continental Divide
Rocky Mountain National Park, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Rabbit Ears Pass, CO, Continental Divide
Rabbit Ears Pass, CO, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Medicine Bow National Forest, Battle Pass, WY, Continental Divide
Medicine Bow National Forest, Battle Pass, WY, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Bridger-Teton National Forest, WY, Continental Divide
Bridger-Teton National Forest, WY, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Two Ocean Pass, WY, Continental Divide
Two Ocean Pass, WY, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Henrys Lake, ID, Continental Divide
Henrys Lake, ID, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Lima, MT, Continental Divide
Lima, MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Bitterroot Range, ID, Continental Divide
Bitterroot Range, ID, Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Lemhi Pass, ID & MT, Continental Divide
Lemhi Pass, ID & MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Centennial Mountains, Continental Divide
Centennial Mountains, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Chief Joseph Pass, ID & MT, Continental Divide
Chief Joseph Pass, ID & MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Anaconda Mountain Range, MT, Continental Divide
Anaconda Mountain Range, MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Circle of Butte, MT, Beaverhead Deerlodge NF, Continental Divide
Circle of Butte, Beaverhead Deerlodge NF, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Helena, MT, Continental Divide
Helena, MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Lincoln, MT, Continental Divide
Lincoln, MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Scapegoat Wilderness, MT, Continental Divide
Scapegoat Wilderness, MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Bob Marshall Wilderness, MT, Continental Divide
Bob Marshall Wilderness, MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Triple Divide Peak, MT, Continental Divide
Triple Divide Peak, MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Glacier National Park, MT, Continental Divide
Glacier National Park, MT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Cape Prince of Wales, AK, Continental Divide
Cape Prince of Wales, AK, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Brooks Range, AK, Continental Divide
Brooks Range; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Porcupine River, AK & YT, Continental Divide
Porcupine River, AK & YT, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Yukon, Continental Divide
Yukon Territory, CanadaContinental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Cassiar Mountains, BC, Continental Divide
Cassiar Mountains, BC, Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Omineca Mountains, BC, Continental Divide
Omineca Mountains, BC, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Nechako Plateau, of Interior Plateau, BC, Continental Divide
Nechako Plateau, of Interior Plateau, BC, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Summit Lake. BC. Continental Divide
Summit Lake. BC. Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

McGregor Plateau, Continental Divide
McGregor Plateau, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

120th Meridian West, BC & AB, Continental Divide
120th Meridian West, BC & AB, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Snow Dome, BC & AB, Canada, Continental Divide
Snow Dome (Canada); Artic Divide; Great Divide of the Americas ;

Waterton Lakes National Park, Continental Divide
Waterton Lakes National Park, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Chihuahua (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Chihuahua (state, Mexico), Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Durango (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Durango (state, Mexico), Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Zacatecas (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Zacatecas (state, Mexico), Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Aguascalientes (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Aguascalientes (state, Mexico), Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Jalisco (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Jalisco (state, Mexico), Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Guanajuato (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Guanajuato (state, Mexico), Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Queretaro (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Quertaro (state, Mexico), Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Federal District, Mexico City, Continental Divide
Federal District, Mexico City, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Morelos (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Morelos (state, Mexico), Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Puebla (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Puebla (state, Mexico), Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Oaxaca (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Oaxaca (state, Mexico), Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Chiapas (state, Mexico), Continental Divide
Chiapas (state, Mexico), Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Southern Guatemala, Continental Divide
Southern Guatemala, Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Southwestern Honduras, Continental Divide
Southwestern Honduras, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Western Nicaragua, Continental Divide
Western Nicaragua, Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Western and Southwestern Costa Rica, Continental Divide
Western and Southwestern Costa Rica, Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Southern Panama, Continental Divide
Southern Panama, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Andes Mountains, Continental Divide
Andes Mountains, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Western Columbia, Continental Divide
Western Columbia, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Central Ecuador, Continental Divide
Central Ecuador, Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Western and Southwestern Peru, Continental Divide
Western and Southwestern Peru, Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Eastern Chile, Continental Divide
Eastern Chile, Continental Divide; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Southern Chile, Western Patagonia, Continental Divide
Western Patagonia, Continental Divide ; Continental Divide of the Americas;

Northwest Territories, Smokey River Folder

Continental Divide - Eastern Divide

Eastern Divide 1 (Lake Okeechobee)

Eastern Divide 2

Eastern Divide 3 (Georgia)

Eastern Divide 4

Eastern Divide 5

Eastern Divide 25 (Cumberland (National) Road)

Eastern Divide 28 (Pennsylvania Mainline Canal)

The Fall Line, waterfalls

Continental Divide - West Virginia Divide to Eastern Divide, along Kentucky&West Virgiana Borders

Continental Divide - St Lawarence Divide

Continental Divides - Central New York State, Susquehanna and Delaware River Drainages

Continental Divide - Artic Divide

Snow Dome, BC & AB, Canada, Artic Divide
Snow Dome (Canada); Artic Divide; Great Divide of the Americas

Continental Divides - Nunavut Territory, Canada

Continental Divide - Utah Great Basin

Continental Divide - South Platte River

Great Plains area

High Plains area

High Plains Area (before the Black Hills)

Continental Divide - Upper South Platte River

Great Basin of Utah, Oregon, Idaho and California

Continental Divide - Columbia River

Continental Divides - North Idaho - South Idaho

Continental Divides - Bitterroot Divide, North Idaho-NW Montana

Continental Divide - Yukon Fraser

Purcell Trench 200 Miles Golden to Bonners

Continental Divides, Yaak-Moyie Divide, Purcell Mts

Continental Divides - East Kootenai-Moyie Divide

Continental Divides - West Kootenai - Columbia Divide

Continental Divides - Kokanee Glacier Selkirk Divide -Kootenai from Columbia creeks

Continental Divide - Ohio-Indiana Border

Continental Divides - Ohio-Indiana Border

Continental Divide - Indiana-Illinois Border

Spokane (Clean) (Fort S) Waters, its Area (Spokane Co, WA, North ID, Eastern BC)

Kansas City, Missouri (Kansas River Mouth, Missouri River 23)
Kansas City, Missouri;

Concordia, Missouri (Missoiuri River 23, 55 miles east of Kansas City)
Concordia, Missouri ;

