Mongol Lands Folder, Mongolia, China, Scythia, Kazan, Perm, Crimea, Turkmenistan.kmz

Mongol Lands Folder, Mongolia, China, Scythia, Kazan, Perm, Crimea, Turkmenistan

Tartars (could be Mongols, Turks, Chinese, or Persians; Tartary was a huge area, much of the World)
Tartars (could be Mongols, Turks or Persians; Tartary was a huge area, much of the World); Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Mongol, Scythia Folder, and its rivers

Scythia
Scythia; Venerable Theodora of Constantinople, Commemorated on December 30; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated September 13 ; Martyr Inna, Disciples of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated January 20; St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia (Ural River, Aral Sea)
Scythia; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk, Commemorated on July 17; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated July 28 ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated August 7 ; Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated August 30 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated September 6 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated on September 13; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated on September 13 ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Greatmartyr Mercurius of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 10 ; Hieromartyr Ignatius the God-Bearer the Bishop of Antioch, Commemorated December 20 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30 ; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œElets-Chernigov", Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Venerable Theodore of Sanaxar, Commemorated on February 19 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; St Sophronius the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on March 30; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7; Martyr Sava the Goth of Wallachia, Commemorated on April 15; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ; St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia, Mongol Lands (from Ural River to Dneister River)
Scythia; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk, Commemorated on July 17; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated July 28 ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated August 7 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated August 30 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated September 6 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated on September 13; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated on September 13 ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Venerable Theodora of Constantinople, Commemorated on December 30; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30 ; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated September 13 ; Greatmartyr Mercurius of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 10 ; Hieromartyr Ignatius the God-Bearer the Bishop of Antioch, Commemorated December 20 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Elets, Commemorated January 11 ; Martyr Inna, Disciples of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated January 20 ; St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œElets-Chernigov", Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Venerable Theodore of Sanaxar, Commemorated on February 19 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; St Sophronius the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on March 30; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7; Martyr Sava the Goth of Wallachia, Commemorated on April 15; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ; St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia, Little Russia (Eastern Ukraine)
Scythia, Little Russia (Eastern Ukraine) ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ;

Mongol, Scythia (mostly along the Dneister River)
Scythia; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk, Commemorated on July 17; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated July 28 ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated August 7 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated August 30 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated September 6 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated on September 13; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated on September 13 ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; Icon of the Mother of God "Jerusalem", Commemorated October 12 ; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Greatmartyr Mercurius of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 10 ; Hieromartyr Ignatius the God-Bearer the Bishop of Antioch, Commemorated December 20 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30 ; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œElets-Chernigov", Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14 ; Venerable Theodore of Sanaxar, Commemorated on February 19 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; St Sophronius the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on March 30; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7; Martyr Sava the Goth of Wallachia, Commemorated on April 15; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ; St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia Minor (Lesser Scythia, Dacia Pontica)
Lesser Scythia (Scythia Minor); Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated September 6 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated on September 13; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated on September 13 ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Martyr Inna, Disciple of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated on January 20 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Martyr Sava the Goth of Wallachia, Commemorated on April 15; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia, Land of the Polovetsians AKA Cumanians
Scythia, Land of the Polovetsians AKA Cumanians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River ; Cumanians; Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and the Balkans 1055-1230 (175 years) ; Khan Bonyak; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4;

Polovetsians AKA Cumanians, Mongol Scythia
Scythia, Land of the Polovetsians AKA Cumanians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River ; Cumanians; Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and the Balkans 1055-1230 (175 years) ; Khan Bonyak; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4;

Sarmatians (Scythia and Persia)
Sarmatians ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated on September 6 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1st to 7th century AD, Land of the Huns
Land of the Huns, Caspian Sea, Cacausus Mts, Scythia, and Hungary ; Venerable Genevieve of Paris, Commemorated on January 3 ; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24;

Mongol, Scythia, 420-469, Hunnic Empire under Attila (Rhine, Danube, Baltic and Ural)
Scythia, Hunnic Empire under Attila; Attila the Hun 434-458; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31;

Mongol, Scythia, Turks of Atil, 740-969, Khazars
Scythia, Turks of Atil, 750-969, Khazars; Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, Scythia, Khazar Jews, Mid to Late 9th Century (Volga River Mouth)
Khazar Jews ; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Mongol, Scythia, Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia)
Scythia, Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Khazars; Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19;

Mongols, Scythia, 860-1091, Pechenegs, Moldovia to Bosnia
Mongols, Pechenegs, 860-1091, Russia, Kiev, 968, Seige of Kiev by Pechenegs; Kiev Rus King, 945-972, Sviatoslav I of Kiev; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Mongol, Scythia, 900-1220, Cumania, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation
Scythia, 900-1220, Cumania, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation ; Land of the Polovetsians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River, Cumania ; Cumanians; Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and the Balkans 1055-1230 (175 years) ; Khan Bonyak; Venerable Nikon the Dry, of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on December 11 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1220s - 1502, Golden Horde, Mongol Empire
Scythian Golden Horde, 1220s - 1502, Mongol Empire; Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Icon of the Mother of God œof the œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on September 8; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 1223-1240, Mongol invasion of Rus, Conquest 1227
Scythia, 1223-1240, Mongol invasion of Rus, Conquest 1227; Icon of the Mother of God œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on November 27; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1380, Battle of Kulikovo Field
Battle of Kulikovo; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on August 30; Memorial Saturday of St Demetrius;

Mongol, Scythia, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Muslim White Horde
Scythia, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Destroying Rostov, New Novgorod, and Gorodets ; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of Radonezh the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius, Commemorated on November 17 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2;

Mongol, Scythia History Folder

Mongol, Scythia, 91 - 650, Land of the Huns Folder, 1st to 7th Century

Mongol, Scythia, 1st to 7th century, Land of the Huns
Land of the Huns, Caspian Sea, Cacausus Mts, Scythia, and Hungary ; Venerable Genevieve of Paris, Commemorated on January 3 ; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24;

Mongol, Scythia, 1st Century, Apostle Andrew and Saint Inna
Mongol, Scythia, 1st Century, Apostle Andrew and Saint Inna; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 380-435, Saint John Cassian the Roman
Romania, 380-435, Saint John Cassian the Roman; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St. Germanus of Dacia Pontica (Dobrogea), Commemorated on February 29; Venerable Benedict of Nursia, Commemorated on March 14;

Mongol, Scythia, 434-453, Attila the Hun, scared the Goths, with Ostrogoths, Alans, Bulgars, Cavalry, Plains, Tribute
Scythia, Attila the Hun 434-453; (/ˈætɪlə, əˈtɪlə/; fl. c. 406–453), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453. He was also the leader of a tribal empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans and Bulgars, among others, in Central and Eastern Europe. ( For example: In 451 Attila gathered his vassals—Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others–and began his march west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong. ) his reign, he was one of the most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. He crossed the Danube twice and plundered the Balkans, but was unable to take Constantinople. His unsuccessful campaign in Persia was followed in 441 by an invasion of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, the success of which emboldened Attila to invade the West.[3] He also attempted to conquer Roman Gaul (modern France), crossing the Rhine in 451 and marching as far as Aurelianum (Orléans) before being stopped in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. subsequently invaded Italy, devastating the northern provinces, but was unable to take Rome. He planned for further campaigns against the Romans, but died in 453. After Attila's death, his close adviser, Ardaric of the Gepids, led a Germanic revolt against Hunnic rule, after which the Hunnic Empire quickly collapsed. 1 Appearance and character 2 Etymology 3 Historiography and source 4 Early life and background 5 Campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire 6 Solitary kingship 7 In the west 8 Invasion of Italy and death 8.1 Death 9 Later folklore and iconography 10 Depictions of Attila 11 See also 12 Notes 13 External links and character ór Than's painting The Feast of Attila, based on a fragment of Priscus is no surviving first-hand account of Attila's appearance, but there is a possible second-hand source provided by Jordanes, who cites a description given by Priscus.[4][5] was a man born into the world to shake the nations, the scourge of all lands, who in some way terrified all mankind by the dreadful rumors noised abroad concerning him. He was haughty in his walk, rolling his eyes hither and thither, so that the power of his proud spirit appeared in the movement of his body. He was indeed a lover of war, yet restrained in action, mighty in counsel, gracious to suppliants and lenient to those who were once received into his protection. Short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and swarthy skin, showing evidence of his origin.[6]:182–183 scholars have suggested that this description is typically East Asian, because it has all the combined features that fit the physical type of people from Eastern Asia, and Attila's ancestors may have come from there.[5][7]:202 Other historians also believed that the same descriptions were also evident on some Scythian people.[8][9] and source of Attila in a museum in Hungary life and background article: Huns in battle with the Alans. An 1870s engraving after a drawing by Johann Nepomuk Geiger (1805–1880). Huns were a group of Eurasian nomads, appearing from east of the Volga, who migrated further into Western Europe c. 370[19] and built up an enormous empire there. Their main military techniques were mounted archery and javelin throwing. They were in the process of developing settlements before their arrival in Western Europe, yet the Huns were a society of pastoral warriors[18]:259 whose primary form of nourishment was meat and milk, products of their herds. origin and language of the Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries. According to some theories, their leaders at least may have spoken a Turkic language, perhaps closest to the modern Chuvash language.[14]:444 One scholar suggests a relationship to Yeniseian.[20] According to the Encyclopedia of European Peoples, "the Huns, especially those who migrated to the west, may have been a combination of central Asian Turkic, Mongolic, and Ugric stocks".[21] father Mundzuk was the brother of kings Octar and Ruga, who reigned jointly over the Hunnic empire in the early fifth century. This form of diarchy was recurrent with the Huns, but historians are unsure whether it was institutionalized, merely customary, or an occasional occurrence.[16]:80 His family was from a noble lineage, but it is uncertain whether they constituted a royal dynasty. Attila's birthdate is debated; journalist Éric Deschodt and writer Herman Schreiber have proposed a date of 395.[22][23] However, historian Iaroslav Lebedynsky and archaeologist Katalin Escher prefer an estimate between the 390s and the first decade of the fifth century.[16]:40 Several historians have proposed 406 as the date.[24]:92[25]:202 grew up in a rapidly changing world. His people were nomads who had only recently arrived in Europe.[26] They crossed the Volga river during the 370s and annexed the territory of the Alans, then attacked the Gothic kingdom between the Carpathian mountains and the Danube. They were a very mobile people, whose mounted archers had acquired a reputation for invincibility, and the Germanic tribes seemed unable to withstand them.[18]:133–151 Vast populations fleeing the Huns moved from Germania into the Roman Empire in the west and south, and along the banks of the Rhine and Danube. In 376, the Goths crossed the Danube, initially submitting to the Romans but soon rebelling against Emperor Valens, whom they killed in the Battle of Adrianople in 378.[18]:100 Large numbers of Vandals, Alans, Suebi, and Burgundians crossed the Rhine and invaded Roman Gaul on December 31, 406 to escape the Huns.[16]:233 The Roman Empire had been split in half since 395 and was ruled by two distinct governments, one based in Ravenna in the West, and the other in Constantinople in the East. The Roman Emperors, both East and West, were generally from the Theodosian family in Attila's lifetime (despite several power struggles).[27]:13 Huns dominated a vast territory with nebulous borders determined by the will of a constellation of ethnically varied peoples. Some were assimilated to Hunnic nationality, whereas many retained their own identities and rulers but acknowledged the suzerainty of the king of the Huns.[27]:11 The Huns were also the indirect source of many of the Romans' problems, driving various Germanic tribes into Roman territory, yet relations between the two empires were cordial: the Romans used the Huns as mercenaries against the Germans and even in their civil wars. Thus, the usurper Joannes was able to recruit thousands of Huns for his army against Valentinian III in 424. It was Aëtius, later Patrician of the West, who managed this operation. They exchanged ambassadors and hostages, the alliance lasting from 401 to 450 and permitting the Romans numerous military victories.[18]:111 The Huns considered the Romans to be paying them tribute, whereas the Romans preferred to view this as payment for services rendered. The Huns had become a great power by the time that Attila came of age during the reign of his uncle Ruga, to the point that Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, deplored the situation with these words: "They have become both masters and slaves of the Romans".[18]:128 against the Eastern Roman Empire Empire of the Huns and subject tribes at the time of Attila death of Rugila (also known as Rua or Ruga) in 434 left the sons of his brother Mundzuk, Attila and Bleda, in control of the united Hun tribes. At the time of the two brothers' accession, the Hun tribes were bargaining with Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II's envoys for the return of several renegades who had taken refuge within the Eastern Roman Empire, possibly Hunnic nobles who disagreed with the brothers' assumption of leadership. following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (Požarevac), all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner,[28] and negotiated an advantageous treaty. The Romans agreed to return the fugitives, to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (c. 115 kg) of gold, to open their markets to Hunnish traders, and to pay a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the Roman Empire and returned to their home in the Great Hungarian Plain, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall, and to build up his border defenses along the Danube. Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next few years while they invaded the Sassanid Empire. They were defeated in Armenia by the Sassanids, abandoned their invasion, and turned their attentions back to Europe. In 440, they reappeared in force on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty of 435. the Danube, they laid waste to the cities of Illyricum and forts on the river, including (according to Priscus) Viminacium, a city of Moesia. Their advance began at Margus, where they demanded that the Romans turn over a bishop who had retained property that Attila regarded as his. While the Romans discussed the bishop's fate, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them. the Huns attacked city-states along the Danube, the Vandals (led by Geiseric) captured the Western Roman province of Africa and its capital of Carthage. Carthage was the richest province of the Western Empire and a main source of food for Rome. The Sassanid Shah Yazdegerd II invaded Armenia in 441. Romans stripped the Balkan area of forces, sending them to Sicily in order to mount an expedition against the Vandals in Africa. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyricum into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army sacked Margus and Viminacium, and then took Singidunum (Belgrade) and Sirmium. During 442, Theodosius recalled his troops from Sicily and ordered a large issue of new coins to finance operations against the Huns. He believed that he could defeat the Huns and refused the Hunnish kings' demands. responded with a campaign in 443.[29] For the first time (as far as the Romans knew) his forces were equipped with battering rams and rolling siege towers, with which they successfully assaulted the military centers of Ratiara and Naissus (Niš) and massacred the inhabitants. Priscus said "When we arrived at Naissus we found the city deserted, as though it had been sacked; only a few sick persons lay in the churches. We halted at a short distance from the river, in an open space, for all the ground adjacent to the bank was full of the bones of men slain in war."[30] along the Nišava River, the Huns next took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Arcadiopolis (Lüleburgaz). They encountered and destroyed a Roman army outside Constantinople but were stopped by the double walls of the Eastern capital. They defeated a second army near Callipolis (Gelibolu). unable to make effective armed resistance, admitted defeat, sending the Magister militum per Orientem Anatolius to negotiate peace terms. The terms were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (c. 2000 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 700 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 solidi. demands were met for a time, and the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. Bleda died following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445). Attila then took the throne for himself, becoming the sole ruler of the Huns.[31] kingship 447, Attila again rode south into the Eastern Roman Empire through Moesia. The Roman army, under Gothic magister militum Arnegisclus, met him in the Battle of the Utus and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as Thermopylae. itself was saved by the Isaurian troops of magister militum per Orientem Zeno and protected by the intervention of prefect Constantinus, who organized the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes and, in some places, to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. Callinicus, in his Life of Saint Hypatius, wrote: barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in Thrace, became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers. the west general path of the Hun forces in the invasion of Gaul 450, Attila proclaimed his intent to attack the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse by making an alliance with Emperor Valentinian III. He had previously been on good terms with the Western Roman Empire and its influential general Flavius Aëtius. Aëtius had spent a brief exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops that Attila provided against the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of Geiseric, who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans. Valentinian's sister was Honoria, who had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help—and her engagement ring—in order to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman senator in the spring of 450. Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, but Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother Galla Placidia convinced him to exile Honoria, rather than killing her. He also wrote to Attila, strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. interfered in a succession struggle after the death of a Frankish ruler. Attila supported the elder son, while Aëtius supported the younger. (The location and identity of these kings is not known and subject to conjecture.) Attila gathered his vassals—Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others–and began his march west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong. April 7, he captured Metz. Other cities attacked can be determined by the hagiographic vitae written to commemorate their bishops: Nicasius was slaughtered before the altar of his church in Rheims; Servatus is alleged to have saved Tongeren with his prayers, as Saint Genevieve is said to have saved Paris.[32] Lupus, bishop of Troyes, is also credited with saving his city by meeting Attila in person.[3][33] ëtius moved to oppose Attila, gathering troops from among the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Celts. A mission by Avitus and Attila's continued westward advance convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric I (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached Orléans ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aëtius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near Catalaunum (modern Châlons-en-Champagne). Attila decided to fight the Romans on plains where he could use his cavalry.[34] two armies clashed in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the outcome of which is commonly considered to be a strategic victory for the Visigothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting, and Aëtius failed to press his advantage, according to Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy, because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat. From Aëtius' point of view, the best outcome was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray, and the Romans had the benefit of appearing victorious. of Italy and death The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila depicts Leo, escorted by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, meeting with the Hun emperor outside Rome. returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with Honoria, invading and ravaging Italy along the way. Communities became established in what would later become Venice as a result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities and razed Aquileia so completely that it was afterwards hard to recognize its original site.[35]:159 Aëtius lacked the strength to offer battle, but managed to harass and slow Attila's advance with only a shadow force. Attila finally halted at the River Po. By this point, disease and starvation may have taken hold in Attila's camp, thus hindering his war efforts and potentially contributing to the cessation of invasion.[36][citation needed] Valentinian III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as the Bishop of Rome Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the Emperor.[37] Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short description of the historic meeting, but gives all the credit to Leo for the successful negotiation. Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of Alaric gave him pause—as Alaric died shortly after sacking Rome in 410. had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and her crops were faring little better in 452. Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy this year did not improve the harvest.[35]:161 To advance on Rome would have required supplies which were not available in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila's supply situation. Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat to his homeland.[35]:160–161 an East Roman force had crossed the Danube under the command of another officer also named Aetius—who had participated in the Council of Chalcedon the previous year—and proceeded to defeat the Huns who had been left behind by Attila to safeguard their home territories. Attila, hence, faced heavy human and natural pressures to retire "from Italy without ever setting foot south of the Po".[35]:163 As Hydatius writes in his Chronica Minora: Huns, who had been plundering Italy and who had also stormed a number of cities, were victims of divine punishment, being visited with heaven-sent disasters: famine and some kind of disease. In addition, they were slaughtered by auxiliaries sent by the Emperor Marcian and led by Aetius, and at the same time, they were crushed in their [home] settlements ... Thus crushed, they made peace with the Romans and all returned to their homes.[38] Huns, led by Attila, invade Italy (Attila, the Scourge of God, by Ulpiano Checa, 1887) was the successor of Theodosius, and he had ceased paying tribute to the Huns in late 450 while Attila was occupied in the west. Multiple invasions by the Huns and others had left the Balkans with little to plunder.[citation needed] Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube, he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had stopped. However, he died in the early months of 453. conventional account from Priscus says that Attila was at a feast celebrating his latest marriage, this time to the beautiful young Ildico (the name suggests Gothic or Ostrogoth origins).[35]:164 In the midst of the revels, however, he suffered severe bleeding and died. He may have had a nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor. Or he may have succumbed to internal bleeding, possibly due to ruptured esophageal varices. Esophageal varices are dilated veins that form in the lower part of the esophagus, often caused by years of excessive alcohol consumption; they are fragile and can easily rupture, leading to death by hemorrhage.[39] account of his death was first recorded 80 years after the events by Roman chronicler Marcellinus Comes. It reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife".[40] One modern analyst suggests that he was assassinated,[41] but most reject these accounts as no more than hearsay, preferring instead the account given by Attila's contemporary Priscus, recounted in the 6th century by Jordanes: On the following day, when a great part of the morning was spent, the royal attendants suspected some ill and, after a great uproar, broke in the doors. There they found the death of Attila accomplished by an effusion of blood, without any wound, and the girl with downcast face weeping beneath her veil. Then, as is the custom of that race, they plucked out the hair of their heads and made their faces hideous with deep wounds, that the renowned warrior might be mourned, not by effeminate wailings and tears, but by the blood of men. Moreover a wondrous thing took place in connection with Attila's death. For in a dream some god stood at the side of Marcian, Emperor of the East, while he was disquieted about his fierce foe, and showed him the bow of Attila broken in that same night, as if to intimate that the race of Huns owed much to that weapon. This account the historian Priscus says he accepts upon truthful evidence. For so terrible was Attila thought to be to great empires that the gods announced his death to rulers as a special boon. body was placed in the midst of a plain and lay in state in a silken tent as a sight for men's admiration. The best horsemen of the entire tribe of the Huns rode around in circles, after the manner of circus games, in the place to which he had been brought and told of his deeds in a funeral dirge in the following manner: "The chief of the Huns, King Attila, born of his sire Mundiuch, lord of bravest tribes, sole possessor of the Scythian and German realms—powers unknown before—captured cities and terrified both empires of the Roman world and, appeased by their prayers, took annual tribute to save the rest from plunder. And when he had accomplished all this by the favor of fortune, he fell, not by wound of the foe, nor by treachery of friends, but in the midst of his nation at peace, happy in his joy and without sense of pain. Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?" they had mourned him with such lamentations, a strava, as they call it, was celebrated over his tomb with great reveling. They gave way in turn to the extremes of feeling and displayed funereal grief alternating with joy. Then in the secrecy of night they buried his body in the earth. They bound his coffins, the first with gold, the second with silver and the third with the strength of iron, showing by such means that these three things suited the mightiest of kings; iron because he subdued the nations, gold and silver because he received the honors of both empires. They also added the arms of foemen won in the fight, trappings of rare worth, sparkling with various gems, and ornaments of all sorts whereby princely state is maintained. And that so great riches might be kept from human curiosity, they slew those appointed to the work—a dreadful pay for their labor; and thus sudden death was the lot of those who buried him as well as of him who was buried.[6]:254–259 sons Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak, "in their rash eagerness to rule they all alike destroyed his empire".[6]:259 They "were clamoring that the nations should be divided among them equally and that warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate".[6]:259 Against the treatment as "slaves of the basest condition" a Germanic alliance led by the Gepid ruler Ardaric (who was noted for great loyalty to Attila[6]:199) revolted and fought with the Huns in Pannonia in the Battle of Nedao 454 AD.[6]:260–262 Attila's eldest son Ellac was killed in that battle.[6]:262 Attila's sons "regarding the Goths as deserters from their rule, came against them as though they were seeking fugitive slaves", attacked Ostrogothic co-ruler Valamir (who also fought alongside Ardaric and Attila at the Catalaunian Plains[6]:199), but were repelled, and some group of Huns moved to Scythia (probably those of Ernak).[6]:268–269 His brother Dengizich attempted a renewed invasion across the Danube in 468 AD, but was defeated at the Battle of Bassianae by the Ostrogoths.[6]:272–273 Dengizich was killed by Roman-Gothic general Anagast the following year, after which the Hunnic dominion ended.[10]:168 many children and relatives are known by name and some even by deeds, but soon valid genealogical sources all but dried up, and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants. This has not stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a valid line of descent for various medieval rulers. One of the most credible claims has been that of the Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans for mythological Avitohol and Irnik from the Dulo clan of the Bulgars.[42]:103[15]:59, 142[43] folklore and iconography information: Attila in popular culture of the meeting between Attila and Pope Leo from the Chronicon Pictum, c. 1360 himself is said to have claimed the titles "Descendant of the Great Nimrod", and "King of the Huns, the Goths, the Danes, and the Medes"—the last two peoples being mentioned to show the extent of his control over subject nations even on the peripheries of his domain.[44] embellished the report of Priscus, reporting that Attila had possessed the "Holy War Sword of the Scythians", which was given to him by Mars and made him a "prince of the entire world".[45][46] the end of the 12th century the royal court of Hungary proclaimed their descent from Attila. Lampert of Hersfeld's contemporary chronicles report that shortly before the year 1071, the Sword of Attila had been presented to Otto of Nordheim by the exiled queen of Hungary, Anastasia of Kiev.[47] This sword, a cavalry sabre now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, appears to be the work of Hungarian goldsmiths of the ninth or tenth century.[48] anonymous chronicler of the medieval period represented the meeting of Pope Leo and Atilla as attended also by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, "a miraculous tale calculated to meet the taste of the time"[49] This apotheosis was later portrayed artistically by the Renaissance artist Raphael and sculptor Algardi, whom eighteenth-century historian Edward Gibbon praised for establishing "one of the noblest legends of ecclesiastical tradition".[50] to a version of this narrative related in the Chronicon Pictum, a mediaeval Hungarian chronicle, the Pope promised Attila that if he left Rome in peace, one of his successors would receive a holy crown (which has been understood as referring to the Holy Crown of Hungary). histories and chronicles describe him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three Norse sagas: Atlakviða,[51] Volsunga saga,[52] and Atlamál.[51] The Polish Chronicle represents Attila's name as Aquila.[53] of Michelsberg and Otto of Freising pointed out that some songs as "vulgar fables" made Theoderic the Great, Attila and Ermanaric contemporaries, when any reader of Jordanes knew that this was not the case.[54] This refers to the so-called historical poems about Dietrich von Bern (Theoderic), in which Etzel (Attila) is Dietrich's refuge in exile from his wicked uncle Ermenrich (Ermanaric). Etzel is most prominent in the poems Dietrichs Flucht and the Rabenschlacht. Etzel also appears as Kriemhild's second noble husband in the Nibelungenlied, in which Kriemhild causes the destruction of both the Hunnish kingdom and that of her Burgundian relatives. 1812, Ludwig van Beethoven conceived the idea of writing an opera about Attila and approached August von Kotzebue to write the libretto. It was, however, never written.[55] In 1846, Giuseppe Verdi wrote the opera, loosely based on episodes in Attila's invasion of Italy. World War I, Allied propaganda referred to Germans as the "Huns", based on a 1900 speech by Emperor Wilhelm II praising Attila the Hun's military prowess, according to Jawaharlal Nehru's Glimpses of World History.[56] Der Spiegel commented on November 6, 1948, that the Sword of Attila was hanging menacingly over Austria.[57] writer Cecelia Holland wrote The Death of Attila (1973), a historical novel in which Attila appears as a powerful background figure whose life and death deeply impact the protagonists, a young Hunnic warrior and a Germanic one. name has many variants in several languages: Atli and Atle in Old Norse; Etzel in Middle High German (Nibelungenlied); Ætla in Old English; Attila, Atilla, and Etele in Hungarian (Attila is the most popular); Attila, Atilla, Atilay, or Atila in Turkish; and Adil and Edil in Kazakh or Adil ("same/similar") or Edil ("to use") in Mongolian. modern Hungary and in Turkey, "Attila" and its Turkish variation "Atilla" are commonly used as a male first name. In Hungary, several public places are named after Attila; for instance, in Budapest there are 10 Attila Streets, one of which is an important street behind the Buda Castle. When the Turkish Armed Forces invaded Cyprus in 1974, the operations were named after Attila ("The Attila Plan").[58] 1954 Universal International film Sign of the Pagan starred Jack Palance as Attila. Venerable Genevieve of Paris, Commemorated on January 3; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31;