Canada, 1871, Dewney Trail, Southeast to Southwest BC, 80% of the trail is Crowsnest Highway
Dewney Trail, Southern BC; Dewdney Trail is a 720 km (450 mi) trail in British Columbia, Canada that served as a major thoroughfare in mid-19th century British Columbia. trail was a critical factor in the development and strengthening of the newly established British Colony of British Columbia, tying together mining camps and small towns that were springing up along the route during the gold rush era prior to the colony's joining Canadian Confederation in 1871. route's importance and urgency was prompted because many new gold finds were occurring at locations near the US border that were much more easily accessed from Washington Territory than via any practicable route from the barely settled parts of the Lower Mainland and Cariboo. approximately 80 percent of the former trail has been incorporated into the Crowsnest Highway. trail was built in southern British Columbia and linked what was then Fort Hope (now just Hope) in the southwest to what became Fort Steele in the southeast. Covering a distance of 720 kilometers (450 mi), its purpose was to secure British control of the parts of the colony flanking the US border, which included the new gold rush at Wild Horse Creek and at other points between such as Rock Creek. Approximately 80 per cent of what is now Highway 3 started life as the Dewdney Trail, but this is largely because the terrain allows for no other low-altitude transit of the regions involved. route very roughly parallels the Canada-US border along the 49th parallel, and at times reaches elevations of more than 1,200 metres (4,000 ft). passes through varied scenery, including four major mountain ranges (Cascades, Monashees, Selkirks and Purcells), some major river valleys (Skagit, Similkameen, Okanagan, Kettle, Columbia, Goat, Moyie and Kootenay) and historic townsites such as Hope, Princeton, Grand Forks, Trail, Creston, Yahk, Moyie and Cranbrook. and history[edit] the trail's construction was Edgar Dewdney, a Devonshire-born engineer. When gold was discovered in the Similkameen River and Rock Creek area, the governor of the newly established British colony of British Columbia, James Douglas, was anxious to protect British interests, and determined that a trail should be built to the Interior. After the Royal Engineers surveyed a route in 1860 from Ft. Hope to Vermilion Forks (now Princeton), Dewdney and Walter Moberly won the contract to build the trail. That first section was completed in 1861 and covered 120 km (75 mi). specifications for the trail were that it be 1.3 m (4 ft) wide, clear of trees and boulders, and any wet sections made passable. The middle 0.5 metre section (1.5 ft) was to be smooth and hard, and in areas where there were bluffs, slides or dangerous areas, there had to be enough space for animals and people to get through. Bridges over the many creeks and rivers were to be 4 metres (12 ft) wide. For this, the builders were paid $496 per mile. 1863, gold was discovered in Wild Horse Creek, in the East Kootenays. The new governor of British Columbia, Frederick Seymour, believed that the trail should be extended to Wild Horse Creek in order to keep the gold from being transported south via a shorter route into the US, rather than into British coffers. Thus in 1865, Dewdney, then 28 years old, was awarded the contract, and completed the much longer second section (300 miles, or 480 km.) in seven months, for a cost of $75,000. The second part of the trail passed through wilderness and required the builders to penetrate three mountain ranges. route was first surveyed by a crew of the Royal Engineers, with local First Nations hired to pack supplies over the mountains between Hope and Princeton, covering 11 km (6.8 mi) a day. However, at Allison’s Ranch, near Princeton, the First Nations porters refused to travel down the Similkameen River, so they were paid off, and Dewdney bought a dozen horses from the ranch. May 13, 1865, they had reached So-o-yoyos (called Osoyoos today). They climbed Anarchist Mountain and then down into the Kettle River Valley and the settlement of Rock Creek. Rock Creek had been founded during a gold rush, and had attracted around 5,000 people, but was nearly deserted when Dewdney and his team passed through. (While placer mining continued in Rock Creek until the 1930s, with $200,000 worth of gold being removed, it is believed that the mother lode was never found.) They released their exhausted horses in the Kettle River valley near Rock Creek, and with the aid of some Sinixt people, forged eastwards to Christina Lake. Just before the mountains west of present-day Rossland, the group split into two in order to determine the best way across. Dewdney sent former Royal Engineer George Turner and most of the crew up over what is now the Santa Rosa Pass through the Rossland Range to get to Fort Shepherd, built by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1858 on the Columbia River opposite the mouth of the Pend d'Oreille. headed north of Christina Lake with five men, walking over the Rossland Mountains farther north to emerge on the Lower Arrow Lake where they acquired a canoe and paddled down to rejoin the main party at Shepherd on May 27, 1865. While the crew rested, Dewdney and a couple of volunteers paddled back up the Columbia and up the Lower Kootenay River, portaging 14 times to get to the West Arm of Kootenay Lake. After exploring other possible options, Dewdney concluded that Kootenay Lake was too big a barrier to make it a viable route, so he returned to Fort Shepherd. ultimately found his way through the mountains, following valleys carved out by streams. He emerged near the spot where Rossland was eventually established. Then he followed what became known as Trail Creek, which emptied into the Columbia River – the city of Trail stands there today. of the crew were then set to working their way westward back up Trail Creek, roughing out the Trail over the Santa Rosa Pass and back to Rock Creek. Meanwhile, Dewdney, ex-Royal Engineer Robert Howell and a small crew crossed the Columbia and travelled up the Pend d’Oreille to the Salmon (now Salmo) River and then up the Lost Creek valley and across the Nelson Range by way of the Kootenay Pass. (Travellers on Highway 3 today still cross by this route, also known as the Salmo-Creston pass.) Then they headed down Summit Creek into what is now called the Creston Valley in the East Kootenays. they crossed the swampy territory of the Purcell Trench at the head of Kootenay Lake, before crossing the Purcell Mountains via Duck Creek. Travelling down the eastern side via the Goat River, they eventually intersected the Walla Walla Trail at Yahk in the Moyie River valley. The crew must have been elated to reach the Walla Walla Trail, since it was the main route into the US. From there it was a relatively easy walk along the Walla Walla, and they arrived at Galbraiths’ Ferry, near Fisherville, in early June. hired William Fernie and 65 men to start construction of the trail, heading back to the west. (The East Kootenay town of Fernie is named for Mr. Fernie.) He received $25,000 in cash and gold dust to pay the crew, and had a nasty moment after he had cached the money in a tree stump while guiding Chief Justice Matthew Baillie Begbie from Summit Creek over a particularly boggy area as Begbie travelled to Fisherville (a mining town that had grown up near the gold strike), where he was going to preside over court. When Dewdney returned for the purse, he initially thought it had been taken – it had vanished and the stump in which he had cached it was shattered. But it transpired that the weight of the purse had broken the stump, and Dewdney found it as he hacked frantically at the stump. September, pack trains were travelling the trail to Wild Horse. By 1866, the best of the gold was largely gone from the Wild Horse strike, and miners dismantled Fisherville to try to mine underneath it. In its heyday, the town boasted government offices, saloons, stores and a brewery, and housed 5,000 people or more.