Mongol, Scythia, 454-469, Dengizich, Atilla's Son
Battle of Bassianae (Byzantine (Gothic, Roman) victory over the Huns) 469; The war ended in 469. Marcellinus Comes shortly recorded "The head of Dinzic, son of Attila, king of the Huns, was brought to Constantinople".[14] The Chronicon Paschale recounts "Dinzirichus, Attila's son, was killed by Anagastes, general in Thrace. His head was brought to Constantinople, carried in procession through the Middle Street, and fixed on a pole at the Wooden Circus. The whole city turned out to look at it".[14] Jordanes recounts events in c. 468: "Now after firm peace was established between Goths and Romans, the Goths found that what they received from the emperor was not sufficient for them. Furthermore, they were eager to display their wonted valor, and so began to plunder the neighboring peoples around them, first attacking the Sadagis[nb 1] who held the interior of Pannonia. When Dintzic, king of the Huns, a son of Attila, learned this, he gathered to him the few who still seemed to have remained under his sway, namely, the Ultzinzures[nb 2] the Angisciri[nb 3] the Bittugures[nb 4] and the Bardores[nb 5] Coming to Bassianae (see Battle of Bassianae), a city of Pannonia, he beleaguered it and began to plunder its territory. When the Goths learned this, they abandoned the expedition they had planned against the Sadagis and turned upon the Huns and drove them so ingloriously from their own land that those who remained have been in dread of the arms of the Goths from that time down to the present day."[22] Dengizich, Atilla's Son; Icon of the Mother of God Ã¢Â€ÂœJerusalemÃ¢Â€ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on October 12;

Mongol, Scythia, 469, Battle of Bassianae (Byzantine (Gothic, Roman) victory over the Huns)
Battle of Bassianae (Byzantine (Gothic, Roman) victory over the Huns) 469; The war ended in 469. Marcellinus Comes shortly recorded "The head of Dinzic, son of Attila, king of the Huns, was brought to Constantinople".[14] The Chronicon Paschale recounts "Dinzirichus, Attila's son, was killed by Anagastes, general in Thrace. His head was brought to Constantinople, carried in procession through the Middle Street, and fixed on a pole at the Wooden Circus. The whole city turned out to look at it".[14] Jordanes recounts events in c. 468: "Now after firm peace was established between Goths and Romans, the Goths found that what they received from the emperor was not sufficient for them. Furthermore, they were eager to display their wonted valor, and so began to plunder the neighboring peoples around them, first attacking the Sadagis[nb 1] who held the interior of Pannonia. When Dintzic, king of the Huns, a son of Attila, learned this, he gathered to him the few who still seemed to have remained under his sway, namely, the Ultzinzures[nb 2] the Angisciri[nb 3] the Bittugures[nb 4] and the Bardores[nb 5] Coming to Bassianae (see Battle of Bassianae), a city of Pannonia, he beleaguered it and began to plunder its territory. When the Goths learned this, they abandoned the expedition they had planned against the Sadagis and turned upon the Huns and drove them so ingloriously from their own land that those who remained have been in dread of the arms of the Goths from that time down to the present day."[22] Dengizich, Atilla's Son; Icon of the Mother of God Ã¢Â€ÂœJerusalemÃ¢Â€ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on October 12;

Mongol, Scythia, 635-668, Bulgars Folder, 7th Century, Old Great Bulgaria

Mongol, Scythia, 7th Century, Land of the Bulgars (Pontic Steppe and Lower Danube)
Pontic Steppe; Bulgars; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15;

Mongol, Scythia, 650-1048, Khazars Folder

Mongol, Scythia, 650-1048, Khazars, Commanded Western Silk Road
Scythia, 650-1048, Khazars Scythia, Turks of Atil, 750-969, Khazars; Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Mongol, Scythia, 740-969, Turks of Atil, Khazars
Scythia, Turks of Atil, 750-969, Khazars; Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Mongol, Scythia, 800, 9th and 10th Century, Atil and the Land of the Khazars, (Volga Delta, Scythia)
Scythia, Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Khazars; Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19;

Mongol, Scythia, 841-861, Khagan, Zacharia, Khazar Jew then Christian after Cyril
Mongol, Scythia, 841-861, Khagan, Zacharia, Khazar Jew then Christian after Cyril; at the territory of the Khazars, the holy brothers spoke with them about the Christian Faith. Persuaded by the preaching of Saint Cyril, the Khazar prince together with all his people accepted Christianity. The grateful prince wanted to reward the preachers with rich presents, but they refused this and instead asked the prince to free and send home with them all the Greek captives. Saint Cyril returned to Constantinople together with 200 such captives set free. Khazar Jews ; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of Saint Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14;

Mongol, Scythia, 860-899, Khazar Jews (Volga River Mouth)
Khazar Jews ; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Mongol, Scythia, 860-1091, Land of the Pechenegs (Pontic Steppe) Turks
Pechenegs; Pontic Steppe; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15;

Mongol, Scythia, 965-969, Atil, Scythia. Capital of the Khazars
Atil, Scythia, 965-969. Capital of the Khazars; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Mongol, Scythia, 869-1091, Pecheneges Folder, Lesser Scythia to Bosnia

Mongols, Scythia, 860-1091, Pechenegs, Moldovia to Bosnia, also Turks
Mongols, Pechenegs, 860-1091, Russia, Kiev, 968, Seige of Kiev by Pechenegs; Kiev Rus King, 945-972, Sviatoslav I of Kiev; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Mongol, Scythia, 900-1220, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation Folder, Cumania

Mongol, Scythia, 900-1220, Polovtsian Confederation, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation
Polovtsian Confederation, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation Scythia, 900-1220, Cumania, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation ; Land of the Polovetsians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River, Cumania ; Cumanians; Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and the Balkans 1055-1230 (175 years) ; Khan Bonyak; Venerable Nikon the Dry, of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on December 11 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1055-1230, Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and Balkans (175 years)
Scythia, 1055-1230, Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and Balkans (175 years) ; Land of the Polovetsians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River, Cumania ; Cumanians; Khan Bonyak; Venerable Nikon the Dry, of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on December 11 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1095-1096, Cuman Chief Boniak Wars in Kiev, plundered Kiev K Caves, w Oleg, d Hungary
Kiev, 1095-1096, Cuman Chief Boniak Wars in Kiev; Venerable Nikon the Dry, of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on December 11 ; St Vsevolod (in holy baptism Gabriel) the Wonderworker of Pskov, Commemorated on February 11; Monkmartyr Eustratius of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on March 28;

Mongol, Scythia, 1121, Atrak, the Qipchaks' ruler, Battle of Didgori, Christian
Qipchaks, Cuman-Kipchaks in Georgia; Blessed David IV the King of Georgia, Commemorated on January 26;

Mongol, Scythia, 1216, Battle of Lipitsa, for Vladimir, Mstislav and Konsantin beat Yuri and Yaroslav
Battle of Lipitsa (1216); Battle of Lipitsa (Russian: Ли́пицкая би́тва) was the decisive battle in the succession struggle over the Grand Princely throne of Vladimir-Suzdal following the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest. the battle, fought on April 22, 1216, the forces of Mstislav the Daring and Konstantin Vsevolodovich defeated those of Konstantin's younger brothers Yuri Vsevolodovich and Yaroslav. Konstantin took the throne of Vladimir and reigned as grand prince until his death two years later. large-scale battle typifies fratricidal strife that sapped the strength of the successor states to Kievan Rus before the Mongol invasion. detailed account first appeared in the older redaction of the Novgorodian First Chronicle and later in the Novgorodian Fourth Chronicle the Sofia First Chronicle and elsewhere.[1]

Mongol, Scythia, 1219, Vladimir-Suzdal forces against Islamic Volga Bulgars
Scythia, 1219, Vladimir-Suzdal forces against Islamic Volga Bulgars ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 1220-1582, Golden Horde Mongol Empire Folder

Mongol, Scythia, 1220-1299, 13th Century Folder, Golden Horde, Invasions of Bulgaria, China and Russia

Mongol, Scythia, 1220s - 1502, Scythian Golden Horde, Mongol Empire
Scythian Golden Horde, 1220s - 1502, Mongol Empire; Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Icon of the Mother of God œof the Sign, the œKursk-Root, Commemorated on September 8; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 1223-1255, Mongol Khan Batu, Founder Golden Horde, Nevsky's loyalty
Scythia, 1223-1255, Mongol Khan Batu, Founder Golden Horde; Khan (c. 1205–1255),[note 1] also known as Sain Khan (Mongolian: Good Khan) and Tsar Batu,[2] was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Golden Horde, a division of the Mongol Empire. was a son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. His ulus was the chief state of the Golden Horde, which ruled Rus', Volga Bulgaria, Cumania, and the Caucasus for around 250 years, after also destroying the armies of Poland and Hungary. or Bat literally means "firm" in the Mongolian language. After the deaths of Genghis Khan's sons, he became the most respected prince, called agha ("elder brother"), in the Mongol Empire. 1 Personality and appearance 2 Early years 3 Conquest of Kievan Rus' 4 Invasion of Central Europe 5 Viceroy and struggle with Güyük 6 Möngke and Batu 7 Family and legacy 8 Ancestry 9 Gallery 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Books 14 External links and appearance[edit] to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Batu was "kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time."[3] of Rubruck described him as about the height of his lord John de Beaumont and his entire face was covered with reddish spots.[4] years[edit] his son Jochi's death, Genghis Khan assigned Jochi's appanages to his sons. the Great Khan installed Batu as Khan of the Golden Horde (also known as the Ulus of Jochi or Kipchak Khanate). eldest son, Orda Khan, also agreed that Batu should succeed their father. Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge attended the coronation ceremony as an official representative of Genghis.[5] Genghis Khan died in 1227, he left 4,000 Mongol men to Jochi's family. Jochi's lands were divided between Batu and his older brother Orda. White Horde ruled the lands roughly between the Volga river and Lake Balkhash, while Batu's Horde ruled the lands west of the Volga. 1229, Ogedei dispatched three tumens under Kukhdei and Sundei to conquer the tribes on the lower Ural River. to Abulghazi, Batu joined Ogedei's military campaign against the Jin dynasty in North China while his younger brother was fighting the Bashkirs, the Cumans, the Bulghars and the Alans in the west. heavy resistance of their enemies, the Mongols conquered major cities of the Jurchens (Manchuria, northeast China) and made the Bashkirs their ally. the 1230s, Ogedei distributed lands in Shanxi, China to Batu and the family of Jochi, but they appointed their officials under the supervision of the Imperial governor likewise in Khorasan, Persia.[6] of Kievan Rus'[edit] articles: Kievan Rus', Mongol invasion of Rus', and Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria showvte invasions and conquests the kurultai in Mongolia after the end of the Mongol-Jin War, the Great Khan Ogedei ordered Batu to conquer western nations. 1235 Batu, who earlier had directed the conquest of the Crimean Peninsula, was assigned an army of possibly 130,000 to oversee an invasion of Europe. relatives and cousins Guyuk, Büri, Möngke, Khulgen, Khadan, Baidar and notable Mongol generals Subutai (Subeedei), Borolday, and Mengguser joined him by the order of his uncle Ogedei. The army, actually commanded by Subutai, crossed the Volga and invaded Volga Bulgaria in 1236. It took them a year to extinguish the resistance of the Volga Bulgarians, Kypchaks, and Alani. of the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal by Mongol armies. From the medieval Russian annals November 1237 Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal and demanded his allegiance. Yuri refused to surrender the Mongols besieged Ryazan. After six days of bloody battle, the city was totally annihilated and never restored to its former glory. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the horde, but they were soundly defeated. burnt Kolomna and Moscow, the horde laid siege to the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal on 4 February 1238. Three days later the city was taken and burnt to the ground. The royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince hastily retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, he mustered a new army, which was totally exterminated by the Mongols on the Sit River on 4 March. Batu Khan divided his army into smaller units, which ransacked fourteen Rus' cities: Rostov, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Gorodets, Galich, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuriev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Volokolamsk, Tver, and Torzhok. most difficult to take was the small town of Kozelsk, whose boy-prince Titus and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks. As the story goes, at the news of Mongol approach, the city of Kitezh was submerged in a lake with all its inhabitants, where it may be seen to this day. Khadan and Buri stormed the city in three days after they joined Batu. only major cities to escape destruction were Smolensk, which submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute, and Novgorod with Pskov, which could not be reached by the Mongols on account of considerable distance and the intervening marshlands. of the Golden Horde sack Suzdal. Batu drank a cup of wine before the others at the victory banquet, Buri complained of the unfairness of Batu receiving such a vast and fertile steppe, and the Mongol army, along with Guyuk and others, ridiculed Batu as an "old woman with beard". They then left the banquet. Batu sent an envoy to his uncle Ogedei to complain of his cousins' rude behavior. Ogedei got angry on hearing the news and recalled Buri and Guyuk. to some sources, Buri, who was sent to his grandfather Chagatai, never returned to join the Mongol conquest of Europe; Guyuk returned to the Russian steppe after his father Ogedei harshly criticized him. the summer of 1238, Batu Khan devastated the Crimea and pacified Mordovia and the Kipchak-controlled steppe. the winter of 1239, he sacked Chernigov and Pereyaslav. several days of siege, the Mongols stormed Kiev in December 1240. fierce resistance by Danylo of Halych, Batu Khan managed to take the two principal capitals of his land, Halych and Volodymyr-Volynsky. Ruthenian principalities became vassals of the Mongol Empire. of Central Europe[edit] article: Mongol invasion of Europe Cuman refugees took shelter in the Kingdom of Hungary. Batu sent at least five messengers to Bela IV, the king of Hungary, but they were all killed. For the last time Batu demanded that Bela have the Cumans returned and warned: "It is much easier for the Cumans to escape than it is for you...you dwell in houses and have fixed towns and fortresses, so how will you escape me"?[7] Batu Khan then decided to "reach the ultimate sea", where the Mongols could proceed no further. Some modern historians speculate that Batu intended primarily to assure his flanks were safe for the future from possible interference from the Europeans, and partially as a precursor to further conquest. Most believe he intended the conquest of all Europe, as soon as his flanks were safe and his forces ready. IV flees from Mohi, detail from Chronicon Pictum devastated the various Rus principalities, Subutai and Batu sent spies into Poland, Hungary, and as far as Austria in preparation for an attack into the heartland of Europe. a clear picture of the European kingdoms, they brilliantly prepared an attack. Batu Khan was the overall leader, but Subutai was the actual commander in the field and as such was present in both the northern and southern campaigns against The Mongols invaded central Europe in three groups. One group invaded and devastated Poland, defeating a combined force under Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order at Legnica. second crossed the Carpathian Mountains, a third followed the Danube. armies swept the plains of Hungary over the summer, and in the spring of 1242 they regained impetus and extended their control into Austria and Dalmatia, as well as invading Morava. the northern force under Ogedei's son Khadan and Baidar, the son of Chagatai, won the Battle of Legnica, and another army of Guyuk or Buri triumphed in Transylvania, Subutai was waiting for another victory over the Magyars, the Croats, and the Templars on the Hungarian plain. 1241, a Tatar (Mongol) army led by Bujek crossed the mountains of the Kara Ulagh ("Black Vlachs"); Bujek defeated the Vlachs and one of their leader named Mslav.[8] the siege of Pest, Batu's army withdrew to the Sajo River and inflicted a tremendous defeat on King Bela IV and his allies at the Battle of Mohi on 11 April. Baidar, and Orda went to Hungary, devastating Moravia en route. The Mongols appointed a darughachi in Hungary and minted coins in the name of the Khagan.[9] country of Bela was assigned to Orda by Batu as an appanage; Batu sent Khadan in pursuit of Bela, who fled to Croatia.[citation needed] Chinese drawing of young Batu Khan (14th century). Mongol battalions checked the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Babenberg Austria.[10] his campaign in Central Europe, Batu demanded that Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, dethrone himself, and said: "I am coming to usurp your throne instead of you". The latter only replied that he would make a good falconer, for he understood birds very The Emperor and Pope Gregory IX called for a crusade against the Mongol Empire, but Europe was plagued by internal strife. achieved lasting fame with his victories in Europe, as he had in Eastern Persia. late 1241, Batu and Subutai were finalizing plans to invade Austria, Italy, and Germany when the news came of the death of Ogedei Khan, who died in December 1241. wanted to continue the war[citation needed], but Subutai reminded him of the law of Yassa (Их Засаг)[citation needed]. Mongols withdrew in late spring of 1242, as the Princes of the blood, and Subutai, were recalled to Karakorum where the kurultai was held. Second Bulgarian Empire was forced to acknowledge Batu's supremacy. was a potential Great Khan, but when he failed to gain the title he turned to consolidate his conquests in Asia and the Urals. and struggle with Guyuk[edit] from Hungary, Batu made his camps along the banks of the Volga. When the Great Khatun Töregene invited him to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire, Batu announced his inability to attend any immediate kurultai, thus delaying the succession for several years. Guyuk was elected Khagan in 1246, with Batu's brothers representing the Jochid lineage. As one of the oldest members of Chingisid Borjigin, Batu became a viceroy over all the western parts of the empire, controlling routine affairs among the Russian princes, nominating Jochid retainers as governors of Iran, and receiving in audience grandees from the Caucasus. At no point, however, did he openly challenge the authority of the Great Khan. the absence of Batu, the Mongols who were left behind put to death Mstislav, the prince of Rylsk, in Kievan Rus'. his return Batu summoned the Grand prince Yaroslav II of Vladimir to meet him. Yaroslav was well received by Batu, who confirmed him as suzerain over the other Russian princes, and gave him authority of Kiev. princes of Suzdal followed Yaroslav's example. Batu sent Yaroslav to the imperial court of Karakorum to assist at the inauguration of Guyuk Khan in 1246. Plano Carpini, who got approval from Batu to go further, noted that the Great Khan's aunt was executed. At the same time Yaroslav was poisoned in Mongolia. Michael of Chernigov was passed between fires in accordance with ancient Turco-Mongol tradition. Batu Khan stabbed him to death for his refusal to do obeisance to Genghis Khan's shrine in the pagan ritual. had commissaries in the various towns where the dependent Russian princes and other princes held their courts. princes from Russian states such as Vladimir Constantine, Boris, Gleb, Vasili, Constatantine, Vladimir Constantinovich, Vasilko and Sviatoslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir, went to the court of Batu in person. Michael of Chernigov, who had murdered the Mongol envoy in Kiev, arrived, the Mongol overseers were engaged in taking a census of the inhabitants for the poll tax. Michael was ordered to repair to Batu. When summoned before Batu, he was made to pass between two fires and ordered to prostrate himself before the tablets of Genghis Khan. replied that he did not object to do obeisance to Batu himself but to adore images of a dead man was repugnant. As he persisted in his refusal, Batu ordered his death. of Halych summoned to Batu and diplomatically made obeisance to the Mongols. Batu, addressing him, said "You have for a long time refused to come, but have effaced your ill conduct by your obedience" and saluted him with a draught of airag. exchanged hostages whereby 100 families of Keraites were re-settled in Carpathian-Galicia. the defeat of the Sultanate of Rum, Baiju freed David VII Ulu from Turkish imprisonment and sent him to Batu and Guyuk. Baiju's aggressive policy, Queen Rusudan of Georgia sent her son David VI Narin to Batu's court to get official recognition as heir apparent. supported David VI and granted him the rights above the Georgian and Armenian nobles and the Mongol tammachis. Guyuk made David Ulu the senior king of Georgia and ordered Batu's protege David Narin to be subordinate to David Ulu. between Batu and Guyuk increased, however, and Guyuk replaced the officials in Iran and the Caucasus with his own men, including Eljigidei. gave a good reception to Alexander Nevsky and Andrey II. Andrey was assigned the throne of Vladimir-Suzdal while Alexander was given southern Russia. Guyuk began moving west, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Tolui, warned Batu that he was actually the Great Khan's target. Guyuk summoned Batu to appear before him, Batu moved slowly. Before meeting Batu, Guyuk died suddenly. According to William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicle, one of Batu's brothers murdered or poisoned the Great Khan Guyuk and Batu then killed the imperial envoy, though this account is not completely confirmed by other major sources. öngke and Batu[edit] loyal vassal Alexander Nevsky in the Horde opportunity had arrived for deposing the House of Ogedei from the overlordship of the Mongols, and Batu was determined to avail himself of it. But Batu seemed to allow Oghul Qaimish to serve as regent. He also suggested unruly princes listen to her words. When Batu was ill, Mongke went to the Ulus of Jochi to greet him as his mother Sorghagtani advised. Batu was much delighted on seeing him. last, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. Members of the Ogedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend the kurultai beyond the Mongolian heartland. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu Khan who had no interest in promoting himself as the new Grand Khan. Rejecting it, he instead nominated Mongke, who led a Mongol army in Russia, the Northern Caucasus, and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction (Genghis 4th son, Yuan Dynasty) rose up and supported his choice. Given its limited attendance and location, this kurultai was of questionable validity. sent Mongke under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. supporters of Mongke invited Oghul Qaimish and other main Ogedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time, demanding descendants of Ogedei must be khan. In response, Batu accused them of killing his aunt Altalaun and defying Ogedei's nominee, Shiremun. the assembled throng proclaimed Mongke Great Khan of the Mongol Empire in 1251, he punished the Ogedeid and Chagataid families for the organized plot against him. sent Buri to Batu who had him executed by Buri's opponent general. Eljigidei was also ordered to be executed. Grand prince Andrey II allied with the rebellious-minded princes of western Rus, giving umbrage to the Mongols. sent a punitive expedition under Nevrui. On their approach, Andrey fled to Pskov and thence to Sweden. The Mongols spread over Vladimir and harshly punished the people there. Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov on hearing the news about the Mongols. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq, Alexander was installed as the Grand Prince of Vladimir (i.e., the supreme Russian ruler) by Batu in 1252. 1256 Andrey travelled to Sarai to ask pardon for his former infidelity and was shown mercy. the reign of Mongke, Batu's prestige as kingmaker and viceroy of the great khans in the west reached its height. Even so, Batu allowed Mongke's census takers to operate freely in his realm. to a Muslim chronicle and the History of Yuan, Batu had free access to the imperial treasury.[12] Of all the grandsons of Genghis Khan, he and Mongke seemed most capable and the most dedicated to following the spirit of Mongolian law.[13] dispatched a large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu's expedition in the Middle East. However, Berke's persuasion might have forced him to delay to strengthen Hulagu's force, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there, for few years. Batu, Mongke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey. He left state affairs to his son Sartaq before Batu died in 1255. Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30; Icon of the Mother of God œof the Sign, the œKursk-Root, Commemorated on September 8; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 1236, Invasion of Batu Khan (Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria 1223-1236)
Invasion of Batu Khan 1236 (Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria 1223-1236); Invasion of Batu Khan; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Icon of the Mother of God œKursk-Root, Commemorated on November 27; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Mongol, Scythia, 1238, Fall of Vladimir to the Tartar Army, Batu Khan, Battle of Sit (Sita) River
Russia, Vladimir, 1238, Fall of Vladimir to the Tartar Army, Battle of Sit River; Venerable Euphrosyne of Suzdal, Commemorated on September 18; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1241-1255, Horde of Batu (1241-1255)
Golden Horde, Horde of Batu; Icon of the Mother of God œKursk-Root, Commemorated on November 27; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated November 22; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30;

Mongol, Scythia, 1240-mid 1240's, Golden Horde, Old City (Sarai)
Golden Horde ; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated November 22 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Scythia, 1250-1556, Golden Horde, New City (Sarai)
Golden Horde ; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated November 22 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Scythia, 1251-1259, Golden Horde Khan, Mongke Khan, Christian
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1251-1259, Mongke Khan; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Scythia, 1255-1256, Mongol Khan Sartaq, Christian
Scythia, 1255-1256, Mongol Khan Sartaq, Christian; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Scythia, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old, Christian
Scythia, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Scythia, 1257-1266, Batu's brother Berke (Bergai) Khan, Blue Horde and White Horde, Established Islam
Scythia, 1257-1266, Berke Khan ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Scythia, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan, Yuan Dynasty, China, Mongolia, Korea, Buddist, M Polo
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan ; (/ˈkuːblaɪ/; Mongolian: Хубилай, romanized: Hubilai; Chinese: 忽必烈; pinyin: Hūbìliè; 23 September  1215 – 18 February 1294), also known as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan, was the fifth khagan-emperor[note 1] of the Mongol Empire (Ikh Mongol Uls), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although after the division of the empire this was a nominal position). He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294. was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[2] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[3][4][5] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, from Siberia to what is now Afghanistan.[6] 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, and some adjacent areas; he also amassed influence in the Middle East and Europe as a Khagan. He assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to unite all of China proper. imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei. White, the color of the royal costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of the Yuan dynasty.[7] 1 Early years 2 Victory in North China 3 Enthronement and civil war 4 Reign 4.1 Great Khan of the Mongols 4.2 Emperor of the Yuan dynasty 4.2.1 Scientific developments and relations with minorities 4.2.2 Continuation of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices 5 Warfare and foreign relations 5.1 Tibet and Xinjiang 5.2 Kublai's annexation of Goryeo 5.3 Further naval expansion 5.4 Invasions of Japan 5.5 Invasions of Vietnam 5.6 Southeast Asia and South Seas 5.7 Europe 5.8 Africa 6 Capital City 6.1 Xanadu 7 Nayan's rebellion 8 Later years 9 Family 9.1 Wives and sons 9.2 Daughters 10 Poetry 11 Legacy 12 In popular culture 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 Further reading 17 External links years[edit] Khan was the fourth son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River.[8] Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Khagan (Mongol emperor) Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei, was enthroned as Khagan in 1229.[citation needed] the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.[citation needed] most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold).[9] Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist), and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing.[10] Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic.[11] in North China[edit] of young Kublai by Anige, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China. received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of Henan, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving Xi'an. acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty. 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his Chinese associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials.[12] 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he asked the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.[13] Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali King Duan Xingzhi (段興智) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.[14] Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan.[15] was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the Kingdom of Qocho (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished.[16] Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.[citation needed] Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory.[17] Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts.[18][19][20][21] Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of the Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).[citation needed] “The Emperor Kublai Khan in a tower carried by four elephants on the day of the battle“ French Engraving, 18th century. 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan, near the Yangtze. While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him.[citation needed] The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states.[22] Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao. and civil war[edit] article: Toluid Civil War received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plains.[23] he reached Mongolia, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum, which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu, opposed this. Kublai's Chinese staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in North China and Manchuria supported his candidacy.[24] returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the Borjigin lines except that of Jochi. This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become khan.[citation needed] Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next Great Khan at the Grand Kurultai in the year 1260. Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a Jami al-Twarikh (or Chingiznama). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31 [1] led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals.[25] To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou, but Jia broke his promise and arrested them.[26] Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu, crowned khan of Chagatai's territory. the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan, son of Ögedei Khan. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to Han Chinese warlords.[citation needed] Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.[27] When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai, Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, at first accepted Kublai's invitation.[28][29] However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters. Khan of the Mongols[edit] invasions and conquests mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258), and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire.[30] Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.[31] Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde.[32][33] The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime.[24][34] also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana, the empress of the Chagatai Khanate, who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death. Kaidu of the House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel.[35] This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.[citation needed] Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus.[36] 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrender his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy.[37] Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back.[37] called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander.[38] Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China.[39] The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there.[40] renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?"[41][42] Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan.[43][44] Defections from Kublai's Dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces. of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Han Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280. Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song, were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye.[citation needed] succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign.[43] Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China.[45] However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258), Sakhalin (1264), Burma (1277), Champa (1282), and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–8), and the invasion of Java (1293) failed. the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form a grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.[citation needed] son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids.[43] Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq. of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the Mongolian script, dated 1289. French National Archives. In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam (dhabihah) or Judaism (kashrut), which offended Mongolian custom.[46] Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the execution of Ahmad Fanakati, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor.[citation needed] niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke, Köchü, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes.[47] The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai.[48] Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.[49][50][51][52] of the Yuan dynasty[edit] also: Timeline of the Yuan dynasty Yuan Dynasty of China, c. 1294 Khan considered China his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.[53] From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng, and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.[54] also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor, giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks. 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.[55][56] In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their[whose?] corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.[citation needed] the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu (Chinese: 大都; Wade–Giles: Ta-tu; lit. 'Grand Capital', known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu (Chinese: 上都; lit. 'Upper Capital', also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor). unify China,[57] Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into the sea and ending the Song dynasty.[58] opera flourished during Yuan China. of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor.[59] This included China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.[60][61] The Central Region (Chinese: 腹裏) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268.[62] the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean.[62] In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.[63] Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on.[64][65] In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins.[66] In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall.[67] It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.[citation needed] Sangha was a Tibetan.[68] A rich merchant from the Madurai Sultanate, Abu Ali, was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of Chaesongnyeon during the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo according to the Dongguk Tonggam, Goryeosa and Liu Mengyan's Zhōng'ānjí.[69][70] encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjià, (Mysterious Order).[71] Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Europeans visited the empire, notably Marco Polo in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.[citation needed] the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79] The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.[80] developments and relations with minorities[edit] "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang. Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.[81] Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who became administrator of Yunnan. He was a well learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China. Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of the Yuan capitol). Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi.[82] Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar. cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced the knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants.[citation needed] physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna's works were also published in China during that period.[83] mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry, Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China.[84] brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented the Muslim trebuchet (or Huihui Pao), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang.[85] of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices[edit] Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish (kashrut) or Muslim (dhabihah) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision was also strictly forbidden.[86][87][88] and foreign relations[edit] also: Kublai Khan's campaigns, Mongol military tactics and organization, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty Yuan dynasty hand cannon Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian units.[89][90][91] Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.[92] Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.[citation needed] and Xinjiang[edit] 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya monasteries. The Chagatayid khan, Duwa, helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin.[93] Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu, killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.[citation needed] annexation of Goryeo[edit] also: Korea under Yuan rule and Mongol invasions of Korea dragons chasing a flaming pearl was a symbol associated with Goryeo Sumiyabaatar/ Б. Сумьяабаатар, "Хубилай Их Хааны үеийн Монгол – Сонгосын харилцаа", "Relationship between Mongolia and Korea during Kubilai Khan rule", 439p, 2015, ISBN 978-99973-302-5-3 Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo (the state on the Korean Peninsula) and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan.[94][95][96][97][98] Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.[citation needed] naval expansion[edit] Gangnido reflects the Chinese geographical knowledge during the Mongol Empire about countries in the West.[99] Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Song Dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.[100] of Japan[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Japan Japanese samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba (蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293. Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongols, Semu, Koreans, Hui and Chinese people.[81][101] Because the Wokou extended support to the crumbling Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated invasions of Japan. Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.[102] second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Chinese, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to 240 feet (73 m) long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by 180 kilometres (110 miles). The Mongols easily took over Tsushima Island about halfway across the strait and then Iki Island closer to Kyushu. The Korean fleet reached Hakata Bay on June 23, 1281 and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen. Mongolian landing forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Akasaka and the Battle of Torikai-Gata. Takezaki Suenaga's samurai attacked the Mongolian army and fought them, as reinforcements led by Shiraishi Michiyasu arrived and defeated the Mongolians, who suffered around 3500 dead.[103] samurai warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the Kōan Campaign (弘安の役) or the "Second Battle of Hakata Bay", the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships by the Samurai. The Japanese army was heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with two-meter high walls, and was easily able to repulse the Mongolian forces that were launched against it.[citation needed] samurai boarding Yuan ships in 1281. archaeologist Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of Takashima District, Shiga. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of Nagasaki.[104] David Nicolle wrote in The Mongol Warlords, "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.[105] soldiers, second version ships, second version of a 14th-century prized Yuan dynasty junk of Vietnam[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Vietnam Khan invaded Đại Việt (now Vietnam) three times, each repelled by the ruling Trần dynasty. The ancestors of the Trần clan originated from the province of Fujian and migrated to Đại Việt under Trần Kinh 陳京 (Chén Jīng),[106] where their mixed-blooded descendants later established the Trần dynasty and came to rule Đại Việt; despite many intermarriages between the Trần and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Trần Lý[107][108] and Trần Thừa,[109] some of the mixed-blood descendants of the clan could still speak Chinese, as evidenced when a Yuan dynasty envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Trần prince Trần Quốc Tuấn (later Supreme Commander Trần Hưng Đạo) in 1282.[110][111][112][113][114] first incursion was in 1257, but the Trần dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty between the Mongols and Đại Việt in the twelfth lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Trần dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a darughachi.[115][116] However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Trần king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of Champa, but the Đại Việt court refused. Kublai sent another envoy to the Đại Việt to demand that the Trần king surrender his land and his kingship. The Trần king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.[citation needed] his first failure, Kublai wanted to install Nhân Tông's brother Trần Ích Tắc – who had defected to the Mongols – as king of Annam (Đại Việt?), but hardship in the Yuan's supply base in Hunan and Kaidu's invasion forced Kublai to abandon his plans.[citation needed] second Mongol invasion of Đại Việt began late in 1284, when the Mongol Yuan forces under the command of Toghan, the prince of Kublai Khan, crossed the border and quickly occupied Thăng Long (now Hanoi) in January 1285, after the victorious battle of Omar in Vạn Kiếp (north east of Hanoi). At the same time Sogetu, second in command of the Yuan army, moved from Champa northward and rapidly marched to Nghe An in the north central region of Vietnam, where the army of the Trần dynasty under general Trần Kien was defeated and surrendered to him. However, the Trần king and the commander-in-chief Trần Hưng Đạo changed their tactics from defence to attack and struck against the Mongols. In April, General Trần Quang Khải defeated Sogetu in Chương Dương and the Trần king won a battle in Tây Kết, where Sogetu died. Soon after, general Trần Nhật Duật also won a battle in Hàm Tử (now Hưng Yên) and Toghan was defeated by General Trần Hưng Đạo. Thus Kublai failed in his first attempt to invade Đại Việt. Toghan hid himself inside a bronze pipe to avoid being killed by the Đại Việt archers; this act brought humiliation upon the Mongol Empire and Toghan himself.[citation needed] third Mongol invasion began in 1287. It was better organized than the previous effort; a large fleet and plentiful stocks of food were used. The Mongol Yuan forces, under the command of Toghan, moved to Vạn Kiếp from the north west and met the infantry and cavalry of Kublai's Kipchak commander Omar (coming by another way along the Red River) and quickly won the battle. The naval fleet rapidly attained victory in Vân Đồn near Hạ Long Bay. However, the Đại Việt General Trần Khánh Dư managed to intercept and captured the heavy, fully stocked cargo ships, filled with food and supplies for Toghan's army. As a result, the Mongolian army in Thăng Long suffered an acute shortage of food. With no news about the supply fleet, Toghan ordered his army to retreat to Vạn Kiếp. The Đại Việt army began their general offensive and recaptured a number of locations occupied by the Mongols. Groups of Đại Việt infantry were ordered to attack the Mongols in Vạn Kiếp. Toghan had to split his army into two and retreated in 1288.[citation needed] early April 1288 the naval fleet, led by Omar and escorted by infantry, fled home along the Bạch Đằng river. As bridges and roads were destroyed and attacks were launched by Đại Việt troops, the Mongols reached Bạch Đằng without an infantry escort. Đại Việt's small flotilla engaged in battle and pretended to retreat. The Mongols eagerly pursued the Đại Việt troops only to fall into their pre-arranged battlefield. Thousands of small Đại Việt boats quickly appeared from both banks, launched a fierce attack that broke the Mongols' combat formation. The Mongols, meeting such a sudden and strong attack, in panic tried to withdraw to the sea. The Mongols' boats were halted, and many were damaged and sank. At that time, a number of fire rafts quickly rushed toward the Mongols, who were frightened and jumped down to reach the banks where they were dealt a heavy blow by an army led by the Trần king and Trần Hưng Đạo.[citation needed] Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Đại Việt's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Lạng Sơn. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to Yangzhou for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Trần king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Trần king, which continued to the end of the Yuan dynasty.[116][117] Asia and South Seas[edit] articles: First Mongol invasion of Burma and Mongol invasion of Java expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the Irrawaddy Delta, whereupon they captured Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom and established their government.[118] Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal suzerainty, but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s.[119] Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.[citation needed] Khan maintained close relations with Siam, in particular with prince Mangrai of Chiangmai and king Ram Khamheng of Sukhothai.[120] In fact, Kublai encouraged them to attack the Khmers after the Thais were being pushed southwards from Nanchao.[120][121][122] This happened after king Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire refused to pay tribute to the Mongols.[120][123][124] Jayavarman VIII was so insistent on not having to pay tribute to Kublai that he had Mongol envoys imprisoned.[120][124][122] These attacks from the Siamese eventually weakened the Khmer Empire. The Mongols then decided to venture south into Cambodia in 1283 by land from Champa.[125] They were able to conquer Cambodia by 1284.[126] Cambodia effectively became a vassal state by 1285 when Jayavarman VIII was finally forced to pay tribute to Kublai.[125][127][128] the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against Singhasari on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Chiang Mai had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.[118] articles: Marco Polo and Rabban Bar Sauma information: Europeans in Medieval China gives financial support to the Polo family. Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians – merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders – made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Chinese, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Rus, Persia, and Mesopotamia.[citation needed] Bar Sauma, ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and Ilkhan Arghun, travelled from Dadu to Rome, Tuscany, Genoa, Paris, and Bordeaux to meet with European rulers in 1287–88. the 13th century, the Sultanate of Mogadishu through its trade with medieval China had acquired enough of a reputation in Asia to attract the attention of Kublai Khan.[129] According to Marco Polo, the Mongol Emperor sent an envoy to Mogadishu to spy out the Sultanate but the delegation was captured and imprisoned. Kublai Khan then sent another envoy to treat for the release of the earlier Mongol delegation sent to Africa.[130] City[edit] White Stupa of Dadu (or Khanbaliq; now Beijing) Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in Xanadu on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's, Guo Shoujing, accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and armillary spheres that represented the celestial globe. Turkestani architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Chinese Dadu).[131] Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a Newar named Araniko, built the White Stupa that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.[132] advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a 30 km (19 mi) channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to Gansu to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.[citation needed] rebellion[edit] the conquest of the Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large appanages in Manchuria.[133] Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over Chang'an and Shanxi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria.[134] The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.[135] Yuan dynasty jade belt plaque featuring carved designs of the Azure Dragon, highly regarded as a symbol of Yuan dynasty China's maritime strength. by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, Nayan, a fourth-generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either Temüge or Belgutei, instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.[136]) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia.[137] Manchuria's native Jurchens and Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of Qasar, joined Nayan's rebellion,[138] and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.[139] rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of Chungnyeol of Goryeo assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.[139] Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of Liaoning but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the Khangai Mountains and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.[38] but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family.[140] Kublai harshly punished the darughachi appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.[141] This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.[citation needed] years[edit] section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ilkhanate Persia, Ghazan converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his suzerain. Khan dispatched his grandson Gammala to Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to ensure his claim to Ikh Khorig, where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the Central Siberian Plateau.[citation needed] his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son Zhenjin, who became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng and actively administered the dynasty according to Confucian fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the Golden Horde, expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).[citation needed] became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son Temür, who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.[citation needed] Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Scythia, 1261, Through A Nevsky and Metrop Cyril III, at the capital, an Orthodox diocese was established
Sarai (city); St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1262-1299, Golden Horde General, Nogai Kha, Moslem
Scythian Golden Horde General, 1262-1299, Nogai Kha, Moslem; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, Scythia, 1266-1290, Saint Theodore the Black with the Horde, Prince of Smolensk, bored, went to Sarai, prominence in H
Kiev, 1250-1298, Saint Theodore the Balck; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19; Finding of the relics of Saint Theodore, Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslavl, and his children, Commemorated on March 5;