Dewney Trail, Crows Nest Highway, 80% D is CN Highway

Canada, 1881-1885, Canadian Pacific Railway
Canadian Pacific Railway; with the Canadian Confederation, the creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task originally undertaken as the National Dream by the Conservative government of Prime Minister John A. Macdonald (1st Canadian Ministry).[7] He was helped by Alexander Tilloch Galt, who was the owner of the North Western Coal and Navigation Company. British Columbia, a four-month sea voyage away from the East Coast, had insisted upon a land transport link to the East as a condition for joining Confederation (initially requesting a wagon road).[8] A. Macdonald 1873, John A. Macdonald and other high-ranking politicians, bribed in the Pacific Scandal, granted federal contracts to Hugh Allan's Canada Pacific Railway Company (which was unrelated to the current company) rather than to David Lewis Macpherson's Inter-Ocean Railway Company which was thought to have connections to the American Northern Pacific Railway Company. of this scandal, the Conservative Party was removed from office in 1873. The new Liberal prime minister, Alexander Mackenzie, ordered construction of segments of the railway as a public enterprise under the supervision of the Department of Public Works led by Sandford Fleming. was carried out during the first years of a number of alternative routes in this virgin territory followed by construction of a telegraph along the lines that had been agreed upon.[9] Thunder Bay section linking Lake Superior to Winnipeg was commenced in 1875. By 1880, around 1,000 kilometres (700 mi) was nearly complete, mainly across the troublesome Canadian Shield terrain, with trains running on only 500 kilometres (300 mi) of track.[10] C.P.R. 2-6-0 locomotive no. 2000 and employees Macdonald's return to power on 16 October 1878, a more aggressive construction policy was adopted. confirmed that Port Moody would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, and announced that the railway would follow the Fraser and Thompson rivers between Port Moody and Kamloops. 1879, the federal government floated bonds in London and called for tenders to construct the 206 km (128 mi) section of the railway from Yale, British Columbia, to Savona's Ferry, on Kamloops Lake. The contract was awarded to Andrew Onderdonk, whose men started work on 15 May 1880. After the completion of that section, Onderdonk received contracts to build between Yale and Port Moody, and between Savona's Ferry and Eagle Pass.[11] 21 October 1880, a new syndicate, unrelated to Hugh Allan's, signed a contract with the Macdonald government. Fleming was dismissed and replaced with Collingwood Schreiber as chief engineer and general manager of all government railways. They agreed to build the railway in exchange for $25 million (approximately $625 million in modern Canadian dollars) in credit from the Canadian government and a grant of 25 million acres (100,000 km2) of land. government transferred to the new company those sections of the railway it had constructed under government ownership, on which it had already spent at least $25 million. its estimates of the cost of the Rocky Mountain section alone was over $60 million.[12] The government also defrayed surveying costs and exempted the railway from property taxes for 20 years. Montreal-based syndicate officially comprised five men: George Stephen, James J. Hill, Duncan McIntyre, Richard B. Angus and John Stewart Kennedy. Donald A. Smith[13] and Norman Kittson were unofficial silent partners with a significant financial interest. 15 February 1881, legislation confirming the contract received royal assent, and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company was formally incorporated the next day.[14] Critics claimed that the government gave too large a subsidy for the proposed project but this was to incorporate uncertainties of risk and irreversibility of insurance. The large subsidy also needed to compensate the CPR for not constructing the line in the future, but rather right away even though demand would not cover operational costs.[15] beaver was chosen as the railway's logo in honour of Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal, who had risen from factor to governor of the Hudson's Bay Company over a lengthy career in the beaver fur trade. Smith was a principal financier of the CPR.[13] staking much of his personal wealth to the venture. In 1885, he drove the last spike to complete the transcontinental line.[13] the railway, 1881–1886[edit] Canadian Pacific Railway Crew laying tracks at lower Fraser Valley, 1883 the railway took over four years. J. Hill in 1881 sent Alpheus Beede Stickney to be construction superintendent for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Canadian Pacific Railway began its westward expansion from Bonfield, Ontario (previously called Callander Station), where the first spike was driven into a sunken railway tie. Bonfield was inducted into Canadian Railway Hall of Fame in 2002 as the CPR first spike location. That was the point where the Canada Central Railway extension ended.[16] CCR was owned by Duncan McIntyre, who amalgamated it with the CPR, and became one of the handful of officers of the newly formed CPR. The CCR started in Brockville and extended to Pembroke. It then followed a westward route along the Ottawa River passing through places like Cobden, Deux-Rivières and eventually to Mattawa at the confluence of the Mattawa and Ottawa rivers. It then proceeded cross-country towards its final destination of Bonfield. McIntyre and his contractor James Worthington piloted the CPR expansion. Worthington continued on as the construction superintendent for the CPR past Bonfield. He remained with the CPR for about a year after which he left the company. McIntyre was uncle to John Ferguson who staked out future North Bay and who became the town's wealthiest inhabitant and mayor for four successive terms.[17] Unidentified engineers of the Canadian Pacific Railway Survey, 1872 was presumed that the railway would travel through the rich "Fertile Belt" of the North Saskatchewan River Valley and cross the Rocky Mountains via the Yellowhead Pass, a route suggested by Sandford Fleming based on a decade of work. the CPR quickly discarded this plan in favour of a more southerly route across the arid Palliser's Triangle in Saskatchewan and via Kicking Horse Pass and down the Field Hill to the Rocky Mountain Trench. This route was more direct and closer to the Canada–US border, making it easier for the CPR to keep American railways from encroaching on the Canadian market. this route also had several disadvantages. was that the CPR would need to find a route through the Selkirk Mountains in British Columbia while, at the time, it was not known whether a route even existed. job of finding a pass was assigned to a surveyor named Major Albert Bowman Rogers. The CPR promised him a cheque for $5,000 and that the pass would be named in his honour. Rogers became obsessed with finding the pass that would immortalize his name. He discovered the pass in April 1881[18][19] and, true to its word, the CPR named it "Rogers Pass" and gave him the cheque. However, he at first refused to cash it, preferring to frame it, saying he did not do it for the money. He later agreed to cash it with the promise of an engraved watch.[20] Map from 1890 showing system of land survey and the lines of the Canadian Pacific Railway in Manitoba, Alberta, Assiniboia, and Saskatchewan. First Nations reserves are marked throughout with "I.R." for "Indian Reserve." obstacle was that the proposed route crossed land in Alberta that was controlled by the Blackfoot First Nation. This difficulty was overcome when a missionary priest, Albert Lacombe, persuaded the Blackfoot chief Crowfoot that construction of the railway was inevitable. In return for his assent, Crowfoot was famously rewarded with a lifetime pass to ride the CPR. more lasting consequence of the choice of route was that, unlike the one proposed by Fleming, the land surrounding the railway often proved too arid for successful agriculture. The CPR may have placed too much reliance on a report from naturalist John Macoun, who had crossed the prairies at a time of very high rainfall and had reported that the area was fertile.[21] greatest disadvantage of the route was in Kicking Horse Pass, at the Alberta-British Columbia border on the continental divide. In the first 6 km (3.7 mi) west of the 1,625 metres (5,331 feet) high summit, the Kicking Horse River drops 350 metres (1,150 feet). The steep drop would force the cash-strapped CPR to build a 7 km (4.3 mi) long stretch of track with a very steep 41⁄2 percent gradient once it reached the pass in 1884. This was over four times the maximum gradient recommended for railways of this era, and even modern railways rarely exceed a two-percent gradient. this route was far more direct than one through the Yellowhead Pass and saved hours for both passengers and freight. This section of track was the CPR's Big Hill. Safety switches were installed at several points, the speed limit for descending trains was set at 10 km per hour (6 mph), and special locomotives were ordered. Despite these measures, several serious runaways still occurred including the first locomotive, which belonged to the contractors, to descend the line. CPR officials insisted that this was a temporary expediency, but this state of affairs would last for 25 years until the completion of the Spiral Tunnels in the early 20th century.