Mongol, Scythia, 1266-1280, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Mengu-Timur, pro Orthodox
Scythian Golder Horde Tartar Khan, 1266-1280, Mengu-Timur ; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; North Ossetia-“Alania; Khan Mengu-Temir, 1266-1280; Saint Theodore, Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, and his sons Saints David and Constantine, Commemorated on September 19; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, Scythia, 1291-1312, Golden Horde Tartar Khan, Toqta, pro Orthodox
Scythian Golden Horde Tartar Khan, 1291-1312, Toqta; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, Scythia, 1300-1399, 14th Century Folder, Golden, White, Blue, Grey Hordes, Kulikovo

Mongol, Scythia, 1312-1341, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Oz Beg Khan, Khan Uzbekm, Moslem
Scythian Golder Horde Tartar Khan, 1312-1341, Oz Beg Khan, Khan Uzbek; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21;

Mongol, Scythia, 1335-1380, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Mamai
Mongol, Scythia, 1335-1380, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Mamai; Battle of Kulikovo Field, 1380; Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated on July 28;

Mongol, Scythia, 1342-1357, Golder Horde Tartar Khan,Jani Beg
Mongol, Scythia, 1342-1357, Golder Horde Tartar Khan,Jani Beg; St. Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12;

Mongol, Scythia, 1360's, White,Blue, and Gray Hordes of the Golden Horde
White,Blue, Gray and Golden Hordes ; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1370-1380, Mongol Blue Horde Khan Mami, lost at Kulikovo
Scythia, 1370-1380, Mongol Blue Horde Khan Mami; Intercession of the œDonÂ Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19;

Mongol, Scythia, 1378-1419, Muslim White Horde Folder

Mongol, Scythia, 1378-1419, Edgei, White Horde, Muslim, Tatar horde of Edigei
Scythia, 1378-1419, Edgei, White Horde Mongol Khan, Tatar horde of Edigei; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of Radonezh the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius, Commemorated on November 17; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1380, Great Prince Dimitri of the Don - Battle of Kulikov on the Don
Great Prince Dimitri of the Don - Battle of Kulikov on the Don; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Zvenigorod the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on December 3 ; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7;

Mongol, Scythia, 1380, Kulikovo Battle 1380 (Don River 1)
Kulikovo Battle; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Demetrius Ioannovich of the Don; Alexander Peresvet; Repose of the Venerable Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh, Commemorated on September 25 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1380, Battle of Kulikovo Pole, 1380 (Don River 1)
Battle of Kulikovo Pole, 1380 (Don River 1) ; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Repose of the Venerable Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh, Commemorated on September 25 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1400, 15th and 16th Century, invasion of Russia then Fall to Russia and Ottomans

Mongol, Scythia, 1437-1445, Kazan Tartar Khan, Ulugh Muhammad
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1437-1445, Ulugh Muhammad; St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29;

Mongol, Scythia, 1445-1466, Kazan Tartar Khan, Maxmud of Kazan
Mongol, Scythia, 1445-1466, Kazan Tartar Khan, Maxmud of Kazan; Repose of Saint Jonah, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31;

Mongol, Scythia, 1451, Miraculous deliverance of Moscow by Robe of Theotokos
Russia, Moscow, 1451, Miraculous deliverance of Moscow by Robe of Theotokos; The holy Robe of the Mother of God, which previously saved Constantinople, later saved Moscow from hostilities. Tatars of the Horde of the princeling Mazovshi approached the walls of Moscow in the summer of 1451. Saint Jonah, Metropolitan of Moscow, with constant prayer and church services, encouraged the defenders of the capital. On the night of July 2, the Chronicle relates, great confusion occurred within the Tatar camp. The enemy abandoned their plundered goods and speedily departed in disarray. Moscow Prince, 1440-1505, Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, the Great; St Leucius of Volokolamsk, Commemorated on August 17 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19 ; Venerable Prince Andrew, in Monasticism Joasaph, of Kubensk, Vologda, Commemorated on September 10 ; Venerable Cassian of Uglich, Commemorated on October 2; Venerable Dionysius the Recluse of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on October 3; Venerable Dositheus the Abbot of Verkneostrov, Pskov, Commemorated on October 8; Icon of the Mother of God of Yakhrom, Commemorated on October 14; Venerable Joseph the Igumen and Wonderworker of Volokolamsk, Commemorated on October 18; St Theophilus of the Kiev Caves and Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated on October 26; St Philip of Rabanga, Commemorated on November 15; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Zvenigorod the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on December 3; St Pachomius of Keno Lake, Commemorated on January 7; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8; St Paisius of Uglich, Commemorated on January 8; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8 ; Venerable Michael the Fool-for-Christ of the Klops Monastery, Novgorod, Commemorated on January 11; St Anthony of Krasny Kholm, Commemorated on January 17 ; Venerable Athanasius the Abbot of Syandemsk, Vologda, Commemorated on January 18; Venerable Macarius the Roman of Novgorod, Commemorated on January 19 ; Venerable Euthymius of Syanzhemsk, Vologda, Commemorated on January 20; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29; St Tryphon, Bishop of Rostov, Commemorated on February 1; Right-Believing Prince Roman of Uglich, Commemorated on February 3; St Bassian of Uglich, Commemorated on February 12; Venerable Cosmas of Yakhrom, Commemorated on February 18; Right-believing Prince Daniel of Moscow, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk, and Yaroslav, and His Children, Commemorated on March 5; St Euthymius the Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated on March 11; Venerable Macarius the Abbot and Wonderworker of Kalyazin, Commemorated on March 17 ; St Innocent of Komel the Disciple of St Nilus of Sora, Vologda, Commemorated on March 19 ; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Zosimas the Abbot of Vorbozomsk, Commemorated on April 4; Venerable Daniel the Abbot of Pereyaslavl-Zalesski, Commemorated on April 7; Icon of the Mother of God of Vilnius, Commemorated on April 14; Venerable Zosimas the Abbot of Solovki, Commemorated on April 17; Venerable Alexander the Abbot of Oshevensk, Commemorated on April 20; Venerable Sylvester the Abbot of Obnora, Commemorated on April 25; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14; Venerable Serapion of Pskov, Commemorated on May 15; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Venerable Tikhon of Kaluga Or Medin, Commemorated on June 16;

Mongol, Scythia, 1465-1481, Golden Horde Mongol Khan, Ahmed Khan
Scythian Golden Horde Mongol Khan, 1465-1481, Ahmed Khan ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23;

Mongol, Scythia, 1480-1582 , The Fall, First to Ottomans, then to Russia
Mongol, Scythia, 1480-1582 , The Fall, First to Ottomans, then to Russia;

Mongol, Scythia, Don River Folder (to Sea of Azov, Crimea, Black Sea)

Don River

Don River Source (Novomoskovsk)
Novomoskovsk

Don River 1 (Kulikovo Field)

Kuchkov, Kulikovo Field (Don River 1, Kulikovo Pole)
Kulikovo Pole (Kulikovo Field); Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated on August 26 ; Repose of the Venerable Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh, Commemorated on September 25 ;

Battle of Kulikovo Field, 1380, Russia over Mongol Golden Horde, Don River 1
Battle of Kulikovo; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on August 30; Memorial Saturday of St Demetrius;

Don River 2 (near Kulikovo Field)

Don River 3

Don River 4 (Bystraya River Mouth)

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 4, Bystraya River Folder

Bystraya Sosna River

Bystraya Sosna River Source (aloing the border)

Cheremis, Land of the Cheremis (Mari) People (Bystraya Sosna and Don Rivers)
Cheremis, Land of the Cheremis (Mari) People; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25;

Bystraya Sosna River 1 (Livny)

Livny (Liven), Scythia (Bystraya Sosna River 1)
Livny, Scythia (Bystraya Sosna River 1); St. Theophan the Recluse the Bishop of Tambov, Commemorated on January 10;

Elets, Scythia (Muravsky Trail 6, Bystraya Sosna River Mouth, Don River 4)
Elets; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Elets, Commemorated January 11 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œElets-Chernigov", Commemorated on February 5 ; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29;

Bystraya Sosna River Mouth (Don River 4)

Don River 5 (Zadonsk and Elets)

Zadonsk, Sythia, Mongol Lands (Don River 5)
Zadonsk;Zadonsk Monestary; Venerable Anthony of Optina, Commemorated on August 7 ; Tikon of Zadonsk, Commemorated August 13 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Venerable Theodore of Sanaxar, Commemorated on February 19 ; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7; Second Finding of the relics of St Tikhon the Wonderworker of Zadonsk; St Theophan the Recluse the Bishop of Tambov; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14;

Don River 6 (Zadonsk and Elets)

Don River 7

Don River 8 (Vorenezh)

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 8, Vorenezh River Folder

Vorenezh River

Vorenezh River Source (along the border)

Vorenezh River 1

Voronezh River 2 (Lipitsa)

Voronezh River 3 (Voronezh)

Voronezh River Mouth (Voronezh, Don River 8)

Voronezh, Scythia (Voronezh River Mouth, Don River 8)
Voronezh; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated August 7 ; Venerable Anthony of Optina, Commemorated on August 7 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated on September 18 ; St Metrophanes (in schema Macarius) the Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated on November 23; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Rescuer of the Drowning, Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated Febraury 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Unfading Bloom, Commemorated on April 3; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ;

Voronezh Annunciation Cathedral, 1718
Voronezh Annunciation Cathedral; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated on August 7

Voronezh Region, Scythia (Between the Don and Khopyor River)
Voronezh Oblast, Main rivers: Don Voronezh Bityug Khopyor ; Hieromartyr and Metropolitan of Moscow and Krutitsy, Peter Polyansky, Commemorated September 27 ; Hieromartyr and Metropolitan of Moscow and Krutitsy, Peter Polyansky, Commemorated on October 10 ; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Rescuer of the Drowning, Commemorated on February 5 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ;

Don River 9 (Ostrogozhsk)

Ostrogozhsk, Scythia (Don River 9)
Ostrogozhsk District; Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5; The Divnogorsk-Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God received the first part of its title from where it was enshrined when it was glorified: the Dormition monastery of Divnogorsk, in the former Ostrogozhsk district in Voronezh governance. Its title of "Sicilian" comes from its place of origin

Tikha Sosna (Quiet Pine) River

Tikha Sosna [Quiet Pine] River Mouth (Don River 9)
Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5;

Divnogorsk, Scythia (Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna)
Divnogorsk, Wondering Heights, Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna; Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated on February 5;

Wondering Heights, Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna
Wondering Heights, Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna; Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated on February 5;

Don River 10 (Bityug River Mouth)

Bityug River Mouth (Don River 10)

Don River 11 (Khopvor River Mouth)

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 11, Khopyor River Folder

Khopyor River

Khopyor River Source (Volga Upland)

Khopyor River 1 (Balashov)

Khopror River 2 ( Borisoglebsk)

Khopror River 4 (Uryupinsk)

Kh River Mouth (Serafimovich)

Khopror River 3(Novokhopyorsk)

Verona River

Verona River Source (Volga Upland)

Vorona River 1

Verona River 2

Verona (Ust) River 3

Vorona River Mouth (Khopyor River)

Boris and Gleb (Borisoglebsk) monastery
Borisoglebsk; St Paul of Rostov;

Khopyor River Mouth (Don River 11)

Don River 12 (Sarai)

Don River 13 (Greben)

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 13, Chira River Folder

Chir River

Chir River Source
Chir River

Chira River Mouth (Greben, Don River 13)

Greben (Chira River Mouth at Don River)
Greben (Chira River Mouth at Don River); Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated July 28 ;

Pontic steppe
Pontic steppe;

Don River 14 (Novocherkassk, Rostov on Don)

Novocherkassk, Scythia (Don River 14)
Novocherkassk; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9;

Rostov on Don (Don River 14)
Rostov on Don (Don River 14); St Paul of Rostov, Commemorated October 22 ; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30;

Rostov on Don Cathedral, 1860
Rostov on Don Cathedral, 1860;

Ascension Cathedral or Novocherkassk Cathedral, Rostov, Scythia, 1904
Ascension Cathedral or Novocherkassk Cathedral, Rostov, Scythia; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14;

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 14, Seversky Donets Folder

Seversky Donets River

Seversky Donets River Source (Central Russian Upland)
Central Russian Upland;

Seversky Donets River 1 (Belogorod)

Belgorod, Scythia (Seversky Donets River 1)
Belgorod; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 10 ; St Sophronius the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on March 30;

Kharkov, Scythia (Seversky Donets River1)
Kharkov governance; Icon of the Mother of God of Ozerianka, Commemorated on October 30 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost"; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ;

Polovetsians (Cumans), Zmiiv, Muravsky Trail 3
Polovetsians (Cumans), Zmiiv, Muravsky Trail 3; Martyr and Confessor Michael the Wonderworker of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 20;

Seversky Donets River 2 (Sviyahsk Monastery)

Sviatogorsk ("Holy Hill") Dormition monastery (Seversky Donets River 2)
Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk;

Sviyazhsk Dormition monastery (Seversky Donets 2)
First Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan;

Sviatogorsk, near Sloviansk ((Seversky Donets River 2)
city of Sviatogorsk, near Sloviansk ; Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk, Commemorated July 17 ;

Ozeryanivka, Scythia (near Seversky Donets River 2)
Ozeryanivka, Scythia (near Seversky Donets River 2); Ozerianka Icon of the Mother of God of Shuiu-Smolensk, Commemorated on November 2;

Don Cossacks, Don River, Donbass Region, Donetsk Side
Don Cossacks, Donbass Region, Donetsk Side; Don Cossacks; Donbass Region, Both sides of the Seversky Donets River; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17;

Seversky Donets River 3

Seversky Donets River Mouth (Don River 14)

Rostov Oblast
Rostov Oblast;

Don Cossacks, Donbass Region, Luhansk Side
Don Cossacks, Donbass Region, Luhansk Side; Don Cossacks, Donbass Region, Donetsk Side; Don Cossacks; Donbass Region, Both sides of the Seversky Donets River; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17;

Don River Mouth (Sea of Azov)

Azov, Scythia (Don River, Azov Sea)
Azov (Don River, Azov Sea); St Metrophanes (in schema Macarius) the Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated November 23 ;

Olshansk, Scythia (Azov, Don River, near Crimea)
Olshansk in the early 1500's was approximately the area Azov Governate of the 1700's; Uncovering of the relics of Holy Princess Juliana Olshanskaya, Commemorated on July 6;

Mongol, Scythia, Dniester River Folder (Eastern Moldovia)

Dniester River

Dniester River Source (Ukranian Carpathians near Drohobych)
Dniester River Source: Ukranian Carpathians near Drohobych.

Dniester River 1 (Ukraine)

Dniester River 2 (Galich, Ukraine)

Galicia, Moldovia (Halychia, Eastern Europe, Dniester River 2)
Galicia (Eastern Europe); Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated October 1 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Macariev, Commemorated on September 17 ; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ;

Galich, Moldovia (Halych) Ukraine (Dniester River 2) Vladimir the Great, 900's
Galich, (Halych) Ukraine (Dniester River 2); Icon of the Mother of God of Macariev, Commemorated on September 17 ; Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated October 1 ; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ;

Halych, Moldovia (Galich) Ukraine (Dniester River 2) Vladimir the Great, 900's
Galich, (Halych) Ukraine (Dniester River 2); Icon of the Mother of God of Macariev, Commemorated on September 17 ; Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated October 1 ; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ;

Dniester River 3 (Ukraine)

Dniester River 4 (Seret River Mouth)

Dniester River 5 (Khotyn, Smotrych River Mouth)

Khotyn, Ukraine (Dniester River 5)
Khotyn or Khutin; Venerable Barlaam of Khutin, Commemorated on June 24;

Kamenets Podolski, Moldovia or Ukraine (Smotrych Mouth, Dniester 5)
Kamenets Podolski, Ukraine or Moldovia ; Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated October 1 ;

Dniester River 6 (entering Moldova)

Dniester River 7 (near Podoha)

Podolia, Moldovia (Dniester River 7)
Podolia; St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Repose of St Theodosius of Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5 ;

Dniester River 8 (Dubasari, Moldova)

Dniester River 9 (Bender, Moldova)

Gerbovets monastery (Dniester River 9, Bessarabia, Romania or Moldovia)
Gerbovets monastery (Bessarabia, Romania) ; Bessarabia, Romania, Bassarabia is a historical term for the geographic region in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the east and the Prut River on the west; Icon of the Mother of God of Gerbovets, Commemorated on October 1 ;

Kishinev, Bassarabia, Moldovia
Kishinev, Bassarabia, Moldovia; Icon of the Mother of God of Gerbovets, Commemorated on October 1;

Bessarabia, Moldovia, Romania (area between Prut and Dniester Rivers)
Bessarabia, Moldovia, Romania; Icon of the Mother of God of Gerbovets, Commemorated on October 1;

Dniester River Mouth (near Odessa, Black Sea)

Mongol, Scythia, Lesser Scythia Folder (Dacia Pontica)

Scythia, Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica, from Moldavia and Transylvania (Dacia) to Pontine)
Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica); Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated July 7 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated on July 7 ; Martyr Epictetus the Presbyter at Halmyris, Commemorated on July 8;

Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica, from Moldavia and Transylvania (Dacia) to Pontine)
Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica); Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated July 7 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated on July 7 ; Martyr Epictetus the Presbyter at Halmyris, Commemorated on July 8;

Dacia Pontica (Lesser Scythia)
Dacia Pontica: from Transylvania thru Lesser Scythia to Pontus Dacia; Pontica; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated July 7 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica (Dobrogea), Commemorated on February 28; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated on July 7 ; Martyr Epictetus the Presbyter at Halmyris, Commemorated on July 8;

Tomis, Lesser Scythia (Constantsa, in Dacia Pontica)
Tomis (Constantsa); Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated July 7 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated September 13 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica (Dobrogea), Commemorated on February 29; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Niculitel and Cocosh Monastery, Lesser Scythia
Niculits›el; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4;

Noviodunum, Lesser Scythia (Isacea, Danube River 17)
Noviodunum (Isacea); Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4;

Tulcea County, Lesser Scythia
Tulcea County; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4;

Halmyris (in Lesser Scythia on Danube)
Halmyris (in Scythia on Danube); Epictetus and Astion, Commemorated July 8 ; Martyr Epictetus the Presbyter at Halmyris, Commemorated on July 8;

Mongol, Scythia, Volga River Folder

Annunciation Monastery (Tolyatti, Volga River 12)
Annunciation Monastery (Tolyatti);

Astrakhan, Scythia (Volga River Mouth, North Caspian Sea)
Astrakhan (Volga River Mouth); Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11

Atil, Scythia, 765-969. Capital of the Khazars (Volga River Mouth)
Atil, Scythia, 765-969. Capital of the Khazars; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Black Ravine (Chernyi Yar), about 250 K up the River from Astrackhan
Black Ravine (Chernyi Yar), about 250 K up the River from Astrackhan Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29;

Bolghar, Scythia (Kama River Mouth, Volga River 10)
Bolghar or Bolgara; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Chelno-Vershinsky District, Scythia, just south of Perm (Volga River 11)
Chelno-Vershinsky District ; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ;

Kazaria, Scythia (Volga River Mouth)
Kazaria; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Mongol, Scythia, Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria, land of the Volga Bulgars; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Samara, Scythia (Volga River 13)
Samara, Russia; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1;

Sarai (city), Scythia
Sarai (city); St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Saratov, Scythia (Volga River 14)
Saratov (Volga River 14) ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ;

Scythia, Volga Region - Land of the Tartars
Volga Region - Land of the Tartars; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7;

Volga Region - Land of the Tartars
Volga Region - Land of the Tartars; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7;

Tartar Winter Camp (1232, Bolghar, Capital of Islamic Volga Bulgars)
In 1232 the Tatars made winter camp, having barely reached the capital of the Volga Bulgars. Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ;

Bolghar (1232, Tartar Winter Camp, Capital of Islamic Volga Bulgars)
In 1232 the Tatars made winter camp, having barely reached the capital of the Volga Bulgars. Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ;

Tetyakov, Sythia (Volga River 11)
Tetyushi; In 1277, the allied forces of the Russian princes, in union with the Tatar forces, took part in a campaign in the Osetian land and in the taking of "its famed city Tetyakov."; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19 ;

Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria, land of the Volga Bulgars; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Volga River

Volga-Kama Bulghar
Volga Bulgaria, land of the Volga Bulgars; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Kamska Bulgars, Volga-Kama Bulghar

Mongol, Scythia, Ural River Folder

Ural River

Orenburg, Scythia (Ural River 4)
Orenburg ; Orenburg Cossacks; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1;

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Mongol, Mongolia, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan, Yuan Dynasty, China, Mongolia, Korea, Buddist, M Polo
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan ; (/ˈkuːblaɪ/; Mongolian: Хубилай, romanized: Hubilai; Chinese: 忽必烈; pinyin: Hūbìliè; 23 September  1215 – 18 February 1294), also known as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan, was the fifth khagan-emperor[note 1] of the Mongol Empire (Ikh Mongol Uls), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although after the division of the empire this was a nominal position). He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294. was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[2] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[3][4][5] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, from Siberia to what is now Afghanistan.[6] 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, and some adjacent areas; he also amassed influence in the Middle East and Europe as a Khagan. He assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to unite all of China proper. imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei. White, the color of the royal costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of the Yuan dynasty.[7] 1 Early years 2 Victory in North China 3 Enthronement and civil war 4 Reign 4.1 Great Khan of the Mongols 4.2 Emperor of the Yuan dynasty 4.2.1 Scientific developments and relations with minorities 4.2.2 Continuation of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices 5 Warfare and foreign relations 5.1 Tibet and Xinjiang 5.2 Kublai's annexation of Goryeo 5.3 Further naval expansion 5.4 Invasions of Japan 5.5 Invasions of Vietnam 5.6 Southeast Asia and South Seas 5.7 Europe 5.8 Africa 6 Capital City 6.1 Xanadu 7 Nayan's rebellion 8 Later years 9 Family 9.1 Wives and sons 9.2 Daughters 10 Poetry 11 Legacy 12 In popular culture 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 Further reading 17 External links years[edit] Khan was the fourth son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River.[8] Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Khagan (Mongol emperor) Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei, was enthroned as Khagan in 1229.[citation needed] the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.[citation needed] most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold).[9] Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist), and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing.[10] Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic.[11] in North China[edit] of young Kublai by Anige, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China. received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of Henan, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving Xi'an. acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty. 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his Chinese associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials.[12] 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he asked the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.[13] Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali King Duan Xingzhi (段興智) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.[14] Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan.[15] was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the Kingdom of Qocho (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished.[16] Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.[citation needed] Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory.[17] Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts.[18][19][20][21] Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of the Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).[citation needed] “The Emperor Kublai Khan in a tower carried by four elephants on the day of the battle“ French Engraving, 18th century. 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan, near the Yangtze. While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him.[citation needed] The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states.[22] Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao. and civil war[edit] article: Toluid Civil War received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plains.[23] he reached Mongolia, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum, which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu, opposed this. Kublai's Chinese staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in North China and Manchuria supported his candidacy.[24] returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the Borjigin lines except that of Jochi. This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become khan.[citation needed] Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next Great Khan at the Grand Kurultai in the year 1260. Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a Jami al-Twarikh (or Chingiznama). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31 [1] led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals.[25] To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou, but Jia broke his promise and arrested them.[26] Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu, crowned khan of Chagatai's territory. the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan, son of Ögedei Khan. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to Han Chinese warlords.[citation needed] Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.[27] When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai, Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, at first accepted Kublai's invitation.[28][29] However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters. Khan of the Mongols[edit] invasions and conquests mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258), and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire.[30] Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.[31] Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde.[32][33] The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime.[24][34] also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana, the empress of the Chagatai Khanate, who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death. Kaidu of the House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel.[35] This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.[citation needed] Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus.[36] 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrender his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy.[37] Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back.[37] called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander.[38] Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China.[39] The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there.[40] renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?"[41][42] Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan.[43][44] Defections from Kublai's Dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces. of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Han Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280. Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song, were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye.[citation needed] succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign.[43] Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China.[45] However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258), Sakhalin (1264), Burma (1277), Champa (1282), and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–8), and the invasion of Java (1293) failed. the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form a grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.[citation needed] son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids.[43] Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq. of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the Mongolian script, dated 1289. French National Archives. In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam (dhabihah) or Judaism (kashrut), which offended Mongolian custom.[46] Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the execution of Ahmad Fanakati, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor.[citation needed] niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke, Köchü, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes.[47] The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai.[48] Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.[49][50][51][52] of the Yuan dynasty[edit] also: Timeline of the Yuan dynasty Yuan Dynasty of China, c. 1294 Khan considered China his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.[53] From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng, and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.[54] also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor, giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks. 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.[55][56] In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their[whose?] corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.[citation needed] the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu (Chinese: 大都; Wade–Giles: Ta-tu; lit. 'Grand Capital', known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu (Chinese: 上都; lit. 'Upper Capital', also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor). unify China,[57] Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into the sea and ending the Song dynasty.[58] opera flourished during Yuan China. of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor.[59] This included China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.[60][61] The Central Region (Chinese: 腹裏) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268.[62] the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean.[62] In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.[63] Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on.[64][65] In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins.[66] In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall.[67] It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.[citation needed] Sangha was a Tibetan.[68] A rich merchant from the Madurai Sultanate, Abu Ali, was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of Chaesongnyeon during the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo according to the Dongguk Tonggam, Goryeosa and Liu Mengyan's Zhōng'ānjí.[69][70] encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjià, (Mysterious Order).[71] Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Europeans visited the empire, notably Marco Polo in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.[citation needed] the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79] The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.[80] developments and relations with minorities[edit] "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang. Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.[81] Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who became administrator of Yunnan. He was a well learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China. Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of the Yuan capitol). Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi.[82] Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar. cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced the knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants.[citation needed] physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna's works were also published in China during that period.[83] mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry, Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China.[84] brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented the Muslim trebuchet (or Huihui Pao), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang.[85] of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices[edit] Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish (kashrut) or Muslim (dhabihah) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision was also strictly forbidden.[86][87][88] and foreign relations[edit] also: Kublai Khan's campaigns, Mongol military tactics and organization, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty Yuan dynasty hand cannon Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian units.[89][90][91] Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.[92] Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.[citation needed] and Xinjiang[edit] 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya monasteries. The Chagatayid khan, Duwa, helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin.[93] Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu, killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.[citation needed] annexation of Goryeo[edit] also: Korea under Yuan rule and Mongol invasions of Korea dragons chasing a flaming pearl was a symbol associated with Goryeo Sumiyabaatar/ Б. Сумьяабаатар, "Хубилай Их Хааны үеийн Монгол – Сонгосын харилцаа", "Relationship between Mongolia and Korea during Kubilai Khan rule", 439p, 2015, ISBN 978-99973-302-5-3 Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo (the state on the Korean Peninsula) and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan.[94][95][96][97][98] Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.[citation needed] naval expansion[edit] Gangnido reflects the Chinese geographical knowledge during the Mongol Empire about countries in the West.[99] Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Song Dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.[100] of Japan[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Japan Japanese samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba (蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293. Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongols, Semu, Koreans, Hui and Chinese people.[81][101] Because the Wokou extended support to the crumbling Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated invasions of Japan. Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.[102] second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Chinese, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to 240 feet (73 m) long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by 180 kilometres (110 miles). The Mongols easily took over Tsushima Island about halfway across the strait and then Iki Island closer to Kyushu. The Korean fleet reached Hakata Bay on June 23, 1281 and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen. Mongolian landing forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Akasaka and the Battle of Torikai-Gata. Takezaki Suenaga's samurai attacked the Mongolian army and fought them, as reinforcements led by Shiraishi Michiyasu arrived and defeated the Mongolians, who suffered around 3500 dead.[103] samurai warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the Kōan Campaign (弘安の役) or the "Second Battle of Hakata Bay", the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships by the Samurai. The Japanese army was heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with two-meter high walls, and was easily able to repulse the Mongolian forces that were launched against it.[citation needed] samurai boarding Yuan ships in 1281. archaeologist Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of Takashima District, Shiga. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of Nagasaki.[104] David Nicolle wrote in The Mongol Warlords, "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.[105] soldiers, second version ships, second version of a 14th-century prized Yuan dynasty junk of Vietnam[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Vietnam Khan invaded Đại Việt (now Vietnam) three times, each repelled by the ruling Trần dynasty. The ancestors of the Trần clan originated from the province of Fujian and migrated to Đại Việt under Trần Kinh 陳京 (Chén Jīng),[106] where their mixed-blooded descendants later established the Trần dynasty and came to rule Đại Việt; despite many intermarriages between the Trần and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Trần Lý[107][108] and Trần Thừa,[109] some of the mixed-blood descendants of the clan could still speak Chinese, as evidenced when a Yuan dynasty envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Trần prince Trần Quốc Tuấn (later Supreme Commander Trần Hưng Đạo) in 1282.[110][111][112][113][114] first incursion was in 1257, but the Trần dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty between the Mongols and Đại Việt in the twelfth lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Trần dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a darughachi.[115][116] However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Trần king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of Champa, but the Đại Việt court refused. Kublai sent another envoy to the Đại Việt to demand that the Trần king surrender his land and his kingship. The Trần king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.[citation needed] his first failure, Kublai wanted to install Nhân Tông's brother Trần Ích Tắc – who had defected to the Mongols – as king of Annam (Đại Việt?), but hardship in the Yuan's supply base in Hunan and Kaidu's invasion forced Kublai to abandon his plans.[citation needed] second Mongol invasion of Đại Việt began late in 1284, when the Mongol Yuan forces under the command of Toghan, the prince of Kublai Khan, crossed the border and quickly occupied Thăng Long (now Hanoi) in January 1285, after the victorious battle of Omar in Vạn Kiếp (north east of Hanoi). At the same time Sogetu, second in command of the Yuan army, moved from Champa northward and rapidly marched to Nghe An in the north central region of Vietnam, where the army of the Trần dynasty under general Trần Kien was defeated and surrendered to him. However, the Trần king and the commander-in-chief Trần Hưng Đạo changed their tactics from defence to attack and struck against the Mongols. In April, General Trần Quang Khải defeated Sogetu in Chương Dương and the Trần king won a battle in Tây Kết, where Sogetu died. Soon after, general Trần Nhật Duật also won a battle in Hàm Tử (now Hưng Yên) and Toghan was defeated by General Trần Hưng Đạo. Thus Kublai failed in his first attempt to invade Đại Việt. Toghan hid himself inside a bronze pipe to avoid being killed by the Đại Việt archers; this act brought humiliation upon the Mongol Empire and Toghan himself.[citation needed] third Mongol invasion began in 1287. It was better organized than the previous effort; a large fleet and plentiful stocks of food were used. The Mongol Yuan forces, under the command of Toghan, moved to Vạn Kiếp from the north west and met the infantry and cavalry of Kublai's Kipchak commander Omar (coming by another way along the Red River) and quickly won the battle. The naval fleet rapidly attained victory in Vân Đồn near Hạ Long Bay. However, the Đại Việt General Trần Khánh Dư managed to intercept and captured the heavy, fully stocked cargo ships, filled with food and supplies for Toghan's army. As a result, the Mongolian army in Thăng Long suffered an acute shortage of food. With no news about the supply fleet, Toghan ordered his army to retreat to Vạn Kiếp. The Đại Việt army began their general offensive and recaptured a number of locations occupied by the Mongols. Groups of Đại Việt infantry were ordered to attack the Mongols in Vạn Kiếp. Toghan had to split his army into two and retreated in 1288.[citation needed] early April 1288 the naval fleet, led by Omar and escorted by infantry, fled home along the Bạch Đằng river. As bridges and roads were destroyed and attacks were launched by Đại Việt troops, the Mongols reached Bạch Đằng without an infantry escort. Đại Việt's small flotilla engaged in battle and pretended to retreat. The Mongols eagerly pursued the Đại Việt troops only to fall into their pre-arranged battlefield. Thousands of small Đại Việt boats quickly appeared from both banks, launched a fierce attack that broke the Mongols' combat formation. The Mongols, meeting such a sudden and strong attack, in panic tried to withdraw to the sea. The Mongols' boats were halted, and many were damaged and sank. At that time, a number of fire rafts quickly rushed toward the Mongols, who were frightened and jumped down to reach the banks where they were dealt a heavy blow by an army led by the Trần king and Trần Hưng Đạo.[citation needed] Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Đại Việt's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Lạng Sơn. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to Yangzhou for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Trần king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Trần king, which continued to the end of the Yuan dynasty.[116][117] Asia and South Seas[edit] articles: First Mongol invasion of Burma and Mongol invasion of Java expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the Irrawaddy Delta, whereupon they captured Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom and established their government.[118] Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal suzerainty, but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s.[119] Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.[citation needed] Khan maintained close relations with Siam, in particular with prince Mangrai of Chiangmai and king Ram Khamheng of Sukhothai.[120] In fact, Kublai encouraged them to attack the Khmers after the Thais were being pushed southwards from Nanchao.[120][121][122] This happened after king Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire refused to pay tribute to the Mongols.[120][123][124] Jayavarman VIII was so insistent on not having to pay tribute to Kublai that he had Mongol envoys imprisoned.[120][124][122] These attacks from the Siamese eventually weakened the Khmer Empire. The Mongols then decided to venture south into Cambodia in 1283 by land from Champa.[125] They were able to conquer Cambodia by 1284.[126] Cambodia effectively became a vassal state by 1285 when Jayavarman VIII was finally forced to pay tribute to Kublai.[125][127][128] the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against Singhasari on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Chiang Mai had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.[118] articles: Marco Polo and Rabban Bar Sauma information: Europeans in Medieval China gives financial support to the Polo family. Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians – merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders – made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Chinese, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Rus, Persia, and Mesopotamia.[citation needed] Bar Sauma, ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and Ilkhan Arghun, travelled from Dadu to Rome, Tuscany, Genoa, Paris, and Bordeaux to meet with European rulers in 1287–88. the 13th century, the Sultanate of Mogadishu through its trade with medieval China had acquired enough of a reputation in Asia to attract the attention of Kublai Khan.[129] According to Marco Polo, the Mongol Emperor sent an envoy to Mogadishu to spy out the Sultanate but the delegation was captured and imprisoned. Kublai Khan then sent another envoy to treat for the release of the earlier Mongol delegation sent to Africa.[130] City[edit] White Stupa of Dadu (or Khanbaliq; now Beijing) Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in Xanadu on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's, Guo Shoujing, accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and armillary spheres that represented the celestial globe. Turkestani architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Chinese Dadu).[131] Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a Newar named Araniko, built the White Stupa that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.[132] advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a 30 km (19 mi) channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to Gansu to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.[citation needed] rebellion[edit] the conquest of the Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large appanages in Manchuria.[133] Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over Chang'an and Shanxi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria.[134] The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.[135] Yuan dynasty jade belt plaque featuring carved designs of the Azure Dragon, highly regarded as a symbol of Yuan dynasty China's maritime strength. by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, Nayan, a fourth-generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either Temüge or Belgutei, instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.[136]) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia.[137] Manchuria's native Jurchens and Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of Qasar, joined Nayan's rebellion,[138] and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.[139] rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of Chungnyeol of Goryeo assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.[139] Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of Liaoning but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the Khangai Mountains and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.[38] but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family.[140] Kublai harshly punished the darughachi appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.[141] This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.[citation needed] years[edit] section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ilkhanate Persia, Ghazan converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his suzerain. Khan dispatched his grandson Gammala to Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to ensure his claim to Ikh Khorig, where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the Central Siberian Plateau.[citation needed] his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son Zhenjin, who became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng and actively administered the dynasty according to Confucian fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the Golden Horde, expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).[citation needed] became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son Temür, who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.[citation needed] Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

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Mt Burkhan Khaldun (birthplace of Ghengis Khan)
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Xanadu (Kubli Khan's Capitol, Inner Mongolia) 1260, summer only after 1271 and Peking
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Gobi Desert (Mongolian Steppes, Grasslands)
Gobi Desert; Mongolian-Manchurian Steppes (Grassland) surround the Gobi Desert; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4;

Mongolian-Manchurian Steppes (Grassland)
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Lamaism;

Tibet (Capitol Lhasa)
Tibet (Capitol Lhasa); St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28 ;

Tibetan Plateau

Geladaindong Peak
Geladaindong Peak;

Mongol, China Folder, its major rivers

China (Mongol China)
China; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906) ; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910) ; FRANCIS XAVIER, Missionary to the Far East, 1552, Commemorated December 3 ; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; Repose of St John of Kronstadt; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂœThe Word was made FleshÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on March 9; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ; Blessed Dovmont (Timothy) the Prince of Pskov, Commemorated on May 20 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Mongol, China, 1260-“1368, Mongol-Tartar Capital - Dadu (Peking or Beijing)
1260-“1368 Mongol-Tartar Capital - Dadu (Peking or Beijing); Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, China, 1368-1644, Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty;

Mongol, China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty
China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ;

Mongol, China, 1899-1901, Boxer Rebellion, Anti Christian
Boxer Rebellion; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂœThe Word was made FleshÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on March 9 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Mongol, China, Republic of China, 1912-1949
China, Republic of China, 1912-1949; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31;

Mongol, China, 1915-1916, Empire of China
China, 1915-1916, Empire of China ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1927-1949, Chinese Civil War, Nationalist vs. Communist
Chinese Civil War 1927-1949;