[22] Cornelius Van Horne 1881, construction progressed at a pace too slow for the railway's officials who, in 1882, hired the renowned railway executive William Cornelius Van Horne to oversee construction with the inducement of a generous salary and the intriguing challenge of handling such a difficult railway project. Horne stated that he would have 800 km (500 mi) of main line built in 1882. Floods delayed the start of the construction season, but over 672 km (418 mi) of main line, as well as sidings and branch lines, were built that year. Thunder Bay branch (west from Fort William) was completed in June 1882 by the Department of Railways and Canals and turned over to the company in May 1883, permitting all-Canadian lake and railway traffic from Eastern Canada to Winnipeg, for the first time in Canada's history. the end of 1883, the railway had reached the Rocky Mountains, just eight kilometres (five miles) east of Kicking Horse Pass. The construction seasons of 1884 and 1885 would be spent in the mountains of British Columbia and on the north shore of Lake Superior. C.P.R. trestle bridge thousands of navvies worked on the railway. Many were European immigrants. British Columbia, government contractors eventually hired 17000 workers from China, known as "coolies". A navvy received between $1 and $2.50 per day, but had to pay for his own food, clothing, transport to the job site, mail and medical care. After 21⁄2 months of hard labour, they could net as little as $16. Chinese labourers in British Columbia made only between 75 cents and $1.25 a day, paid in rice mats, and not including expenses, leaving barely anything to send home. They did the most dangerous construction jobs, such as working with explosives to clear tunnels through rock.[23] The exact number of Chinese workers who died is unknown but historians estimate the number is between 600 and 800. The victims of sickness and accidents were not given proper funerals. Most of the remains were buried into the railway and the families of the Chinese who were killed received no compensation, or even notification of loss of life. Many of the men who survived did not have enough money to return to their families in China, although Chinese labour contractors had promised that as part of their responsibilities.[24] Many spent years in isolated and often poor conditions. Yet the Chinese were hard working and played a key role in building the Western stretch of the railway; even some boys as young as twelve years old served as tea-boys. In 2006, the Canadian government issued a formal apology to the Chinese population in Canada for their treatment both during and following the construction of the CPR.[25] 1883, railway construction was progressing rapidly, but the CPR was in danger of running out of funds. In response, on 31 January 1884, the government passed the Railway Relief Bill, providing a further $22.5 million in loans to the CPR. The bill received royal assent on 6 March 1884.[26] Donald Smith, later known as Lord Strathcona, drives the last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway, at Craigellachie, 7 November 1885. Completion of the transcontinental railway was a condition of BC's entry into Confederation. March 1885, the North-West Rebellion broke out in the District of Saskatchewan. Van Horne, in Ottawa at the time, suggested to the government that the CPR could transport troops to Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan (Assiniboia) in 10 days. Some sections of track were incomplete or had not been used before, but the trip to Winnipeg was made in nine days and the rebellion quickly suppressed. because the government was grateful for this service, they subsequently reorganized the CPR's debt and provided a further $5 million loan. money was desperately needed by the CPR. this government loan later became controversial. Even with Van Horne's support with moving troops to Qu'Appelle, the government still delayed in giving its support to CPR. This was due to Macdonald putting pressure on George Stephen for additional benefits. himself later did admit to spending $1 million between 1881 and 1886 to ensure government support. This money went to buying a £40,000 necklace for Lady MacDonald and numerous other "bonifications" to government members.[27] Telegram to Prime Minister John A. Macdonald announcing the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 7 November 1885 7 November 1885, the last spike was driven at Craigellachie, British Columbia, making good on the original promise. Four days earlier, the last spike of the Lake Superior section was driven in just west of Jackfish, Ontario. While the railway was completed four years after the original 1881 deadline, it was completed more than five years ahead of the new date of 1891 that Macdonald gave in 1881. successful construction of such a massive project, although troubled by delays and scandal, was considered an impressive feat of engineering and political will for a country with such a small population, limited capital, and difficult terrain. was by far the longest railway ever constructed at the time. It had taken 12,000 men and 5,000 horses to construct the Lake section alone.[28] in Eastern Canada, the CPR had created a network of lines reaching from Quebec City to St. Thomas, Ontario, by 1885 – mainly by buying the Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa & Occidental Railway from the Quebec government and by creating a new railway company, the Ontario and Quebec Railway (O&Q). It also launched a fleet of Great Lakes ships to link its terminals. Through the O&Q, the CPR had effected purchases and long-term leases of several railways, and built a line between Perth, Ontario, and Toronto (completed on 5 May 1884) to connect these acquisitions. The CPR obtained a 999-year lease on the O&Q on 4 January 1884. In 1895, it acquired a minority interest in the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway, giving it a link to New York and the Northeast United States.[29] –1900[edit] The system in 1906, soon after the construction of the transcontinental railway The last spike in the CPR was driven on 7 November 1885, by one of its directors, Donald Smith.[13] first transcontinental passenger train departed from Montreal's Dalhousie Station, located at Berri Street and Notre Dame Street at 8 pm on 28 June 1886, and arrived at Port Moody at noon on 4 July 1886. This train consisted of two baggage cars, a mail car, one second-class coach, two immigrant sleepers, two first-class coaches, two sleeping cars and a diner (several dining cars were used throughout the journey, as they were removed from the train during the night, with another one added the next morning).[citation needed] First Transcontinental Train arrives in Port Arthur on 30 June 1886 that time, however, the CPR had decided to move its western terminus from Port Moody to Granville, which was renamed "Vancouver" later that year. The first official train destined for Vancouver arrived on 23 May 1887, although the line had already been in use for three months. CPR quickly became profitable, and all loans from the Federal government were repaid years ahead of time. 1888, a branch line was opened between Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie where the CPR connected with the American railway system and its own steamships. That same year, work was started on a line from London, Ontario, to the Canada–US border at Windsor, Ontario. That line opened on 12 June 1890.[30] CPR also leased the New Brunswick Railway in 1891 for 991 years,[31] and built the International Railway of Maine, connecting Montreal with Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1889. The connection with Saint John on the Atlantic coast made the CPR the first truly transcontinental railway company in Canada and permitted trans-Atlantic cargo and passenger services to continue year-round when sea ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence closed the port of Montreal during the winter months. By 1896, competition with the Great Northern Railway for traffic in southern British Columbia forced the CPR to construct a second line across the province, south of the original line. Van Horne, now president of the CPR, asked for government aid, and the government agreed to provide around $3.6 million to construct a railway from Lethbridge, Alberta, through Crowsnest Pass to the south shore of Kootenay Lake, in exchange for the CPR agreeing to reduce freight rates in perpetuity for key commodities shipped in Western Canada.[citation needed] controversial Crowsnest Pass Agreement effectively locked the eastbound rate on grain products and westbound rates on certain "settlers' effects" at the 1897 level. Although temporarily suspended during the First World War, it was not until 1983 that the "Crow Rate" was permanently replaced by the Western Grain Transportation Act which allowed for the gradual increase of grain shipping prices. Crowsnest Pass line opened on 18 June 1898, and followed a complicated route through the maze of valleys and passes in southern British Columbia, rejoining the original mainline at Hope after crossing the Cascade Mountains via Coquihalla Pass.[32] Southern Mainline, generally known as the Kettle Valley Railway in British Columbia, was built in response to the booming mining and smelting economy in southern British Columbia, and the tendency of the local geography to encourage and enable easier access from neighbouring US states than from Vancouver or the rest of Canada, which was viewed to be as much of a threat to national security as it was to the province's control of its own resources. local passenger service was re-routed to this new southerly line, which connected numerous emergent small cities across the region. Independent railways and subsidiaries that were eventually merged into the CPR in connection with this route were the Shuswap and Okanagan Railway, the Kaslo and Slocan Railway, the Columbia and Kootenay Railway, the Columbia and Western Railway and various others.[31] and the settlement of western Canada[edit] One of the CPR's land offerings, 1883 CPR had built a railway that operated mostly in the wilderness. The usefulness of the prairies was questionable in the minds of many. The thinking prevailed that the prairies had great potential. Under the initial contract with the Canadian government to build the railway, the CPR was granted 25 million acres (100,000 km2). Proving already to be a very resourceful organization, Canadian Pacific began an intense campaign to bring immigrants to Canada. Canadian Pacific agents operated in many overseas locations. Immigrants were often sold a package that included passage on a CP ship, travel on a CP train and land sold by the CP railway. Land was priced at $2.50 an acre and up but required cultivation.[33] To transport immigrants, Canadian Pacific developed a fleet of over a thousand Colonist cars, low-budget sleeper cars designed to transport immigrant families from eastern Canadian seaports to the west.[34] –1928[edit] CPR advertisement highlighting "Free Farms for the Million" in western Canada, circa 1893 the first decade of the 20th century, the CPR continued to build more lines. In 1908, the CPR opened a line connecting Toronto with Sudbury. Previously, westbound traffic originating in southern Ontario took a circuitous route through eastern Ontario. Several operational improvements were also made to the railway in Western Canada. In 1909 the CPR completed two significant engineering accomplishments. The most significant was the replacement of the Big Hill, which had become a major bottleneck in the CPR's main line, with the Spiral Tunnels, reducing the grade to 2.2 percent from 4.5 percent. The Spiral Tunnels opened in August. In April 1908, the CPR started work to replace the Old Calgary-Edmonton Rail Bridge across the Red Deer River with a new standard steel bridge that was completed by March 1909.[35] Viaduct 3 November 1909, the Lethbridge Viaduct over the Oldman River valley at Lethbridge, Alberta, was opened. It is 1,624 metres (5,328 feet) long and, at its maximum, 96 metres (315 feet) high, making it one of the longest railway bridges in Canada. 1916, the CPR replaced its line through Rogers Pass, which was prone to avalanches (the most serious of which killed 62 men in 1910) with the Connaught Tunnel, an eight-kilometre-long (5-mile) tunnel under Mount Macdonald[36] that was, at the time of its opening, the longest railway tunnel in the Western Hemisphere.[37][38] C.P.R. railway locomotive 2860 21 January 1910, a passenger train derailed on the CPR line at the Spanish River bridge at Nairn, Ontario (near Sudbury), killing at least 43.[39][40] CPR acquired several smaller railways via long-term leases in 1912. On 3 January 1912, the CPR acquired the Dominion Atlantic Railway, a railway that ran in western Nova Scotia. This acquisition gave the CPR a connection to Halifax, a significant port on the Atlantic Ocean. The Dominion Atlantic was isolated from the rest of the CPR network and used the CNR to facilitate interchange; the DAR also operated ferry services across the Bay of Fundy for passengers and cargo (but not rail cars) from the port of Digby, Nova Scotia, to the CPR at Saint John, New Brunswick. DAR steamships also provided connections for passengers and cargo between Yarmouth, Boston and New York. On 1 July 1912, the CPR acquired the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, a railway on Vancouver Island that connected to the CPR using a railcar ferry. The CPR acquired the Quebec Central Railway on 14 December 1912.[31] the late 19th century, the railway undertook an ambitious programme of hotel construction, building Glacier House in Glacier National Park, Mount Stephen House at Field, British Columbia, the Château Frontenac in Quebec City and the Banff Springs Hotel. then, the CPR had competition from three other transcontinental lines, all of them money-losers. In 1919, these lines were consolidated, along with the track of the old Intercolonial Railway and its spurs, into the government-owned Canadian National Railways. CPR suffered its greatest loss of life when one of its steamships, the Empress of Ireland, sank after a collision with the Norwegian collier SS Storstad. On 29 May 1914, the Empress (operated by the CPR's Canadian Pacific Steamship Company) went down in the St. Lawrence River with the loss of 1,024 lives, of which 840 were passengers.[41] World War[edit] the First World War CPR put the entire resources of the "world's greatest travel system" at the disposal of the British Empire, not only trains and tracks, but also its ships, shops, hotels, telegraphs and, above all, its people. the war effort meant transporting and billeting troops; building and supplying arms and munitions; arming, lending and selling ships. CPR ships were pressed into service during World War I, carrying more than a million troops and passengers and four million tons of cargo.Twenty seven survived and returned to CPR. also helped the war effort with money and jobs. CPR made loans and guarantees to the Allies of some $100 million. As a lasting tribute, CPR commissioned three statues and 23 memorial tablets to commemorate the efforts of those who fought and those who died in the war.[42] the war, the Federal government created Canadian National Railways (CNR, later CN) out of several bankrupt railways that fell into government hands during and after the war. CNR would become the main competitor to the CPR in Canada. 1923, Henry Worth Thornton replaced David Blyth Hanna becoming the second president of the CNR, and his competition spurred Edward Wentworth Beatty, the first Canadian-born president of the CPR, to action.[43] During this time the railway land grants were formalized.[44] Depression and the Second World War, 1929–1945[edit] Strikers from unemployment relief camps climbing on boxcars as part of the On-to-Ottawa Trek, 1935 Great Depression, which lasted from 1929 until 1939, hit many companies heavily. While the CPR was affected, it was not affected to the extent of its rival CNR because it, unlike the CNR, was debt-free. The CPR scaled back on some of its passenger and freight services, and stopped issuing dividends to its shareholders after 1932. Hard times led to the creation of new political parties such as the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular protest in the form of the On-to-Ottawa Trek.[45] highlight of the late 1930s, both for the railway and for Canada, was the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth during their 1939 royal tour of Canada, the first time that the reigning monarch had visited the country. The CPR and the CNR shared the honours of pulling the royal train across the country, with the CPR undertaking the westbound journey from Quebec City to Vancouver. that year, the Second World War began. As it had done in World War I, the CPR devoted much of its resources to the war effort. It retooled its Angus Shops in Montreal to produce Valentine tanks and other armoured vehicles, and transported troops and resources across the country. As well, 22 of the CPR's ships went to war, 12 of which were sunk.[46] –1978[edit] The Multimark logo was used from 1968 to 1987, when it fell out of favour. It was sometimes referred to as the 'Pac-Man' logo, after the popular 1980s video game of the same name. CPR train step stool (Calgary station) c. 1950 the Second World War, the transportation industry in Canada changed. Where railways had previously provided almost universal freight and passenger services, cars, trucks and airplanes started to take traffic away from railways. This naturally helped the CPR's air and trucking operations, and the railway's freight operations continued to thrive hauling resource traffic and bulk commodities. However, passenger trains quickly became unprofitable. During the 1950s, the railway introduced new innovations in passenger service. In 1955, it introduced The Canadian, a new luxury transcontinental train. However, in the 1960s, the company started to pull out of passenger services, ending services on many of its branch lines. It also discontinued its secondary transcontinental train The Dominion in 1966, and in 1970, unsuccessfully applied to discontinue The Canadian. For the next eight years, it continued to apply to discontinue the service, and service on The Canadian declined markedly. On 29 October 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to Via Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that is responsible for managing all intercity passenger service formerly handled by both CP Rail and CN. Via eventually took almost all of its passenger trains, including The Canadian, off CP's lines.[47] 1968, as part of a corporate reorganization, each of the major operations, including its rail operations, were organized as separate subsidiaries. The name of the railway was changed to CP Rail, and the parent company changed its name to Canadian Pacific Limited in 1971. Its air, express, telecommunications, hotel and real estate holdings were spun off, and ownership of all of the companies transferred to Canadian Pacific Investments. The slogan was: "TO THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE WORLD" The company discarded its beaver logo, adopting the new Multimark (which, when mirrored by an adjacent "multi-mark" creates a diamond appearance on a globe) that was used—with a different colour background—for each of its operations.[48]