Mongol, China History Folder

Mongol, China, 1260-1368, Mongol Tartar Capital Peking Folder, Yuan Dynasty

Mongol, China, 1251-1259, Golden Horde Khan, Mongke Khan, Christian
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1251-1259, Mongke Khan; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, China, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old, Christian
Scythia, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, China, 1257-1266, Batu's brother Berke (Bergai) Khan, Blue Horde and White Horde, Established Islam
Scythia, 1257-1266, Berke Khan ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, China, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan, Yuan Dynasty, China, Mongolia, Korea, Buddist, M Polo
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan ; (/ˈkuːblaɪ/; Mongolian: Хубилай, romanized: Hubilai; Chinese: 忽必烈; pinyin: Hūbìliè; 23 September  1215 – 18 February 1294), also known as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan, was the fifth khagan-emperor[note 1] of the Mongol Empire (Ikh Mongol Uls), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although after the division of the empire this was a nominal position). He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294. was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[2] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[3][4][5] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, from Siberia to what is now Afghanistan.[6] 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, and some adjacent areas; he also amassed influence in the Middle East and Europe as a Khagan. He assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to unite all of China proper. imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei. White, the color of the royal costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of the Yuan dynasty.[7] 1 Early years 2 Victory in North China 3 Enthronement and civil war 4 Reign 4.1 Great Khan of the Mongols 4.2 Emperor of the Yuan dynasty 4.2.1 Scientific developments and relations with minorities 4.2.2 Continuation of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices 5 Warfare and foreign relations 5.1 Tibet and Xinjiang 5.2 Kublai's annexation of Goryeo 5.3 Further naval expansion 5.4 Invasions of Japan 5.5 Invasions of Vietnam 5.6 Southeast Asia and South Seas 5.7 Europe 5.8 Africa 6 Capital City 6.1 Xanadu 7 Nayan's rebellion 8 Later years 9 Family 9.1 Wives and sons 9.2 Daughters 10 Poetry 11 Legacy 12 In popular culture 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 Further reading 17 External links years[edit] Khan was the fourth son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River.[8] Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Khagan (Mongol emperor) Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei, was enthroned as Khagan in 1229.[citation needed] the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.[citation needed] most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold).[9] Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist), and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing.[10] Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic.[11] in North China[edit] of young Kublai by Anige, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China. received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of Henan, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving Xi'an. acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty. 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his Chinese associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials.[12] 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he asked the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.[13] Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali King Duan Xingzhi (段興智) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.[14] Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan.[15] was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the Kingdom of Qocho (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished.[16] Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.[citation needed] Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory.[17] Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts.[18][19][20][21] Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of the Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).[citation needed] “The Emperor Kublai Khan in a tower carried by four elephants on the day of the battle“ French Engraving, 18th century. 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan, near the Yangtze. While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him.[citation needed] The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states.[22] Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao. and civil war[edit] article: Toluid Civil War received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plains.[23] he reached Mongolia, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum, which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu, opposed this. Kublai's Chinese staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in North China and Manchuria supported his candidacy.[24] returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the Borjigin lines except that of Jochi. This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become khan.[citation needed] Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next Great Khan at the Grand Kurultai in the year 1260. Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a Jami al-Twarikh (or Chingiznama). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31 [1] led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals.[25] To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou, but Jia broke his promise and arrested them.[26] Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu, crowned khan of Chagatai's territory. the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan, son of Ögedei Khan. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to Han Chinese warlords.[citation needed] Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.[27] When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai, Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, at first accepted Kublai's invitation.[28][29] However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters. Khan of the Mongols[edit] invasions and conquests mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258), and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire.[30] Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.[31] Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde.[32][33] The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime.[24][34] also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana, the empress of the Chagatai Khanate, who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death. Kaidu of the House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel.[35] This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.[citation needed] Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus.[36] 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrender his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy.[37] Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back.[37] called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander.[38] Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China.[39] The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there.[40] renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?"[41][42] Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan.[43][44] Defections from Kublai's Dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces. of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Han Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280. Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song, were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye.[citation needed] succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign.[43] Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China.[45] However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258), Sakhalin (1264), Burma (1277), Champa (1282), and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–8), and the invasion of Java (1293) failed. the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form a grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.[citation needed] son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids.[43] Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq. of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the Mongolian script, dated 1289. French National Archives. In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam (dhabihah) or Judaism (kashrut), which offended Mongolian custom.[46] Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the execution of Ahmad Fanakati, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor.[citation needed] niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke, Köchü, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes.[47] The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai.[48] Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.[49][50][51][52] of the Yuan dynasty[edit] also: Timeline of the Yuan dynasty Yuan Dynasty of China, c. 1294 Khan considered China his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.[53] From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng, and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.[54] also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor, giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks. 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.[55][56] In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their[whose?] corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.[citation needed] the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu (Chinese: 大都; Wade–Giles: Ta-tu; lit. 'Grand Capital', known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu (Chinese: 上都; lit. 'Upper Capital', also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor). unify China,[57] Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into the sea and ending the Song dynasty.[58] opera flourished during Yuan China. of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor.[59] This included China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.[60][61] The Central Region (Chinese: 腹裏) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268.[62] the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean.[62] In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.[63] Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on.[64][65] In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins.[66] In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall.[67] It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.[citation needed] Sangha was a Tibetan.[68] A rich merchant from the Madurai Sultanate, Abu Ali, was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of Chaesongnyeon during the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo according to the Dongguk Tonggam, Goryeosa and Liu Mengyan's Zhōng'ānjí.[69][70] encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjià, (Mysterious Order).[71] Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Europeans visited the empire, notably Marco Polo in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.[citation needed] the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79] The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.[80] developments and relations with minorities[edit] "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang. Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.[81] Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who became administrator of Yunnan. He was a well learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China. Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of the Yuan capitol). Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi.[82] Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar. cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced the knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants.[citation needed] physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna's works were also published in China during that period.[83] mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry, Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China.[84] brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented the Muslim trebuchet (or Huihui Pao), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang.[85] of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices[edit] Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish (kashrut) or Muslim (dhabihah) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision was also strictly forbidden.[86][87][88] and foreign relations[edit] also: Kublai Khan's campaigns, Mongol military tactics and organization, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty Yuan dynasty hand cannon Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian units.[89][90][91] Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.[92] Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.[citation needed] and Xinjiang[edit] 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya monasteries. The Chagatayid khan, Duwa, helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin.[93] Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu, killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.[citation needed] annexation of Goryeo[edit] also: Korea under Yuan rule and Mongol invasions of Korea dragons chasing a flaming pearl was a symbol associated with Goryeo Sumiyabaatar/ Б. Сумьяабаатар, "Хубилай Их Хааны үеийн Монгол – Сонгосын харилцаа", "Relationship between Mongolia and Korea during Kubilai Khan rule", 439p, 2015, ISBN 978-99973-302-5-3 Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo (the state on the Korean Peninsula) and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan.[94][95][96][97][98] Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.[citation needed] naval expansion[edit] Gangnido reflects the Chinese geographical knowledge during the Mongol Empire about countries in the West.[99] Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Song Dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.[100] of Japan[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Japan Japanese samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba (蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293. Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongols, Semu, Koreans, Hui and Chinese people.[81][101] Because the Wokou extended support to the crumbling Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated invasions of Japan. Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.[102] second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Chinese, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to 240 feet (73 m) long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by 180 kilometres (110 miles). The Mongols easily took over Tsushima Island about halfway across the strait and then Iki Island closer to Kyushu. The Korean fleet reached Hakata Bay on June 23, 1281 and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen. Mongolian landing forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Akasaka and the Battle of Torikai-Gata. Takezaki Suenaga's samurai attacked the Mongolian army and fought them, as reinforcements led by Shiraishi Michiyasu arrived and defeated the Mongolians, who suffered around 3500 dead.[103] samurai warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the Kōan Campaign (弘安の役) or the "Second Battle of Hakata Bay", the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships by the Samurai. The Japanese army was heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with two-meter high walls, and was easily able to repulse the Mongolian forces that were launched against it.[citation needed] samurai boarding Yuan ships in 1281. archaeologist Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of Takashima District, Shiga. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of Nagasaki.[104] David Nicolle wrote in The Mongol Warlords, "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.[105] soldiers, second version ships, second version of a 14th-century prized Yuan dynasty junk of Vietnam[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Vietnam Khan invaded Đại Việt (now Vietnam) three times, each repelled by the ruling Trần dynasty. The ancestors of the Trần clan originated from the province of Fujian and migrated to Đại Việt under Trần Kinh 陳京 (Chén Jīng),[106] where their mixed-blooded descendants later established the Trần dynasty and came to rule Đại Việt; despite many intermarriages between the Trần and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Trần Lý[107][108] and Trần Thừa,[109] some of the mixed-blood descendants of the clan could still speak Chinese, as evidenced when a Yuan dynasty envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Trần prince Trần Quốc Tuấn (later Supreme Commander Trần Hưng Đạo) in 1282.[110][111][112][113][114] first incursion was in 1257, but the Trần dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty between the Mongols and Đại Việt in the twelfth lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Trần dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a darughachi.[115][116] However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Trần king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of Champa, but the Đại Việt court refused. Kublai sent another envoy to the Đại Việt to demand that the Trần king surrender his land and his kingship. The Trần king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.[citation needed] his first failure, Kublai wanted to install Nhân Tông's brother Trần Ích Tắc – who had defected to the Mongols – as king of Annam (Đại Việt?), but hardship in the Yuan's supply base in Hunan and Kaidu's invasion forced Kublai to abandon his plans.[citation needed] second Mongol invasion of Đại Việt began late in 1284, when the Mongol Yuan forces under the command of Toghan, the prince of Kublai Khan, crossed the border and quickly occupied Thăng Long (now Hanoi) in January 1285, after the victorious battle of Omar in Vạn Kiếp (north east of Hanoi). At the same time Sogetu, second in command of the Yuan army, moved from Champa northward and rapidly marched to Nghe An in the north central region of Vietnam, where the army of the Trần dynasty under general Trần Kien was defeated and surrendered to him. However, the Trần king and the commander-in-chief Trần Hưng Đạo changed their tactics from defence to attack and struck against the Mongols. In April, General Trần Quang Khải defeated Sogetu in Chương Dương and the Trần king won a battle in Tây Kết, where Sogetu died. Soon after, general Trần Nhật Duật also won a battle in Hàm Tử (now Hưng Yên) and Toghan was defeated by General Trần Hưng Đạo. Thus Kublai failed in his first attempt to invade Đại Việt. Toghan hid himself inside a bronze pipe to avoid being killed by the Đại Việt archers; this act brought humiliation upon the Mongol Empire and Toghan himself.[citation needed] third Mongol invasion began in 1287. It was better organized than the previous effort; a large fleet and plentiful stocks of food were used. The Mongol Yuan forces, under the command of Toghan, moved to Vạn Kiếp from the north west and met the infantry and cavalry of Kublai's Kipchak commander Omar (coming by another way along the Red River) and quickly won the battle. The naval fleet rapidly attained victory in Vân Đồn near Hạ Long Bay. However, the Đại Việt General Trần Khánh Dư managed to intercept and captured the heavy, fully stocked cargo ships, filled with food and supplies for Toghan's army. As a result, the Mongolian army in Thăng Long suffered an acute shortage of food. With no news about the supply fleet, Toghan ordered his army to retreat to Vạn Kiếp. The Đại Việt army began their general offensive and recaptured a number of locations occupied by the Mongols. Groups of Đại Việt infantry were ordered to attack the Mongols in Vạn Kiếp. Toghan had to split his army into two and retreated in 1288.[citation needed] early April 1288 the naval fleet, led by Omar and escorted by infantry, fled home along the Bạch Đằng river. As bridges and roads were destroyed and attacks were launched by Đại Việt troops, the Mongols reached Bạch Đằng without an infantry escort. Đại Việt's small flotilla engaged in battle and pretended to retreat. The Mongols eagerly pursued the Đại Việt troops only to fall into their pre-arranged battlefield. Thousands of small Đại Việt boats quickly appeared from both banks, launched a fierce attack that broke the Mongols' combat formation. The Mongols, meeting such a sudden and strong attack, in panic tried to withdraw to the sea. The Mongols' boats were halted, and many were damaged and sank. At that time, a number of fire rafts quickly rushed toward the Mongols, who were frightened and jumped down to reach the banks where they were dealt a heavy blow by an army led by the Trần king and Trần Hưng Đạo.[citation needed] Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Đại Việt's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Lạng Sơn. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to Yangzhou for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Trần king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Trần king, which continued to the end of the Yuan dynasty.[116][117] Asia and South Seas[edit] articles: First Mongol invasion of Burma and Mongol invasion of Java expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the Irrawaddy Delta, whereupon they captured Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom and established their government.[118] Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal suzerainty, but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s.[119] Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.[citation needed] Khan maintained close relations with Siam, in particular with prince Mangrai of Chiangmai and king Ram Khamheng of Sukhothai.[120] In fact, Kublai encouraged them to attack the Khmers after the Thais were being pushed southwards from Nanchao.[120][121][122] This happened after king Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire refused to pay tribute to the Mongols.[120][123][124] Jayavarman VIII was so insistent on not having to pay tribute to Kublai that he had Mongol envoys imprisoned.[120][124][122] These attacks from the Siamese eventually weakened the Khmer Empire. The Mongols then decided to venture south into Cambodia in 1283 by land from Champa.[125] They were able to conquer Cambodia by 1284.[126] Cambodia effectively became a vassal state by 1285 when Jayavarman VIII was finally forced to pay tribute to Kublai.[125][127][128] the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against Singhasari on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Chiang Mai had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.[118] articles: Marco Polo and Rabban Bar Sauma information: Europeans in Medieval China gives financial support to the Polo family. Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians – merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders – made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Chinese, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Rus, Persia, and Mesopotamia.[citation needed] Bar Sauma, ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and Ilkhan Arghun, travelled from Dadu to Rome, Tuscany, Genoa, Paris, and Bordeaux to meet with European rulers in 1287–88. the 13th century, the Sultanate of Mogadishu through its trade with medieval China had acquired enough of a reputation in Asia to attract the attention of Kublai Khan.[129] According to Marco Polo, the Mongol Emperor sent an envoy to Mogadishu to spy out the Sultanate but the delegation was captured and imprisoned. Kublai Khan then sent another envoy to treat for the release of the earlier Mongol delegation sent to Africa.[130] City[edit] White Stupa of Dadu (or Khanbaliq; now Beijing) Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in Xanadu on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's, Guo Shoujing, accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and armillary spheres that represented the celestial globe. Turkestani architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Chinese Dadu).[131] Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a Newar named Araniko, built the White Stupa that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.[132] advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a 30 km (19 mi) channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to Gansu to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.[citation needed] rebellion[edit] the conquest of the Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large appanages in Manchuria.[133] Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over Chang'an and Shanxi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria.[134] The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.[135] Yuan dynasty jade belt plaque featuring carved designs of the Azure Dragon, highly regarded as a symbol of Yuan dynasty China's maritime strength. by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, Nayan, a fourth-generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either Temüge or Belgutei, instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.[136]) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia.[137] Manchuria's native Jurchens and Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of Qasar, joined Nayan's rebellion,[138] and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.[139] rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of Chungnyeol of Goryeo assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.[139] Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of Liaoning but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the Khangai Mountains and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.[38] but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family.[140] Kublai harshly punished the darughachi appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.[141] This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.[citation needed] years[edit] section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ilkhanate Persia, Ghazan converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his suzerain. Khan dispatched his grandson Gammala to Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to ensure his claim to Ikh Khorig, where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the Central Siberian Plateau.[citation needed] his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son Zhenjin, who became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng and actively administered the dynasty according to Confucian fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the Golden Horde, expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).[citation needed] became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son Temür, who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.[citation needed] Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, China, 1261, Through A Nevsky and Metrop Cyril III, at the capital, an Orthodox diocese was established
Sarai (city); St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Mongol, China, 1262-1300, Nogai Khan, a general and defacto ruler of GH, Moslem
Mongol, China, 1262-1300, Nogai Khan, a general and defacto ruler of GH;

Mongol, China, 1266-1280, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Mengu-Timur, pro Orthodox
Scythian Golder Horde Tartar Khan, 1266-1280, Mengu-Timur ; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; North Ossetia-“Alania; Khan Mengu-Temir, 1266-1280; Saint Theodore, Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, and his sons Saints David and Constantine, Commemorated on September 19; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, China, 1280-1287, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Tode Mongke, pro Orthodox
Mongol, China, 1280-1287, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Tode Mongke, pro Orthodox; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, China, 1287-1291, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Talabuga, pro Orthodox
Mongol, China, 1287-1291, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Talabuga, pro Orthodox; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, China, 1291-1312, Golden Horde Tartar Khan, Toqta, pro Orthodox
Scythian Golden Horde Tartar Khan, 1291-1312, Toqta; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, China, 1312-1341, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Oz Beg Khan, Khan Uzbekm, Moslem
Scythian Golder Horde Tartar Khan, 1312-1341, Oz Beg Khan, Khan Uzbek; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21;

Mongol, China, 1342-1357, Golder Horde Tartar Khan,Jani Beg, Moslem
Mongol, Scythia, 1342-1357, Golder Horde Tartar Khan,Jani Beg; St. Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12;

Mongol, China, 1360's, White,Blue, and Gray Hordes of the Golden Horde
White,Blue, Gray and Golden Hordes ; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, China, 1368-1644, Ming Dynasty Folder

Mongol, China, 1368-1644, Ming Dynasty, 16th Century Trade with Europe
Ming Dynasty; Ming dynasty [7] officially the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by Han Chinese. Although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the Shun dynasty, soon replaced by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty), numerous rump regimes ruled by remnants of the Ming imperial family ”collectively called the Southern Ming ”survived until 1662.[d] Hongwu Emperor (r. 1368-“1398) attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty:[8] the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the navy's dockyards in Nanjing were the largest in the world.[9] He also took great care breaking the power of the court eunuchs[10] and unrelated magnates, enfeoffing his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the Huang-Ming Zuxun, a set of published dynastic instructions. This failed when his teenage successor, the Jianwen Emperor, attempted to curtail his uncles' power, prompting the Jingnan Campaign, an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the Yongle Emperor in 1402. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it Beijing, constructed the Forbidden City, and restored the Grand Canal and the primacy of the imperial examinations in official appointments. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa. rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances; the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the Great Wall of China into its modern form. Wide-ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially, but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures.[8] Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million,[11] but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples.[8] Haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from "Japanese" pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. the 16th century, however, the expansion of European trade “ albeit restricted to islands near Guangzhou such as Macau “ spread the Columbian Exchange of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing chili peppers to Sichuan cuisine and highly productive maize and potatoes, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of Japanese and American silver. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose paper money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the heterodoxy introduced by Wang Yangming permitted a more accommodating attitude. Zhang Juzheng's initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture produced by the Little Ice Age joined changes in Japanese and Spanish policy that quickly cut off the supply of silver now necessary for farmers to be able to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was himself defeated shortly afterward by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty.

Mongol, China, 1370-1380, Mongol Blue Horde Khan Mami, Sunni Moslem
Scythia, 1370-1380, Mongol Blue Horde Khan Mami; Intercession of the œDon Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19;

Mongol, China, 1644-1912, Qing Dynasty Folder, 1685 Kangxi's Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1644-1699, 17th Century Folder, China Russia War of the Amur, Orthodox Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1643-1661, Qing dynasty Emperor, Shunzhi Emperor, chased Ming south, haircutting policy, small pox
Mongol, China, 1643-1661, Qing dynasty Emperor, Shunzhi Emperor ; Shunzhi Emperor (15 March 1638-5 February 1661) was the second Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the first Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigned from 1644 to 1661. committee of Manchu princes chose him to succeed his father, Hong Taiji (1592–1643), in September 1643, when he was five years old. The princes also appointed two co-regents: Dorgon (1612–1650), the 14th son of the Qing dynasty's founder Nurhaci (1559–1626), and Jirgalang (1599–1655), one of Nurhaci's nephews, both of whom were members of the Qing imperial clan. 1643 to 1650, political power lay mostly in the hands of Dorgon. Under his leadership, the Qing Empire conquered most of the territory of the fallen Ming dynasty (1368–1644), chased Ming loyalist regimes deep into the southwestern provinces, and established the basis of Qing rule over China proper despite highly unpopular policies such as the hair cutting command of 1645, which forced Qing subjects to shave their forehead and braid their remaining hair into a queue resembling that of the Manchus. After Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650, the young Shunzhi Emperor started to rule personally. He tried, with mixed success, to fight corruption and to reduce the political influence of the Manchu nobility. In the 1650s, he faced a resurgence of Ming loyalist resistance, but by 1661 his armies had defeated the Qing Empire's last enemies, seafarer Koxinga (1624–1662) and the Prince of Gui (1623–1662) of the Southern Ming dynasty, both of whom would succumb the following year. The Shunzhi Emperor died at the age of 22 of smallpox, a highly contagious disease that was endemic in China, but against which the Manchus had no immunity. He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who had already survived smallpox, and who reigned for sixty years under the era name Kangxi (hence he was known as the Kangxi Emperor). Because fewer documents have survived from the Shunzhi era than from later eras of the Qing dynasty, the Shunzhi era is a relatively little-known period of Qing history. was the name of this ruler's reign period in Chinese. This title had equivalents in Manchu and Mongolian because the Qing imperial family was Manchu and ruled over many Mongol tribes that helped the Qing to conquer the Ming dynasty. The emperor's personal name was Fulin, and the posthumous name by which he was worshipped at the Imperial Ancestral Temple was Shizu. China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; Icon of the Mother of God œThe Word was made Flesh, Commemorated on March 9;

Mongol, China, 1652-1695, China War of the Amur Region
Russia China War of the Amur Region (1652-1695) ; Icon of the Mother of God œThe Word was made Flesh, Commemorated on March 9;

Mongol, China, 1661-1722, Qing dynasty Emperor, Kangxi, prosperous time, P spiritual mission
China, 1661-1722, Qing dynasty Emperor, Kangxi Emperor; Kangxi Emperor (5 February 1654 – 20 December 1722), given name Xuanye, was the third Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper. Kangxi Emperor's reign of 61 years (from 1661 until 1722) makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history (although his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor, had the longest period of de facto power) and one of the longest-reigning rulers in the world.[1] However, since he ascended the throne at the age of seven, actual power was held for six years by four regents and his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang. Kangxi Emperor is considered one of China's greatest emperors.[2] He suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, forced the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan and assorted Mongol rebels in the North and Northwest to submit to Qing rule, and blocked Tsarist Russia on the Amur River, retaining Outer Manchuria and Outer Northwest China. Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated the period known as the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong" or "High Qing",[3] which lasted for several generations after his death. His court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary. China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on November 26;

Mongol, China, 1684-1686, Chinese Invasions of Albazin and Amur River
Siberia, Chinese Invasions of Albazin (1684-1686) ; Icon of the Mother of God œThe Word was made Flesh, Commemorated on March 9; Blessed Dovmont (Timothy) the Prince of Pskov, Commemorated on May 20;

Mongol, China, 1685, Qing dynasty Emperor, Kangxi's Peking Spiritual Mission
China, 1661-1722, Qing dynasty Emperor, Kangxi Emperor; China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on November 26;

Mongol, China, 1700-1799, I8th Century Folder, China Russia War of the Amur, Orthodox Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1722, Priest, Innocent of Irkutsk, appointment to Peking Spiritual Mission
Moscow, 1700-1731, Priest, Innocent of Irkutsk; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on November 26; Uncovering of the relics of St Innocent the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on February 9;

Mongol, China, 1722-1735, Qing Emperor,Yongzheng, continued prosperous time and PSM, but blocked Innocent
China, 1722-1735, Qing dynasty Emperor,Yongzheng Emperor; China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on November 26;

Mongol, China, 1800-1899, 19th Century History Folder, Boxer Rebellion, War of the Amur, Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1850-1861, Qing dynasty, Xianfeng Emperor, Taiping and Nian Rebellions, Second Opium War
China, Qing dynasty Emperor, 1850-1861, Xianfeng Emperor; The Xianfeng Emperor (17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861), or by temple name Emperor Wenzong of Qing (æ¸…æ–‡å®—), given name Yizhu (å¥•è©ÂÂ), was the eigth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the seventh Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigned from 1850 to 1861. During his reign the Qing dynasty experienced several wars and rebellions including the Taiping Rebellion, Nian Rebellion, and Second Opium War (Arrow War). He was the last Chinese emperor to have total executive ruling power. After his death, the Qing dynasty was controlled by Empress Dowager Cixi. China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910);

Mongol, China, 1861-1875, Qing dynasty Emperor, Tongzhi Emperor, Tongzhi Restoration", an unsuccessful modernization program
China, Qing dynasty Emperor, 1861-1875, Tongzhi Emperor; The Tongzhi Emperor (27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), born Zaichun of the Aisin Gioro clan,[1] was the ninth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign, from 1861 to 1875, which effectively lasted through his adolescence, was largely overshadowed by the rule of his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi. Although he had little influence over state affairs, the events of his reign gave rise to what historians call the "Tongzhi Restoration", an unsuccessful modernization program. China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22;

Mongol, China, 1875-1908, Qing dynasty Emperor, Guangxu Emperor, Empress Coup
China, Qing dynasty Emperor, 1875-1908, Guangxu Emperor; The Guangxu Emperor (14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908),[1] personal name Zaitian,[2] was the tenth Emperor of the Qing dynasty,[3] and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign lasted from 1875 to 1908, but in practice he ruled, without Empress Dowager Cixi's influence, only from 1889 to 1898. He initiated the Hundred Days' Reform, but was abruptly stopped when the empress dowager launched a coup in 1898, after which he was put under house arrest until his death. His regnal name, "Guangxu", means "glorious succession". China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22;

Mongol, China, 1899-1901, Boxer Rebellion (Shandong and North China Plain) against Christian Foreigners
Boxer Rebellion; The Boxer Rebellion (æ‹³äº‚), Boxer Uprising, or Yihetuan Movement (ç¾©å’Œåœ˜éÂÂÂ‹å‹•) was an anti-imperialist, anti-foreign, and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. It was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness (Yìhéquán), known in English as the Boxers because many of their members had practiced Chinese martial arts, also referred to in the Western world at the time as Chinese Boxing. Villagers in North China had been building resentment against Christian missionaries. The immediate background of the uprising included severe drought and disruption by the growth of foreign spheres of influence after the Sino-Japanese War of 1895. After several months of growing violence and murder in Shandong and the North China Plain against foreign and Christian presence in June 1900, Boxer fighters, convinced they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing with the slogan "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners." Foreigners and Chinese Christians sought refuge in the Legation Quarter. In response to reports of an invasion by the Eight Nation Alliance of American, Austro-Hungarian, British, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian troops to lift the siege, the initially hesitant Empress Dowager Cixi supported the Boxers and on June 21 issued an Imperial Decree declaring war on the foreign powers. Diplomats, foreign civilians, and soldiers as well as Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter were besieged for 55 days by the Imperial Army of China and the Boxers. Chinese officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favoring conciliation, led by Prince Qing. The supreme commander of the Chinese forces, the Manchu General Ronglu (Junglu), later claimed he acted to protect the foreigners. Officials in the Mutual Protection of Southeast China ignored the imperial order to fight against foreigners. The Eight-Nation Alliance, after being initially turned back, brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Army, and arrived at Peking on August 14, relieving the siege of the Legations. Uncontrolled plunder of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with summary execution of those suspected of being Boxers. The Boxer Protocol of 7 September 1901 provided for the execution of government officials who had supported the Boxers, provisions for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing, and 450 million taels of silver—approximately $10 billion at 2018 silver prices and more than the government's annual tax revenue—to be paid as indemnity over the course of the next 39 years to the eight nations involved. Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂœThe Word was made FleshÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on March 9 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Mongol, China, 1900-1912, 20th History Folder, Boxer Rebellion, War of the Amur, Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1908-1912, Qing dynasty Emperor, Puyi
China, Qing dynasty Emperor, 1908-1912, Puyi ; China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22;

Mongol, China, 1912-1949, Republic of China Folder

Mongol, China, 1912-1923, Republic of China President, Yuan Shikai
China, Republic of China President, 1912-1923, Yuan Shikai ; China, Republic of China, 1912-1949; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31;

Mongol China, 1915-1916, Empire of China
China, 1915-1916, Empire of China ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1916-1923, Republic of China President, Li Yuanhong
China, Republic of China President, 1916-1923, Li Yuanhong ; China, Republic of China, 1912-1949; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31;