Thompson River

Fraser River

Canadian Pacific Railroad

Canadian Pacific Railroad - Southern Route

Chicago, Illinois
Chicago; Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Chicago;

Angelus Temple, LA, California, 1923-Present
Angelus Temple ;

Foursquare Church, LA, California, 1923-Present
Foursquare Church, LA, California, 1923-Present; Angelus Temple ; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; Kathryn Kuhlman, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1976, Commemorated February 20 ;

Victoria Hall, 16530 VENTURA Blvd Ste 400, ENCINO, CA 91436
Victoria Hall, 16530 VENTURA Blvd Ste 400, ENCINO, CA 91436; Aimee Semple McPherson;

Temple Auditorium, Los Angeles
Temple Auditorium, Los Angeles; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ;

Los Angeles, CA
Los Angeles ;

1925 Santa Barbara earthquake
1925 Santa Barbara earthquake; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ;

1933 Long Beach earthquake
1933 Long Beach earthquake; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ;

San Diego
San Diego; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ;

US, 1889-1893, Great Northern Hi-Line Road
US, 1889, Great Northern Hi-Line Road;

High Line - US 2 - Great Northern RWY

US, 1906-1909, Milwalkee Road, Pacific Extension
US, 1909, Milwalkee Road, Pacific Extension the 1890s, the company's directors felt they had to extend the railroad to the Pacific to remain competitive with other railroads. A survey in 1901 estimated costs to build to the Pacific Northwest as $45 million (equal to $1.4 billion today). In 1905, the board approved the Pacific Extension, now estimated at $60 million, equal to $1.73 billion today. The contract for the western part of the route was awarded to Horace Chapin Henry of Seattle. The subsidiary Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railway Company was chartered in 1905 to build from the Missouri River to Seattle and Tacoma.[6] 1899 route map from Chicago to Lake Superior began in 1906 and was completed three years later. The route chosen was 18 miles (29 km) shorter than the next shortest competitor's, as well as better grades than some, but it was an expensive route, since the Milwaukee Road received few land grants and had to buy most of the land or acquire smaller railroads. two main mountain ranges that had to be crossed, the Rockies and the Cascades, required major civil engineering works and additional locomotive power. completion of 2,300 miles (3,700 km) of railroad through some of the most varied topography in the nation in only three years was a major feat. company maps denote five mountain crossings: Belts, Rockies, Bitterroots, Saddles, and Cascades. These are slight misnomers as the Belt mountains and Bitterroots are part of the Rockies. route did not cross over the Little Belts or Big Belts, but over the Lenep-Loweth Ridge between the Castle Mountains and the Crazy Mountains. 1910, an enormous forest fire erupted in Idaho and many railroad bridges were burned, including a 725-mile long bridge.[citation needed] historians question the choice of route, since it bypassed some population centers and passed through areas with limited local traffic potential. of the line paralleled the Northern Pacific Railway. Trains magazine called the building of the extension, primarily a long-haul route, "egregious" and a "disaster."[7] George H. Drury listed the Pacific Extension as one of several "wrong decisions" made by the Milwaukee Road's management which contributed to the company's eventual failure.[8] in 1909, several smaller railroads were acquired and expanded to form branch lines along the Pacific Extension.[9]: 15  Montana Railroad formed the mainline route through Sixteen Mile Canyon as well as the North Montana Line which extended North from Harlowton to Lewistown. This branch led to the settlement of the Judith Basin and, by the 1970s, accounted for 30% of the Milwaukee Road's total traffic.[9]: 75  Gallatin Valley Electric Railway, originally built as an interurban line, was extended from Bozeman to the mainline at Three Forks. In 1927, the railroad built the Gallatin Gateway Inn, where passengers traveling to Yellowstone National Park transferred to buses for the remainder of their journey.[9]: 83  White Sulphur Springs & Yellowstone Park Railway, originally built by Lew Penwell and John Ringling, primarily carried lumber and agricultural products.[9]: 86  1920 Milwaukee Road timetable map. conditions in the mountain regions of the Pacific Extension proved difficult. Winter temperatures of −40 °F (−40 °C) in Montana made it challenging for steam locomotives to generate sufficient steam. line snaked through mountainous areas, resulting in "long steep grades and sharp curves". provided an answer, especially with abundant hydroelectric power in the mountains, and a ready source of copper in Anaconda, Montana.[10] 1914 and 1916, the Milwaukee Road implemented a 3,000 volt direct current (DC) overhead system between Harlowton, Montana, and Avery, Idaho, a distance of 438 miles (705 km).[11] with the result, the Milwaukee electrified its route in Washington between Othello and Tacoma, a further 207 miles (333 km), between 1917 and 1920.[12] section traversed the Cascades through the 2¼ mile (3.6 km) Snoqualmie Tunnel, just south of Snoqualmie Pass and over 400 feet (120 m) lower in elevation. The single track tunnel's east portal at Hyak included an adjacent company-owned ski area (1937−1950).[13][14][15][16] the 1984 abandonment of the Pacific Extension, Tacoma Rail purchased all of Milwaukee's lines south of Tacoma. in 1990, the Chehalis-Centralia Railroad began operating over the section from Centralia to Curtis. In 2010 the line was sold to the Port of Chehalis and in 2019, The railroad purchased the line from Chehalis to Ruth. In 2021 the section from Highway 6 West to Curtis was leased. the 645 miles (1,038 km) of main-line electrification represented the largest such project in the world up to that time, and would not be exceeded in the US until the Pennsylvania Railroad's efforts in the 1930s.[17] two separate electrified districts were never unified, as the 216-mile (348 km) Idaho Division (Avery to Othello) was comparatively flat down the St. Joe River to St. Maries and through eastern Washington, and posed few challenges for steam operation.[12] Electrification cost $27 million, but resulted in savings of over $1 million per year from improved operational efficiency.[18] Boxcab electric locomotive pulling a passenger train in a canyon An EF-1 boxcab hauls the Olympian through Montana Canyon in 1925. The Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railway was absorbed by the parent company on January 1, 1913.[6] The Pacific Extension, including subsequent electrification, cost the Milwaukee Road $257 million, over four times the original estimate of $60 million. To meet this cost, the Milwaukee Road sold bonds, which began coming due in the 1920s.[19] Traffic never met projections, and by the early 1920s, the Milwaukee Road was in serious financial condition. This state was exacerbated by the railroad's purchase of several heavily indebted railroads in Indiana. company declared bankruptcy in 1925 and reorganized as the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad in 1928. In 1929, its total mileage stood at 11,248 miles (18,102 km).[20] 1927, the railroad launched its second edition of the Olympian as a premier luxury limited passenger train and opened its first railroad-owned tourist hotel, the Gallatin Gateway Inn in Montana, southwest of Bozeman, via a spur from Three Forks. company scarcely had a chance for success before the Great Depression hit. Despite innovations such as the famous Hiawatha high-speed trains that exceeded 100 mph (160 km/h), the railroad again filed for bankruptcy in 1935. The Milwaukee Road operated under trusteeship until December 1, 1945. WWII the CMSt.P&P sponsored one of the Army's MRS units the 757th Railroad Shop Battalion. Two Skytop Lounges in their fourth Milwaukee Road paint scheme, matching Union Pacific colors. These cars were part of the Twin Cities Hiawatha equipment pool. Milwaukee Road enjoyed temporary success after World War II. Out of bankruptcy and with the wartime ban on new passenger service lifted, the company upgraded its trains. Olympian Hiawatha began running between Chicago and the Puget Sound over the Pacific Extension in 1947,[21] and the Twin Cities Hiawatha received new equipment in 1948.[22] accelerated and was complete by 1956.[23][24] In 1955, the Milwaukee Road took over from the Chicago and North Western's handling of Union Pacific's Overland Route streamliners between Chicago and Omaha.[21] whole railroad industry found itself in decline in the late 1950s and the 1960s, but the Milwaukee Road was hit particularly hard. The Midwest was overbuilt with a plethora of competing railroads, while the competition on the transcontinental routes to the Pacific was tough. The premier transcontinental streamliner, the Olympian Hiawatha, despite innovative scenic observation cars, was mothballed in 1961, becoming the first visible casualty. resignation of President John P. Kiley in 1957 and his replacement with the fairly inexperienced William John Quinn was a pivotal moment. From that point onward, the road's management was fixated on merger with another railroad as the solution to the Milwaukee's problems. mergers had to be approved by the Interstate Commerce Commission, and in 1969 the ICC effectively blocked the merger with the Chicago and North Western Railway (C&NW) that the Milwaukee Road had counted on and had been planning for since 1964. The ICC asked for terms that the C&NW was not willing to agree to. The merger of the "Hill Lines" was approved at around the same time, and the merged Burlington Northern came into being. 1970s[edit] An electric locomotive with its pantographs down A Little Joe at Deer Lodge, Montana in October 1974 after the end of electrified operation. formation of Burlington Northern in 1970 from the merger of Northern Pacific, Great Northern, Burlington Route, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 3 created a stronger competitor on most Milwaukee Road routes. To boost competition, the ICC gave the Milwaukee Road the right to connect with new railroads in the West over Burlington Northern tracks. on its Pacific Extension increased substantially to more than four trains a day each way[25] as it began interchanging cars with Southern Pacific at Portland, Oregon and Canadian railroads at Sumas, Washington.[26] railroad's foothold on transcontinental traffic leaving the Port of Seattle increased such that the Milwaukee Road held a staggering advantage over BN, carrying nearly 80% of the originating traffic along with 50% of the total container traffic leaving the Puget Sound (prior to severe service declines after roughly 1974).[citation needed] 1970, the president of Chicago and North Western offered to sell the railroad to the Milwaukee Road outright. William John Quinn refused,[27] stating that it now believed only a merger with a larger system, not a slightly smaller one, could save the railroad. Almost immediately, the railroad filed unsuccessfully with the ICC to be included in the Union Pacific merger with the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad. the mid-1970s, deferred maintenance on Milwaukee Road's physical plant, which had been increasing throughout the 1960s as it attempted to improve its financial appearance for merger, was beginning to cause problems. railroad's financial problems were exacerbated by their practice of improving its earnings during that period by selling off its wholly owned cars to financial institutions and leasing them back. The lease charges became greater, and more cars needed to be sold to pay the lease payments. railroad's fleet of cars was becoming older because more money was being spent on finance payments for the old cars rather than buying new ones. This contributed to car shortages that turned away business. Milwaukee Road chose at this time to end its mainline electrification. Its electric locomotive fleet was reaching the end of its service life, and newer diesel locomotives such as the EMD SD40-2 and the GE Universal Series were more than capable of handling the route. The final electric freight arrived at Deer Lodge, Montana on June 15, 1974.[28][29] 1976, the Milwaukee Road exercised its right under the Burlington Northern merger to petition for inclusion based on its weak financial condition. The ICC denied it on March 2, 1977.[30][31] Milwalkee Road;

South (Clean), Idaho Folder, Snake River Drainage

South (Clean) Idaho, its Area, Snake River Drainage

Snake River

Malad River (Idaho)

Little Wood River

Big Wood River

Boise River

Boise River 2

South Idaho, Boise, Idaho (Snake River 12, Boise River Mouth)
Boise, Idaho;

Owyhee River

Payette River South Fork

Payette River

Weiser River

Salmon River Middle Fork

Salmon River

Grand Ronde River

Clearwater River North Fork

Clearwater River (Middle Fork is the main stem)

Clearwater River South Fork

Locsha River

Selway River

Southeast (Clean) Idaho Folder, Waters flowing into Utah

Southeast (Clean) Idaho, its Area, waters flowing south into Utah

Bear River, Bear Lake, ID, Soda Springs, Montpelier, Preston, ID

Little Bear River, Hyman, UT

Logan River, Logan, UT, Red Cub Lodge, ID

Malad River (Utah), Malad City

Logan River
Logan River;

Spokane (Clean) (Fort S) Upper Colombia River Drainage

Spokane (Fort S) Waters, its Area (Spokane County, WA, North ID, Eastern BC)

Kootenai River

Pend Oreille River

Spokane River

Lower (Clean) Columbia River Folder (Central WA, Central BC, Northern OR)

Lower (Clean) Columbia, its Area, (Central WA, Central BC, Northern OR)

Okanogan River

Wenatchee River

Stevens Pass Creek

Cowlitz River

Deschutes River

Willamette River

Ashley River

Ashley River above the source

Cooper River

Cooper River source, Lake Moultrie to the fall line

Pee Dee River

Little Pee Dee River

Savanna River

Savannah, Georgia (First Great Awakening, Savanna River Mouth)
Savannah, Georgia ;

Bozeman Trail

Big Horn Mountains (WY and MT, between Bozeman Trail and Bighorn River)
Big Horn Mountains;

Beartooth Mountains, MT
Beartooth Mountains ;

Big Horn River

Shoshone, Eastern Shoshone
Eastern Shoshone ;

Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming (Bighorn River 1) 1868
Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming;

Wind River Range, WY
Wind River Range

Shoshone Indian Mission Boarding School (Bighorn River 1) 1889
Shoshone Indian Mission Boarding School;

Arapaho, Northern Arapaho people (Big Horn River 1)
Northern Arapaho people;

Absaroka Range, WY & MT (Big Horn and Yellowstone Rivers)
Absaroka Range;

Fort Washakie Indian Boarding School (Bighorn River 1) 1883
Washakie;

Tongue River

Powder River

Chippewa Indians around Leech Lake and Becker County
Chippewa Indians around Leech Lake and Becker County, Ojibwe people ;

Leech Lake Indian Reservation (Mississippi River Source, HWY 2, GN RWY)
Leech Lake Indian Reservation;

Becker County, Minnesota
Becker County, Minnesota ;

Pearl River

Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway

Tombigbee River

Androscoggin River

National Road (Cumberland Road)
National Road 1811-37

Monocacy River

Gettysburg Seminary, South Eastern PA, 1826
Gettysburg Seminary; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated January 3 ;

Patapsco River

Lyric Opera House, Baltimore, MD
Lyric Opera House; Aimee Semple McPhearson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 27;

Episcopal General Convention 1871, Baltimore, MD
Provence 3 Episcopal Church of America;

Red River of the North

Wild Rice River

White Earth River

Minnesota River

Seabury Divinity School at Faribault, MN
Seabury Divinity School at Faribault ;

Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN (Zumbro River 1) 1864
Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN (Zumbro River 1);

Rochester, Minnesota (Zumbro River 1)
Rochester, Minnesota;

St Croix River

Pigeon River

Boundary Waters

Rainy River

Otter Trail River

Bois De Sioux River

James (Dakota) River

Black Rock River

Black Rock River Second Source

Black Rock River Third Source

Truckee River

California Trail (Truckee River Section)

Raft River

Humboldt River

Californai Trail - Forty Mile Desert Section

Reese River

Little Humbolt River

West Fork Carson River

California Trail West Fork Carson River to Carson Pass

Clear Creek

East Fork Carson River

West Fork Walker River

East Fork Walker River

Husdon River

Broadway 2.4 Miles

Broadway, another 15 miles up to Yonkers

Wall Street, 8 Blocks

Hudson River East of Manhattan Island

Fifth Avenue, NYC

Calvary Church in New York City, Midtown
Calvary Church in New York City;

Church of the Holy Communion, NYC, 1846
Church of the Holy Communion, New York City ;

University Medical College, New York University
University Medical College, New York University;

New York City
New York City;

Brooklyn, NY
Brooklyn, NY; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Comemorated February 26 ; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911), Commemorated November 8 ; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7;

The Bronx, NYC
The Bronx, NYC;

St Vladimir's Seminary in Yonkers, NY, 1938
St Vladimir's Seminary in NY;

Queens, NYC
Queens, NYC;

Corona, Queens
Corona, Queens; Aimee Semple McPherson;

Flushing Institute, Flushing, Queens, NY, 1827
Flushing Institute, Flushing, NY;

Flushing Institute, Flushing, NY (St Paul's College) 1828
Flushing Institute (later St Paul's College), a boys' school in Flushing, New York ;

Long Island, NYC
Long Island, NYC;

Shinnecock Indian Nation, Long Island, NYC
Shinnecock Indian Nation;

Poosepatuck Reservation, Long Island, NYC
Poosepatuck Reservation, New York;

Montauk, Long Island, NYC
Montauk, Long Island, NYC;

Riverhead, Long Island, NYC
Riverhead (town), New York;

Husdon River (Upstate NY)

Albany, NY (State Capital, Erie Canal 1, Hudson River 7)
Albany, NY ; JOHN HENRY HOBART BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830) ;

West Troy and Troy, NY (Hudson River 6 and Erie Canal 2)
Troy, NY; New Martyr Archpriest Vasily Martysz, Commemorated on May 4;

Episcopal General Convention 1874, New York, NY
Provence 2 Episcopal Church of America;

Mowhawk River

Schoharie Creek

Chenango River

Unadilla River

Susquehanna River

Chemung River

Delaware River

St Tikhon Monastery, South Canaan, PA, 1905, 1938
St Tikhon Monastery in South Canaan, Pennsylvania;

Genesee River

Bishopric and Episcopal Diocese of Western New York, Buffalo
Bishopric of Western New York, Episcopal Diocese of Western New York;

Rio Pueblo de Taos River

River Lucero

San Juan River

Continental Divides, San Juan River Drainage

Chaco Wash

Animas River

Gila River

Canadian River

Vermejo River

Cimarron River (Canadian River)

Connecticut River

Sugar River

Ashuelot River

Merrimack River

Byfield, MA, Adelynrood (near New Hampshire)
Adelynrood, Byfield, MA; Byfield, MA;

Passaic River

Brunswick Road, US Hwy 1 between NY and Philly

Princeton Road between NY and Philly

South Jersey (Lower Delaware, Philidelphia Influence)
South Jersey (Lower Delaware, Philidelphia Influence); CHARLES RAYMOND BARNES. PRIEST, 26 July 1938; Ida B. Robinson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1946, Commemorated April 20;

New Jersey Shore
New Jersey Shore; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7;

Atlantic City, NJ

Raleigh, NC (on the fall line)
Raleigh, North Carolina, on the fall line between the Piedmont and the Atlantic Coastal Plain ; ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER, Educator (1964), Commemorated Febraury 28 ; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14;

Durham, NC
Durham, NC ; PAULI MURRAY, PRIEST (1 July 1985);

Goldsboro River

Goldsboro River Source, from Eno springs above the fall line

Rocky Mount Greenville River

Rocky Mount River Source (Rocky Mount), , from springs above the fall line

Yadkin River

Uwharrie River (from High Point, NC)

Instate Divide between Pee Dee and Cape Fear Rivers

Cape Fear River

Fort Bragg River

Deep River (from High Point, NC)

Catawba River in NC, Wateree River in SC

Catawba River

Wateree River in SC, Catawba River in NC

Roanoke River

Chowan River

Niobrara River

North Platte River

North Platte River Mouth (Platte River Source)

Platte River

Republican River

Big Blue River

Little Blue River

Green River

Hoback River

Grays River

Goose Creek

Cheyanne River

Blacks Fork River

Medicine Bow River

Sweetwater River

Laramie River

Crow Creek

Green River 2 from Stampede Pass

East Portal, MT to Avery, ID and St Joe River, Milwalkee Road

East Portal, MT to Avery, ID and St Joe River, Milwalkee Road 2

Snohomish River

Pilchuck River

Skykomish River

Skykomish River North Fork

Skykomish River South Fork

Snoqalmie River

Snoqualmie River South Fork

Snoqualmie River, Middle Fork

Snoqualmie River North Fork

Shenandoah River

James River

Jackson River

Cowpasture River

Bullpasture River

Maury River

Calfpasture River

Rivanna River

Appotomattox River

Chickahominy River

Pagan River

Nansemond River

Elizabeth River

Pequonnock River

Housatonic River

Konkapot River

Still River

Shepaug River

Naugatuck River

Naugatuck River East Branch

Naugatuck River West Branch

Thames River

Quinebaug River

Putnam Elms, Brooklyn, CT
Brooklyn, Connecticut or Mortlake, Connecticut; Putnam Elms, Brooklyn, Connecticut;

Kingswood, Brooklyn, CT
Brooklyn, Connecticut or Mortlake, Connecticut; Kingswood, Brooklyn, Connecticut;

Shetucket River

Yantic River

Quinnipiac River

Mill River

New Haven, Connecticut
St Luke™s Church in New Haven, Connecticut;

West River

Oyster River

Metacomet Ridge

Connecticut
Connecticut;

Hartford, CT (Connecticut River 24)
Hartford, Connecticut;

Old Lyme, resort and artist's colony (Connecticut River Mouth)
Old Lyme (resort and artist's colony);

Sacramento River

Feather River

Feather River 1

Sutter By-Pass

North Fork Yuba River

Middle Fork Yuba River

South Fork Yuba River

Yuba River

Amerian River

Middle Fork American River

South Fork American River

South Fork American River Second Source

Sacramento, CA (American River Mouth, Sacramento River 9)
Sacramento, CA (American River Mouth, Sacramento River 9); William M. Branham PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 24;

Sonora Pass
Sonora Pass;

San Joaquin River

San Joaquin River Middle Fork

San Joaquin River North Fork

Fresno, CA (San Joaquin River 3)
Fresno, San Joaquin Valley;

Merced River

Yosemite Valley (Merced River 1)
Yosemite Valley; John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 ;

Merced, CA (Merced Mouth, San Joaquin 6.5)

Caifornia Aqueduct

Monterey, California (Monterey Bay)
Monterey, California (Monterey Bay); Glorification of the Venerable Herman of Alaska, Wonderworker of All America, Commemorated on August 9 ; Martyr Peter the Aleut, Commemorated on September 24;

Los Angeles Aqueduct

Colorado River Aqueduct

South Platte River

Denver, CO (South Platte River 5)
Denver, CO;