Mongol, China, 1917-1923, President, Li Yuanhong, President of China
China President, 1917-1923, Li Yuanhong, President of China (off and on) ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1921, Peking Man Site
China, 1921, Peking Man Site; Even though the original fossils disappeared in 1941 during World War II, excellent casts and descriptions remain. So to believe in Peking Man, we have to trust those descriptions from people who came to China to find a prehistoric man. Here is the story of the discovery and identification before that disappearance (copied from Wikipedia, Peking Man Site): Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson and American palaeontologist Walter W. Granger came to Zhoukoudian, China in search of prehistoric fossils in 1921. They were directed to the site at Dragon Bone Hill by local quarrymen, where Andersson recognised deposits of quartz that were not native to the area. Immediately realising the importance of this find he turned to his colleague and announced, "Here is primitive man; now all we have to do is find him!" Excavation work was begun immediately by Andersson's assistant Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky, who found what appeared to be a fossilised human molar. He returned to the site in 1923, and materials excavated in the two subsequent digs were sent to Uppsala University in Sweden for analysis. In 1926 Andersson announced the discovery of two human molars in this material, and Zdansky published his findings. Canadian anatomist Davidson Black of Peking Union Medical College, excited by Andersson and Zdansky'™s find, secured funding from the Rockefeller Foundation and recommenced excavations at the site in 1927 with both Western and Chinese scientists. Swedish palaeontologist Anders Birger Bohlin unearthed a tooth that fall, and Black placed it in a gold locket on his watch chain. Black published his analysis in the journal Nature, identifying his find as belonging to a new species and genus which he named Sinanthropus pekinensis, but many fellow scientists were skeptical about such an identification on the basis of a single tooth, and the foundation demanded more specimens before it grant additional money. A lower jaw, several teeth, and skull fragments were unearthed in 1928. Black presented these finds to the foundation and was rewarded with an $80,000 grant that he used to establish the Cenozoic Research Laboratory. Excavations at the site under the supervision of Chinese archaeologists Yang Zhongjian, Pei Wenzhong, and Jia Lanpo uncovered 200 human fossils (including six nearly complete skullcaps) from more than 40 individual specimens. These excavations came to an end in 1937 with the Japanese invasion. Fossils of Peking Man were placed in the safe at the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Peking Union Medical College. Eventually, in November 1941, secretary Hu Chengzi packed the fossils so that they could be sent to USA for safekeeping until the end of the war. The fossils vanished en route to the port city of Qinhuangdao in northern China. So to believe in Peking Man, we have to trust those casts and descriptions from people who came to China to find a prehistoric man. Note: according to their stories, all these people involved already believed in evoluton and were looking for its proofs like missing links. Some were medical doctors, some were geologists, some were both, and much of their science actually derived from this type of search. Since evolution does not jive with the origin of sin and death, it is impossible to fear God and believe in Evolution. The Bible story is all about that original sin and and our salvation from sin and death through the life of Jesus Christ, both his current business as head of his Body the Church (our crosses) and his previous business on his cross. So to be understood, Life by Faith (the solution to sin and death) requires us to understand the origin of sin and death. PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1921-1976, Communist China Leader, Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, Communist China Leader, 1921-1976; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1922-1926, Republic of China President, Yan Huiqing
China, Republic of China President, 1922-1926, Yan Huiqing, President or Premier Republic of China; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31;

Mongol, China, 1923-1924, Republic of China President, Cao Kun
China, Republic of China President, 1923-1924, Cao Kun ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1924-1927, Republic of China President, Wellington Koo
China, Republic of China President, 1924-1927, Wellington Koo ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1924-1926, Republic of China Chief Executive, Duan Qirui
China, Republic of China Chief Executive, 1924-1926, Duan Qirui ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1927-1928, Republic of China President, Zhang Zuolin
China, Republic of China President, 1927-1928, Zhang Zuolin; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1928-1975, Republic of China President, Chiang Kai-shek
China, Republic of China President, 1928-1975, Chiang Kai-shek ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1937-1945, Second Japan China War
Japan, 1937-1945, Second Japan China War ; Marco Polo Bridge Incident, 1937 (starts the war); ERIC LIDDELL, MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 21;

Mongol, China, 1949-Present, Communist China Folder

Mongol, China, Yellow River Folder (North China Plain, Peking)

Yellow River

Yellow River from Source 2

Yellow River Source (Bayan Har Mountains)
Bayan Har Mountains;

Bayan Har Mountains
Bayan Har Mountains;

Yellow River Source 2 (Bayan Har Mountains)
Yellow River;

Yellow River 1

Yellow River 1b

Yellow River 1c

Yellow River 1d

Yellow River 1e

Qinghai lake, Qinghai Province
Qinghai lake ;

Yellow River 1f

Yellow River 2

Maijishan, Maijishan Grottoes
Maijishan, Maijishan Grottoes;

Yellow River 2b

Yellow River 2c

Yellow River 2d

Yellow River 2e

Yellow River 2f

Yellow River 2g

Yellow River 3

Yellow River 3b

Yellow River 3c

Yellow River 4d

Yellow River 4e

Xianyang, China (Silk Road North 2 Changan, Yellow River 4e)
Xianyang; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

Yellow River 5 Overview

North China (Yellow River Area)
North China; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Honan Province (Central Plains, Yellow River)
Honan Province; PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31 ;

Central Plain of China
Central Plain of China;

North China Plain
North China Plain; The North China Plain is based on the deposits of the Yellow River and is the largest alluvial plain of eastern Asia. The plain is bordered on the north by the Yanshan Mountains and on the west by the Taihang Mountains edge of the Shanxi ('western mountains') plateau. To the south, it merges into the Yangtze Plain. From northeast to southeast, it fronts the Bohai Sea, the highlands of Shandong Peninsula, and the Yellow Sea. The Yellow River flows through the middle of the plain into Bohai Sea. ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Weihsien Internment Camp, Shandong, China (Yellow River 10) 1937
Weihsien Internment Camp; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

Shandong Province (South of Yellow River Mouth)
Shandong Province; North China Plain; Boxer Rebellion; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Yellow River Mouth (Bohai Sea)

Chefoo School, China Inland Mission, Yantai, near Yellow River Mouth
Chefoo School, China Inland Mission, Yantai; ERIC LIDDELL, MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

British Empire - Weiihai - Strategic penninsula into Peking C across from Seoul K
British Empire - Weiihai - Strategic position penninsula into Peking, China across from Seoul, Korea; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836);

Mongol, China, Yangtze River Folder (Shanghai)

Yangtze River

Yangtze River Source (head of Dan Qu tributary)

Yangtze River 1 (Qinghai)

Yangtze River 2 (China Inland Mission, Yunnan)

China Inland Mission, China Burma border (China's Yangtze River 2, Burma's Salween River 1) 1865
China Inland Mission Dengyue; Dengyue is a treaty port; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ; VEDANAYAGAM SAMUEL AZARIAH, FIRST INDIAN ANGLICAN BISHOP, DORNAKAL, 1945, Commemorated January 2 ;

Yalong River Mouth (Yangtze River 2)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 2, Yunnan Protected Areas Folder

Daen Lao Range
Daen Lao Range;

Tiger Leaping Gorge
Tiger Leaping Gorge ; Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Three Paralles Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas 1

Three Paralles Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas 2

Three Paralles Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas 3

Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas
Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas;

Yunnan Province and Yunnan, China
Yunnan Province and Yunnan, China; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ;

Dengyue, China
Dengyue, Dengyue is a treaty port; China Inland Mission LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ;

Yangtze River 3 (Yibin)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 3, Min River Folder, (Inland China)

Min River

Min River (Sichuan) Source (Min Mountains)

Min River 1 (Shaochang or Chengdu)

Shaochang (Changdu), (Min River 1)
Shaochang (Min River 1); ERIC LIDDELL, MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

Inland China (Min Mts, north and east of Yunnan Province)
Inland China in Relation to Yunnan Province; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ;

Kangding, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River 1 of Yangtze 3)
Kangding, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River of Yangtze); Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Tagong, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River 1 of Yangtze River 3)
Tagong, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River of Yangtze River); Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Litang, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River 1 of Yangtze 3)
Litang, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River of Yangtze); Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Min River 2

Emeishan, Sichuan, China (Inland China, Min River 2 of Yangtze River 3)
Emeishan, Sichuan, China (Inland China, Min River of Yangtze River 3); Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Leshan, Sichuan (Inlane China, Min River 2 of Yangtze River 3)
Leshan, Sichuan; Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Min River (Sichuan) Mouth (Yangtze River 3)

Yangtze River 4 (Luzhou)

Tuo River Mouth (Yangtze River 4)

Yangtze River 5 (Chongqing)

Jialing River Mouth (Yangtze River 5)

Yangtze River 6 (Wanzhou)

Wu River Mouth (Wu Gorge, Yangtze River 6)

Three Gorges Dam (Yangtze River 7)

Yangtze River 7 (Yichang)

Yangtze River 8 (Jingzhou)

Yangtze River 9 (Yueyang)

Xiang River Mouth (Yangtze River 9)

Yangtze River 10 (Wuhan)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 10, Xiang River Folder

Xiang River

Xiang River Source (Haiyang Mountain, northeast of Guilin)
Haiyang Mountain;

Xaing River 1 (Hengyang)

Zi River Mouth (Xiang River 2, Yangtze River 9)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 10, Han River Folder, Dengzhou

Han River

Dengzhou, China (a treaty port on Han River)
treaty port; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ;

North China Mission Station (Dengzhou)
Dengzhou is a treaty port; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ;

Han River Source (along the border)

Han River Mouth (Yangtze River 10)

Yangtze River 11 (Jiujiang)

Gan River Mouth (Yangtze River 11)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 11, Gan River Folder

Gan River (Jiangxi)

Gan River Tributary

Gan River Source (along the border)

Gan River Source (South Central Jiangxi)

Yangtze River 12 (Anqing)

Yangtze River 13 (Tongling)

Yangtze River 14 (Wuhu)

Yangtze River 15 (Nanjing)

Yangtze River 16 (Zhenjiang)

Yangtze River 17 (Nantong)

Yangtze River 18 (Shanghai)

Huangpu River Mouth (Yangtze River 18)

Yangtze River Mouth (Shanghai, East China Sea)

Shanghai, China (Yangtze River Mouth, East China Sea)
Shanghai; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906) ;

Saint John's University, Shanghai, 1859-1952
Saint John's University, Shanghai, 1859-1952; Shanghai; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906) ;

Mongol, China, Hong Kong Folder, Xi and Pearl Rivers

Mongol, China, Hong Kong History

Mongol, China, Hong Kong, 1842-1941 and 1945-1984, British Colony
Hong Kong, British Colony, 1842-1941 and 1945-1984; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Mongol, China, Hong Kong, 1941-1945, Japanese Occupation
Hong Kong, Japanese Occupation, 1941-1945 ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Mongol, China, 1945-1984, Hong Kong, British Colony
Hong Kong, British Colony, 1945-1984 ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Mongol, China, Hong Kong, Xi River Folder, Macau

Xi River

Xi River Source (Li River)

Xi River Source 2

Xi River Source 3

Macau, China (Xi River Estuary)
Macau, China; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Macau Protestant Chapel, China, 1821
Macau Protestant Chapel; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Xi River Source (Xun River)

Xi River Mouth (Hong Kong, Pearl River Delta)

Yu River Source (Baise City)

Xun River Source (Qian and Yu Rivers)

Qian River

Chongzou River

Mongol, China, Hong Kong, Pearl (Canton) River Folder, Hong Kong

Pearl (Canton) River

Pearl (Canton) River Source (along the border)

Pearl River 2

Pearl River 2nd Source (along the border

Pearl River (Guangzhou or Canton)

Pearl (Canton) River Mouth

Pearl River Estuary

Hong Kong, China (Pearl River Estuary) 1998
Hong Kong ; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Hong Kong, British Colony (Pearl River Estuary) 1842-1997
Hong Kong ; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

British Empire - Hong Kong, British Colony (Pearl River Estuary) 1842-1997
Hong Kong ; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Mongol, China, Hai River Folder (Peking or Bejing, Far North China)

Hai River

Peking, Mongol Capitol since 1260, China (Hai River and North China Plain)
Peking (Hai River and Northern tip of North China Plain); Major rivers flowing through the municipality include the Yongding River and the Chaobai River, part of the Hai River system, and flow in a southerly direction. St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated November 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œThe Word was made Flesh", Commemorated on March 9 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ; St John Maximovitch the Metropolitan of Tobolsk, Commemorated on June 10;

Peking Union Medical College, 1917
Peking Union Medical College; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Peking Man Site, 1921
China, 1921, Peking Man Site; Even though the original fossils disappeared in 1941 during World War II, excellent casts and descriptions remain. So to believe in Peking Man, we have to trust those descriptions from people who came to China to find a prehistoric man. Here is the story of the discovery and identification before that disappearance (copied from Wikipedia, Peking Man Site): Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson and American palaeontologist Walter W. Granger came to Zhoukoudian, China in search of prehistoric fossils in 1921. They were directed to the site at Dragon Bone Hill by local quarrymen, where Andersson recognised deposits of quartz that were not native to the area. Immediately realising the importance of this find he turned to his colleague and announced, "Here is primitive man; now all we have to do is find him!" Excavation work was begun immediately by Andersson's assistant Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky, who found what appeared to be a fossilised human molar. He returned to the site in 1923, and materials excavated in the two subsequent digs were sent to Uppsala University in Sweden for analysis. In 1926 Andersson announced the discovery of two human molars in this material, and Zdansky published his findings. Canadian anatomist Davidson Black of Peking Union Medical College, excited by Andersson and Zdansky'™s find, secured funding from the Rockefeller Foundation and recommenced excavations at the site in 1927 with both Western and Chinese scientists. Swedish palaeontologist Anders Birger Bohlin unearthed a tooth that fall, and Black placed it in a gold locket on his watch chain. Black published his analysis in the journal Nature, identifying his find as belonging to a new species and genus which he named Sinanthropus pekinensis, but many fellow scientists were skeptical about such an identification on the basis of a single tooth, and the foundation demanded more specimens before it grant additional money. A lower jaw, several teeth, and skull fragments were unearthed in 1928. Black presented these finds to the foundation and was rewarded with an $80,000 grant that he used to establish the Cenozoic Research Laboratory. Excavations at the site under the supervision of Chinese archaeologists Yang Zhongjian, Pei Wenzhong, and Jia Lanpo uncovered 200 human fossils (including six nearly complete skullcaps) from more than 40 individual specimens. These excavations came to an end in 1937 with the Japanese invasion. Fossils of Peking Man were placed in the safe at the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Peking Union Medical College. Eventually, in November 1941, secretary Hu Chengzi packed the fossils so that they could be sent to USA for safekeeping until the end of the war. The fossils vanished en route to the port city of Qinhuangdao in northern China. So to believe in Peking Man, we have to trust those casts and descriptions from people who came to China to find a prehistoric man. Note: according to their stories, all these people involved already believed in evoluton and were looking for its proofs like missing links. Some were medical doctors, some were geologists, some were both, and much of their science actually derived from this type of search. Since evolution does not jive with the origin of sin and death, it is impossible to fear God and believe in Evolution. The Bible story is all about that original sin and and our salvation from sin and death through the life of Jesus Christ, both his current business as head of his Body the Church (our crosses) and his previous business on his cross. So to be understood, Life by Faith (the solution to sin and death) requires us to understand the origin of sin and death. PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Zhoukoudian (a cave system, Peking Man Site)
Zhoukoudian; Peking Man; Peking Man mystery; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Beijing
Beijing; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Cenozoic Research Laboratory (Beijing) 1928
Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Geological Survey of China; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Tianjin, Far North China (Hai River Mouth, Five Rivers)
Tianjin (Hai River Source, Five Rivers); ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Hai River Source 2 ( Five Rivers)
The Hai River at Tianjin is formed by the confluence of five rivers, the Southern Canal, Ziya River, Daqing River, Yongding River, and the Northern Canal.

Hai River Source 1 (Peking)
The Northern Canal joins with the Bai He (or Chaobai River) at Tongzhou. The Northern Canal (sharing a channel with Bai He) is also the only waterway from the sea to Beijing. Therefore, early Westerners also called the Hai He the Bai He.

Hai River Mouth (Bohai Sea)

Mongol, China, Great Wall of China Folder, 1368-1644, 13,170 Miles

Great Wall of China
Great Wall of China;

Great Wall of China - Dandong

Great Wall of China - Hushan Great Wall
Great Wall of China - Hushan Great Wall;

Great Wall of China - Liaoning Wall
Great Wall of China - Liaoning Wall;

Great Wall of China - Jinshanling
Great Wall of China - Jinshanling;

Great Wall of China - Mutianyu Great Wall
Great Wall of China - Mutianyu Great Wall;

Great Wall of China - Juyong Pass
Great Wall of China - Juyong Pass;

Great Wall of China - Badaling
Great Wall of China - Badaling;

Great Wall of China - Sihaiye in Yanqing County
Great Wall of China - Sihaiye in Yanqing County;

Great Wall of China - Pingxing Pass
Great Wall of China - Pingxing Pass;

Great Wall of China - Piantou Pass in Xinzhou
Great Wall of China - Piantou Pass in Xinzhou;

Great Wall of China - Yanmen Pass
Great Wall of China - Yanmen Pass;

Great Wall of China - Ordos Desert
Great Wall of China - Ordos Desert;

Great Wall of China - Yinchuan, Ningxia
Great Wall of China - Yinchuan; Hexi Corridor; Ningxia;

Great Wall of China - Jiayu Pass
Great Wall of China - Jiayu Pass;

Great Wall of China - Yang Pass
Great Wall of China - Yang Pass;

Great Wall of China - Yumen Pass
Great Wall of China - Yumen Pass;

Great Wall of China - Lop Lake
Great Wall of China - Lop Lake;

Mongol, China, Silk Road Folder (to China to Turkey)

Silk Road North 1 Luoyang

Silk Road North 2 Changan

Xi'an, ancient capital of China (Silk Road Starting Point)
Xi'an, ancient capital of China;

Xianyang, China (Silk Road North 2 Changan)
Xianyang; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

Bin County, Shaanxi, China (Includes Xiaozhang)
Bin County, Shaanxi (Includes Xiaozhang), and is part of Xianyang, Shaanxi, China; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22 ;

Silk Road North 3 Shaanxi Province

Silk Road North 4 Gansu Province

Silk Road North 5a north of Taklimakan Desert

Silk Road North 5b South of Taklimakan Desert

Silk Road North 5c Turpan

Silk Road North 6a Kashgar

Silk Road North 6b Talgar

Silk Road Divider (Tian Shan Mountains)
Tian Shan Mountains;

Silk Road North 7 Amaty

Alma-Atu, Silk Road North 7, Turkestan, Kazakistan
Alma-Atu, Silk Road North 7, Turkestan, Kazakistan; Hieromartyr Hilarion, Archbishop of Vereiya, Commemorated on December 15;

Silk Road North Kokand

Silk Road North Termiz

Silk Road North Balkh

Silk Road North Fergana Valley

Silk Road North Karakum Desert

Silk Road North and South at Merv

Silk Road North and South at Black Sea at Trabzon

Silk Road South Karakoram

Silk Road South Karakoram Highway

Silk Road South Khunjerab Pass

Silk Road South, K Hwy 1, Upal China

Silk Road South, K Hwy 2, Tashkurgan, Xinjiang China

Silk Road South, K Hwy 3, Sost

Silk Road South, K Hwy 4, Passu

Silk Road South, K Hwy 5, Gulmit

Silk Road South, K Hwy 6, Hunza Valley

Silk Road South, K Hwy 7, Nagar Valley

Silk Road South, K Hwy 8, Gilgit

Silk Road South, K Hwy 9, Parri Bangla

Silk Road South, K Hwy 10, Chilas

Silk Road South, K Hwy 11, Kohistan

Silk Road South, K Hwy 12, Besham

Silk Road South over the Hindu Kush Mountains

Silk Road South, Hindu Kush Mountains to Merv

Silk Road South, Kashgar, China to Hindu Kush Mountains (Tea Horse Route)

Silk Road North to Kashgar by north of the Taklimakan Desert route

Silk Road North to Kashgar by south of the Taklimakan Desert route

Silk Road North and North of the Tian Shan Mountains

Silk Road from Kashgar to Fergana Valley to Koland to Merv

Silk Road from Kashgar to Termiz to Balkh to Merv

Silk Road, Trabezon to Merv
Western reaches of the Silk Road

Grand Trunk Road (between South China and Afganistan)

Grand Trunk Road 1 (Chittagong, Bangladesh)

Grand Trunk Road 2 (Dhaka, Bangladesh)

Grand Trunk Road 3 (Serampore Colony, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)

Grand Trunk Road 4 (Howrah, West Bengal, India)

Grand Trunk Road 5 (Murshidabad, West Bengal, India)

Grand Trunk Road 6 (Patna, Bihar, India)

Grand Trunk Road 7 (Banares, India)

Grand Trunk Road 8 (Ilhabad)

Grand Trunk Road 9 (Delhi, India)

Grand Trunk Road 10 (Lahore, Pakistan)

Grand Trunk Road 11 (Peshawar, Pakistan)

Grand Trunk Road 12 (Kabul, Afganistan)

Grand Trunk Road (Southeast Asia to Afganistan)

Southern Silk Road

Southern Silk Road - The Tea Route (Hunnan to Bengal)

Southern Silk Road- the Tea Route (Yunnan)

Southern Silk Road - The Tea Route (Dhaka, Bengal

Mongol, Perm Folder, and its rivers, Tartarstan

Kazan Region (Perm)
Kazan Region; Repose of the Blessed Maximus of Moscow, Commemorated on November 11 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Juliana the Princess of Vyazma, Commemorated December 21 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin Chernigov, Commemorated on April 16 ; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; St Dionysius the Archbishop of Suzdal, Commemorated on June 26; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27;

Perm, Land of the Zyrian (Komi) People 2 (Kama River Basin)
Land of the Zyrian (Komi) People 2 (Kama River Basin, Perm Region); St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26;

Perm, Land of the Voguls
Voguls; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19;

Vogulani, Voguls, Perm, Land of the Voguls
Voguls; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19;

Tartarstan (Perm)
Tartarstan is a federal subject of Russia (a republic) located in the Volga Federal District. Its capital is the city of Kazan; Tatars; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; SERGIUS, ABBOT OF HOLY TRINITY (25 SEPT 1392) ; Repose of the Blessed Maximus of Moscow, Commemorated on November 11 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 24 ; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia ; St Juliana the Princess of Vyazma, Commemorated December 21 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God œCzestochowa, Commemorated on March 6 ; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21 ; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin Chernigov, Commemorated on April 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; St Dionysius the Archbishop of Suzdal, Commemorated on June 26; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4;

Bashkortostan, south of Perm (between Volga River and Ural Mts)
Bashkortostan, located between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains. Its capital is the city of Ufa; Tatars; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5 ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God œCzestochowa, Commemorated on March 6; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31;

Trans-Siberian RWY 6 - Perm
Trans-Siberian RWY 6 - Perm;

Mongol, Perm, 1241-1552, Kazan Tartars
Kazan Tartars; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25 ; Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated September 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; a and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated September 18 ; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; Repose of the Blessed Maximus of Moscow, Commemorated on November 11 ; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Maximus, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on December 6 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Juliana the Princess of Vyazma, Commemorated December 21 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂœElets-ChernigovÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on February 5; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonye, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on March 5; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂœCzestochowaÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on March 6; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping ÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂœIlyin ChernigovÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on April 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27 ; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6 ; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; St Dionysius the Archbishop of Suzdal, Commemorated on June 26; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Perm Kazan Tartars History Folder

Mongol, Perm, 600-1240, Volga Bulgaria Islamic Tartars Folder, 7th -13th Centuries

Mongol, Perm, 600-1240's, Kazan, Volga Bulgaria, Islamic Kazan Tartars
Perm, Kazan, Volga Bulgaria, 7th Century to 1240's (Islamic Kazan Tartars), Tartarstan, Islamic, Land of the Volga Bulgars) ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5;

Mongol, Perm, 1221, Vladimir-Suzdal forces against Islamic Volga Bulgars, Nizhny Novgorod
Vladimir-Suzdal forces against Islamic Volga Bulgars (1219); Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1241-1552, Kazan Tartar's Folder

Mongol, Perm, 1227-1255, Kazan Tartar, Batu Khan of the Golder Horde
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1227-1255, Batu Khan of the Golder Horde; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Icon of the Mother of God Ã¢Â€ÂœKursk-RootÃ¢Â€ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on November 27;

Mongol, Perm, 1266-1280, Kazan Tartar Khan, Mengu-Timur of the Golder Horde
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1266-1280, Mengu-Timur of the Golder Horde; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Kholm, Commemorated September 8 ; Icon of the Mother of God Ã¢Â€ÂœKursk-RootÃ¢Â€ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on November 27;

Mongol, Perm, 1360-1396, Saint Stephen of Perm
Perm, 1360-1396, Saint Stephen of Perm; Repose of the Venerable Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh, Commemorated on September 25;

Mongol, Perm, 1437-1445, Kazan Tartar Khan, Ulugh Muhammad
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1437-1445, Ulugh Muhammad; St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29;

Mongol, Perm, 1462, Saint Jonah, Bishop of Perm, Converted Great Perm to Christ
Saint Jonah, Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6; Jonah, Bishop of Great Perm, was successor to Saint Pitirim, Bishop of Perm (August 19), who was murdered by the Vogulani in 1455. In the year 1462 Saint Jonah converted the inhabitants of Great Perm to Christ. He journeyed throughout his extensive diocese to spread and consolidate the Christian Faith. The saint reposed on June 6, 1470 and was buried at Ust-Vym at the Annunciation cathedral.