Arkansas River

Pueblo, Colorado (Arkansas River 4)
Pueblo, Colorado; BARTOLOME DE LOS CASAS, MISSIONARY PRIEST, DEFENDER OF THE OPPRESSED, 1566, Commemorated July 18 ;

Salt Fork Arkansas River

Eagle River

Vail Pass

Vail, Colorado
Vail, Colorado;

Gore Creek, Vail, Colorado

Beaver Creek, Vail, Colorado

Maroon Bells at “Snowmass Wilderness, CO
Maroon Bells at “Snowmass Wilderness;

Maroon Bells River ? but not East Taylor River

Roaring Fork River

Aspen, Colorado
Aspen, Colorado ;

Gunnison River

Grand Junction, CO (Gunnison River Mouth, Colorado River, Grand Valley)
Grand Junction, CO

Taylor River

East Taylor River

Cimarron River from Northeast Side of Uncomphgre Peak

Little Cimarron River (Gunnison River)

Cimarron River (Gunnison River)

East Fork Cimarron River (Gunnison River)

West Fork Cimarron River (Gunnison River)

Middle Fork Cimarron River (Gunnison River)

Uncompahgre River

Uncompahgre River North Fork

Delores River

Schuylkill River

Philadelphia, PA (Schuykill River Mouth, Delaware River 9)
Philadelphia ;

Germantown, Philadelphia, PA
Germantown, Philadelphia aka Germantown, Pennsylvania; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26 ;

St. George's Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, 1769
St. George's Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia;

St. Peter's Episcopal Church (Philadelphia)
St. Peter's Episcopal Church (Philadelphia);

African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas, Philadelphia, 1792
African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26 ;

Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church, Philadelphia, 1794
Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church ; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26 ;

Schuylkill River Western Source

Ohio River

Ohio River Route

Jeffersonville, Indiana (Ohio River 15, and Wilderness Road West Fork at Louisville, KY)
Jeffersonville, Indiana; William M. Branham PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated December 24;

Tell City, Indiana (Ohio River 17)
Tell City, Indiana;

Erie, Western Pennsylvania (Lake Erie)
Erie, Pennsylvania; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949;

Alleghany River

Calvary Episcopal Church, Pittsburgh, PA (Alleghany River Mouth, Ohio River Source) 1861
Calvary Church, Pittsburgh;

Monongahela River

Monongahela River West Fork

Youghiogheny River

Cheat River

Beaver River

Shenango River

Mahoning River

Rock River

Milwaukee, WI (Lake Michigan)
Milwaukee;

Racine College, WI, 1852
Racine College ;

Nashota House, Wisconsin, 1844
Nashota House;

Illinois River

Vermillion River

Streator, Illinois (Coal Mines, Vermillion River 9)
Streatorland;

Middle Fork Vermillion River

Middle Fork Vermillion River Mouth, Wabash River 2

Kaskaskia River

Illinois
Illinois;

Wabash River

Iowa River
Iowa River;

Cedar River (Iowa River tributary) of Minnesota and Iowa
Cedar River (Iowa River tributary) of Minnesota and Iowa;

Shell Rock River

Winnebago River

Mason City, Iowa (Winnebago River 2), Music Man's River City
Mason City, Iowa;

Saint Joseph River

Little River (Indiana)

Mississinewa River

White River (Illinois)

Indianapolis, Indiana (a crossroads, Cumberland Road and White River West Fork 3)
Indianapolis; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922; JOHN MUIR, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914;

White River Central Fork

White River East Fork

Weber River

Jordan River (Utah)

Salt Lake, Utah (Jordan River Mouth, Great Salt Lake, California Trail 2)
Episcopal Diocese of Utah, St Mark's Cathedral, Salt Lake; PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941) ;

American Fork River

Provo River

Provo, UT, Provo Mouth, Utah Lake

Hobble Creek

Spanish Fork River

Servier Lake and Basin

Beaver River (Utah)

Servier River

San Pitch River

Apalachiocola River

Suwannee River

Saint Johns River

ALCAN Hwy

Yukon River

Yukon River A (Teslin Lake Arm)

Yukon River B (Atlin Lake Arm)

Yukon River C (Tagish Lake Arm)

Yukon River D (Marsh Lake Arm)

Yukon River E (Lake Laberge Arm)

Yukon River F (Kasawa Lake Arm)

Yukon River G (Kluane Lake Arm)

Yukon River H (Bennett Lake Arm)

Porcupine River

Yukon Flats Area

Tanana River

Chisnana River

Nabesna River

Fairbanks, Alaska (Tanana River 10)
Fairbanks, Alaska ; JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 ;

Koyukuk River

Innoko River

Anchorage, Alaska
Anchorage, Alaska; Glorification of the Venerable Herman of Alaska, Wonderworker of All America, Commemorated on August 9 ; Martyr Juvenal of Alaska, Commemorated on September 24 ;

Susitna River

Matanuska River

Topper River

Christochina River

Copper River

Father Herman's Small Brook
Spruce Island is not large, and is almost completely covered by a forest. Almost through its middle a small brook flows to the sea. Herman selected this picturesque island for the location of his hermitage. He dug a cave out of the ground with his own hands, and in it he lived his first full summer. For winter there was built for him a cell near the cave, in which he lived until his death. The cave was converted by him into a place for his burial. A wooden chapel, and a wooden house to be used as a schoolhouse and a guest house were built not too distant from his cell. A garden was laid out in front of his cell. For more than forty years Father Herman lived here.

Aleutian Islands, Southwest Alaska
Aleutian Islands;

Stikine River

Kuskokwim River

Kuskokwim River North Fork

Kuskokwim River East Fork

Nushagak River

Arkansas River North Source

Little Rock, AR (Arkansas River 14)
Little Rock, Arkansas ; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ;

White River (Arkansas)

Tennessee River

Sewanee, Tennessee, University of the South (Tennessee River 2) 1857
Sewanee: The University of the South ;

Mobile River

Alabama River

Oostanaula River

Coosa River

Talapoosa River

Black Warrior River

Tonto River

Verde River

Agua Fria River

Santa Cruz River

Santa Cruz River Source 2

Kansas River

Topeka, Kansas (Kansas River 2, Oregon Trail 3)
Topeka, Kansas;

Kansas Medical College, Topeka, Kansas
Kansas Medical College;

Smoky Hill River North Fork

Smoky Hill River

Saline River

Solomon River

Solomon River North Branch

Republican River 2

Wakarusa River

Cimarron River

Chisholm Trail

Chisholm Trail to Ellsworth, Kansas

Wilderness Road South to Nashville

Wilderness Road North Fork to Boonesborough (for salt)

Wilderness Road West Fork to Louisville, Falls of the Ohio

Bluegrass Region

Cumberland Region

Jackson Purchase

Mississippi Plateau

Western Coal Fields

Cumberland River

Episcopal Diocese of Tennessee in Nashville
Episcopal Diocese of Tennessee;

Kentucky River

Kentucky River Middle Fork

Kentucky River North Fork

Kentucky River South Fork

Goodnight-Loving Trail

Goodnight Trail to Cheyenne, Wyoming

Dodge City Trail

Red River of the South

Sweetwater Creek, Texas

Cuyahoga River

Cuyahoga River East Branch

Miami River

Concho River

Concho River North

Concho River South

San Saba River

San Saba River North Fork

San Saba River Middle Fork

Llano River North Fork

Llano River

Balcones Fault - Edwards Aquifer

Wolf River

Mason, Tennessee (near Memphis, Wolf River Mouth and Mississippi River 9)
Mason, Tennessee ;

Holsten River

French Broad River

Clinch River

Cinch River 2

Martin's Fork Cumberland River, TN and KY

Clover Fork Cumberland River, KY

Wisconsin River

Chattahoochee River

Flint River

Apalachiocola River, FL

Tugaloo River

Chatooga River

Tallulah River

Altamaha River

St. Marys, Georgia
St. Marys, Georgia;

Oconee River

Ocmulgee River

Providence River

Woonasquatuchet River

Providence, Rhode Island (Narragansett Bay)
Providence, Rhode Island (Narragansett Bay); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890 ; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; Roger Williams of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5;

Moshassuck River

Blackstone River

Charles River

Andover Theological Seminary, MA (Charles River 5) 1778
Andover Theological Seminary;

Boston, MA (Boston Harbor, Charles River Mouth)
Boston;

Muddy River

Mystic River

Acushnet River
Acushnet River;

Neponset River

Swift River 1

Swift River 2

Swift River 3

Hawaiian Islands area