Mongol, Perm, 1467-1479, Tartar Khan, Ibrahim of Kazan
Mongol, Perm, 1467-1479, Tartar Khan, Ibrahim of Kazan; Wars of Ivan III, 1467-1506; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1;

Mongol, Perm, 1521, Invasion of Moscow by Tatars led by Khan Makhmet-Girei
Moscow, 1521, Invasion of Moscow by Tatars led by Khan Makhmet-Girei ; Icon of the Mother of God "Virgin of Tenderness" of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated August 26 ; Finding of the relics of Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonsk, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on November 19; Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonye, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on March 5; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1524-1549, Khan, Safa Giray of Kazan
Perm Khan, 1524-1549, Safa Giray of Kazan ; Hieromartyr Philip the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on January 9 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated on January 24; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1552, Kazan campaign 1552 Tsar Ivan the Terrible
Russo-Kazan Wars; Fall of Kazan 1552; Tsar Ivan the Terrible took the icon of the Appearance of the Mother of God on his Kazan campaign (1552). Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Venerable Abramius the Archimandrite of Rostov, Commemorated on October 29; Hieromartyr Philip the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on January 9 ; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Sergius of Shukhtom, Commemorated on May 19; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1552, Fall of Kazan Tartars 1552, to Russia
Fall of Kazan Tartars 1552; Tsar Ivan the Terrible took the icon of the Appearance of the Mother of God on his Kazan campaign (1552). Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24;

Mongol, Perm, 1552 and on, became Christian and Russian

Mongol, Perm, 1555, Kazan Diocese Established
Mongol, Perm, 1555, Kazan Diocese Established; History[edit] Kazan Diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church was established April 3, 1555, three years after the conquest of the Kazan Khanate. The first ruling bishop was the abbot of the monastery of Tver Selizharovo Guri, who went to Kazan with archimandrites Varsonofy and Germany. The most important events in the life of the Kazan diocese were acquiring in 1579 the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God of Kazan participation in the militia of Minin and Pozharsky with the blessing of Patriarch Hermogenes, a former Metropolitan of Kazan and the glorification of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God. During 1741 the missionaries were able to baptize the entire province of 9159 people, Tatars and Bashkirs were among these, only 143 (see A. Chuloshnikov). Anyway, missionary work in the Kazan region was in time rather weak character and the activities of the Kazan Theological Academy was limited mainly to the deeper study of the linguistic and cultural aspects of life of the peoples of the East. Mongol, Perm, 1555-1563, Archbishop Gurius of Kazan; Fall of Kazan Tartars 1552; Tsar Ivan the Terrible took the icon of the Appearance of the Mother of God on his Kazan campaign (1552). Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Saints Jonah and Nectarius of Kazan, Commemorated on October 4; Uncovering of the relics of Saint Gurias, first Archbishop of Kazan, and Saint Barsanuphius, Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on October 4; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24;

Mongol, Perm, 1555-1563, Archbishop Gurius of Kazan
Mongol, Perm, 1555-1563, Archbishop Gurius of Kazan; Fall of Kazan Tartars 1552; Tsar Ivan the Terrible took the icon of the Appearance of the Mother of God on his Kazan campaign (1552). Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Saints Jonah and Nectarius of Kazan, Commemorated on October 4; Uncovering of the relics of Saint Gurias, first Archbishop of Kazan, and Saint Barsanuphius, Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on October 4; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24;

Mongol, Perm, 1566-1568, Saint, Herman of Kazan and Svyazhsk
Kazan Saint, 1566-1568, St Herman, Herman of Kazan and Svyazhsk; St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on November 6;

Mongol, Perm, 1579, Kazan Icon, discovered by 10 yr old girl's dream
after a fire destroyed Kazan in 1579, the Virgin appeared to a 10-year-old girl, Matrona, revealing the location where the icon lay hidden. The girl told the archbishop about the dream but she was not taken seriously. However, on 8 July 1579, after two repetitions of the dream, the girl and her mother recovered the icon on their own, buried under a destroyed house where it had been hidden to save it from the Tatars Mongol, Perm, 1579, Kazan Icon; Lady of Kazan, also called Mother-of-God of Kazan, was a holy icon of the highest stature within the Russian Orthodox Church, representing the Virgin Mary as the protector and patroness of the city of Kazan, and a palladium of all of Russia, known as the Holy Protectress of Russia. to legend, the icon was originally acquired from Constantinople, lost in 1438, and miraculously recovered in pristine state over 140 years later in 1579. Two major cathedrals, the Kazan Cathedral, Moscow, and the Kazan Cathedral, St. Petersburg, are consecrated to Our Lady of Kazan, and they display copies of the icon, as do numerous churches throughout the land. The original icon in Kazan was stolen, and likely destroyed, in 1904. "Fátima image" is a 16th-century copy of the icon, or possibly the 16th-century original, stolen from St. Petersburg in 1917 and purchased by F. A. Mitchell-Hedges in 1953. It was housed in Fátima, Portugal from 1970 to 1993, then in the study of Pope John Paul II in the Vatican from 1993 to 2004, when it was returned to Kazan, where it is now kept in the Kazan Monastery of the Theotokos. Copies of the image are also venerated in the Catholic Church. days of Our Lady of Kazan are 21 July, and 4 November (which is also the Russian Day of National Unity). 1 History 1.1 Fátima image 2 See also 3 References 4 External links to tradition, the original icon of Our Lady of Kazan was brought to Russia from Constantinople in the 13th century. After the establishment of the Khanate of Kazan (c. 1438) the icon disappeared from the historical record for more than a century. Hermogenes' chronicle, written at the request of Tsar Feodor in 1595, describes the recovery of the icon.[1][unreliable source?] According to this account, after a fire destroyed Kazan in 1579, the Virgin appeared to a 10-year-old girl, Matrona, revealing the location where the icon lay hidden. The girl told the archbishop about the dream but she was not taken seriously. However, on 8 July 1579, after two repetitions of the dream, the girl and her mother recovered the icon on their own, buried under a destroyed house where it had been hidden to save it from the Tatars.[2][1][unreliable source?] Monastery of the Theotokos where the icon was conserved until 1904, and the home of the "Fátima image" since 2004 Other churches were built in honour of the revelation of the Virgin of Kazan, and copies of the image were displayed at the Kazan Cathedral of Moscow (constructed in the early 17th century), at Yaroslavl, and at St. Petersburg. military commanders Dmitry Pozharsky (17th century) and Mikhail Kutuzov (19th century) credited invocation of the Virgin Mary through the icon with helping the country to repel the Polish invasion of 1612, the Swedish invasion of 1709, and Napoleon's invasion of 1812. The Kazan icon achieved immense popularity, and there were nine or ten separate miracle-attributed copies of the icon around Russia.[1][unreliable source?] the night of June 29, 1904, the icon was stolen from the Kazan Convent of the Theotokos [ru] in Kazan where it had been kept for centuries (the building was later blown up by the communist authorities[citation needed]). Thieves apparently coveted the icon's gold frame, which was ornamented with many valuable jewels. Several years later, Russian police apprehended the thieves and recovered the frame. The thieves originally declared that the icon itself had been cut to pieces and burnt, although one of them eventually confessed that it was housed in a monastery in the wilds of Siberia. This one, however, was believed to be a fake, and the Russian police refused to investigate, using the logic that it would be very unlucky to venerate a fake icon as though it were authentic.[3] The Orthodox Church interpreted the disappearance of the icon as a sign of tragedies that would plague Russia after the image of the Holy Protectress of Russia had been lost. Indeed, the Russian peasantry was wont to credit all the miseries of the Revolution of 1905, as well as Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, to the desecration of her image.[3] of Saint Nicolas and the Venerable Gerasimus holding the icon Lady of Kazan in Makaryev Monastery (17th century, photograph by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky) Lady of Kazan (1850s reproduction) Our Lady of Kazan. Mid 19th-century Our Lady of Kazan átima image[edit] section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Our Lady of Kazan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lady of Kazan (Fátima image) Cathedral, Kazan (1561–62) to the site of the icon's recovery, 21 July 2015. the Russian Revolution of 1917, there was speculation that the original icon was in fact preserved in St. Petersburg. Reportedly, an icon of Our Lady of Kazan was used in processions around Leningrad fortifications during the Siege of Leningrad (1941-1944) during World War II.[4] theory proposed that the Bolsheviks had sold the image abroad, although the Russian Orthodox Church did not accept such theories. The history of the stolen icon between 1917 and 1953 is unknown. In 1953 Frederick Mitchell-Hedges purchased an icon from Arthur Hillman. Although the status of the icon as the original Kazan icon remained disputed, Cyril G.E. Bunt concluded "that it is the work of a great icon painter of the 16th century [...] the pigments and the wood of the panel are perfectly preserved as exhaustive X-ray tests have proved, and have mellowed with age", suggesting that while it was a copy of the original icon, it was nevertheless the original icon carried by Pozharski in 1612. It was exhibited at the World Trade Fair in New York in 1964–1965. On 13 September 1965, members of the Blue Army of Our Lady of Fátima spent the night in veneration of the icon in the pavilion in New York. The Blue Army eventually bought the icon from Anna Mitchell-Hedges for US$125,000 in January 1970, and the icon was enshrined in Fátima, Portugal. 1993 the icon from Fátima was given to the Vatican and Pope John Paul II had it installed in his study, where he venerated it for eleven years. In his own words, "it has found a home with me and has accompanied my daily service to the Church with its motherly gaze".[5] John Paul II wished to visit Moscow or Kazan so that he himself could return the icon to the Russian Orthodox Church. However the Moscow Patriarchate was suspicious that the Pope might have other motives, so he presented the icon to the Russian Church unconditionally in August 2004.[6] On August 26, 2004, it was exhibited for veneration on the altar of St. Peter's Basilica and then delivered to Moscow.[7] On the next feast day of the holy icon, July 21, 2005, Patriarch Alexius II and Mintimer Shaymiev, the president of Tatarstan, received it in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kazan Kremlin [ru].[8] icon is now enshrined in the Cathedral of the Elevation of the Holy Cross, part of the Convent of the Theotokos (re-established as a monastery in 2005), on the site where the original icon of Our Lady of Kazan was found, and plans are underway to make the monastery's other buildings into an international pilgrimage centre. The Complicated History of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated July 8/21 and October 22/November 4, Sergei Milov; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8; Icon œNot Made by Handsfrom Lydda, Commemorated on March 12;

Mongol, Perm, Kama River Folder

Perm, Great Perm Region (Kama River Basin including Chusovaya, Vishera, and Kolva Rivers)
Perm Krai, 29,000 Rivers in Great Perm Region (Perm Krai) ; Icon of the Mother of God of Seven Lakes, Commemorated on July 28; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; St Ignatius, Wonderworker and Bishop of Smolensk, Commemorated January 29 ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2;

Kama River

Kama River Source (Udmurtia)
Udmurtia;

Kama River 1

Kama River 2

Veslyana River

Chyornaya River

Malaya Sol River

Malaya, Perm (Lesser Perm, Malya Sol River, Kama River 2)
Malaya, Perm ; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26 ;

Kama River 3

Mongol, Perm, Kama River 4, Vishera and Kolva Rivers Folder

Ural Mountains, Perm, Mongol Lands
Ural Mountains; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated September 12 ; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; Righteous Simeon the Wonderworker of Verkhoturye;

Vishera River

Vishera River Source (North Ural)

Vishera River 1

Vishera River 2

Vishera River 3

Vishera River 5 (Perm, Kolva River Mouth)

Vishera River (Perm Krai) Mouth (Kama River 4)

Kolva River

Perm or Great Perm City (Kolva River Mouth, Vishera River 5)
Great Perm; Cherdyn; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8;

Perm, Land of the Perm-Komi-Zyrians (Kolva Vishera Rivers, Greater Perm)
Komi-Zyrians; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19;

Kolva River Source (North Ural)

Kolva River Mouth (Greater Perm Region, Vishera River 5)

Visherka River

Chusovskoye Lake, Source of the Visherka River
Chusovskoye Lake ;

Visherka River Mouth (Kolva River 2)

Vishersk (Visherka River, Perm)
Vishersk (Visherka River); Venerable Ephraim the Abbot of Perekop the Wonderworker of Novgorod, Commemorated on September 26; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Vishera, Novgorod, Commemorated on October 1;

Vishero, Perm (Kama River 4, Vishera River)
Vishero; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26;

Kama River 4 (Vishera River Mouth)

Chusovaya River Folder

Chusovaya River

Chusovaya River Source (Eastern Slopes of Ural Mountains)

Chusovaya River 1

Chusovaya River Mouth (Kama Reservoir, Kama River 4)

Kama River 5 (Perm, Sylva River, Iren River)

Sylva River

Sylva River Source (along the border)

Sylva River Mouth (Kama River 6, Perm)

Ordinsky District, Perm (Iren River Valley)
Ordinsky District; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Ordinsk, Perm (Iren River Valley)
Ordinsk; Ordinsky District; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Iren River

Iren River Source

Iren River Mouth (Sylva River)

Kama River 6 (Perm, Mulyanka River)

Perm, Ostyak People near Perm
Perm, Ostyak People near Perm ; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8;

Ostyak People near Perm
Perm, Ostyak People near Perm ; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8;

Perm, Voguli (Mansi) People near Perm
Perm, Voguli (Mansi) People near Perm; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8;

Voguli (Mansi) People near Perm
Perm, Voguli (Mansi) People near Perm; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8;

Perm (Mulyanka and Sylva Rivers, Kama River 6)
Perm (Kama River 6); Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Seven Lakes, Commemorated on July 28; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated September 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; a and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated September 18 ; First Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on September 25 ; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye; St Tarasius of Glushetsa, Commemorated October 12 ; St Demetrius of Tsilibinsk, Commemorated on October 26 ; St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on December 5 ; St Maximus, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on December 6 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Hieromartyr Philip the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on January 9 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, January 29 ; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated January 29 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Dalmatia, Commemorated on February 15; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; St Arsenius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on March 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God œCzestochowa, Commemorated on March 6; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Surety of sinners of Odrino, Orlov, Commemorated on March 7; Icon œNot Made by Hands from Lydda, Commemorated on March 12; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16 ; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin Chernigov, Commemorated on April 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; œMyrrh-Bearing Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on May 12; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Venerable Sergius of Shukhtom, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Surety of sinners, Commemorated on May 29; New Martyr Archbishop Andronicus of Perm, Commemorated on June 4; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6 ; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; Second Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 23 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Seven Lakes, Commemorated on June 26; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8;

Mulyanka River

Mulyanka River 1 (Merkushinsk)

Merkushinsk, Perm (Mulyanka River 1)
Village of Merkushinsk (Mulyanka) not far from Verkhoturye on the outskirts of Perm on the Mulyanka River; Righteous Simeon the Wonderworker of Verkhoturye, Commemorated December 17 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mulyanka River Mouth (Kama River 6)

Motoviliha city district of Perm
Motoviliha; New Martyr Archbishop Andronicus of Perm, Commemorated on June 4;

Naberezhnye Chelny, Perm (Kama River 7)
Naberezhnye Chelny ; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ;

Kama River 8 (Vyatka River)

Mongol, Perm, Kama River 8, Vyatka River Folder

Vyatka River

Vyatka River Source (northern Udmurtia)

Vyatka River 1 (Kirov and Vyatka)

Vyatka, Perm (Kirov, Kama River 8, Vyatka River 1)
Vyatka (Kirov); Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8 ; Blessed Procopius of Vyatka the Fool-For-Christ, Commemorated December 21 ;

Khlynov, Perm (Vyatka, Kama River 8, Vyatka River 1)
Khlynov, Perm (Vyatka, Vyatka River 1) ; Blessed Procopius of Vyatka the Fool-For-Christ, Commemorated December 21 ;

Vyatka River 2 (Orlov)

Orlov, Perm (Vyatka River 2)
Orlov; Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Surety of sinners" of Odrino, Orlov, Commemorated on March 7 ; Icon of the Mother of God Surety of Sinners is known by this name because of the inscription on the icon: I am the Surety of sinners for My Son Who has entrusted Me to hear them, and those who bring Me the joy of hearing them will receive eternal joy through Me. The Mother of God embraces Her Child, Who holds Her right hand with both His hands so that Her thumb is in His right hand, and Her small finger in His left hand. This is the gesture of one who gives surety for another. we do not know when or by whom the icon was originally painted, it is believed that the basis of the icon is to be found in the Akathist to the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos: Rejoice, You Who offer Your hands in surety for us to God. icon was first glorified by miracles at the Saint Nicholas Odrino men’s monastery of the former Orlov gubernia in the mid-nineteenth century (the Assuage My Sorrows Icon commemorated on October 9 is also from this monastery). The Surety of Sinners icon of the Mother of God was in an old chapel beyond the monastery gates, and stood between two other ancient icons. Because it was so faded and covered with dust, it was impossible to read the inscription. 1843 it was revealed to many of the people in dreams that the icon was endowed with miraculous power. They solemnly brought the icon into the church. Believers began to flock to it to pray for the healing of their sorrows and sicknesses. The first to receive healing was a crippled child, whose mother prayed fervently before the icon in 1844. The icon was glorified during a cholera epidemic, when many people fell deathly ill, and were restored to health after praying before the icon. large stone church with three altars was built at the monastery in honor of the wonderworking icon. Surety of Sinners Icon is also commemorated on May 29 and on Thursday of the week of All Saints. Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Surety of sinners", Commemorated on May 29;

Vyatka River 3

Vyatka River 4

Vyatka River Mouth (Kama River 8)

Kama River Mouth (Kazan, Volga River 10)

Mongol, Perm, Kazanka River Folder, Kazan

Kazanka River

Kazanka River Source (Bimeri)

Kazanka River 1

Kazanka River 2 (Overview)

Kazanka River 3

Kazanka River Mouth (Kazan, Volga River 10)

Kazan, Perm (Kazanka and Kama Rivers, Volga River 10)
Kazan ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia; Bulgars and Tartars of Kazan; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated July 8 ; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God ofSeven Lakes, Commemorated July 28 ; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30 ; Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated September 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; a and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated September 18 ; First Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on September 25 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Gurias the First Archbishop of Kazan; St Jonah of Kazan, Commemorated October 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God of the Seven Lakes, Commemorated October 13 ; Commemoration of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance from the Poles, Commemorated on October 22 ; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27; St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on November 6 ; St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on December 5 ; St Maximus, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on December 6 ; Hieromartyr Philip the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on January 9 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Icon "œNot Made by Hands" from Lydda, Commemorated on March 12; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16 ; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; ; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on May 12; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Sergius of Shukhtom, Commemorated on May 19; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20; Second Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 23 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Seven Lakes, Commemorated on June 26; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8;

Seven Lakes Monastery of the Mother of God, Kazan, Perm,1615
The Seven Lakes Hermitage of the Mother of God, 420099 Republic of Tatarstan; Seven Lakes Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 28;

Kazan Military District (the Eastern Volga Region)
Kazan Military District; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1;

Kazan Transfiguration Monastery, 1565 approx.
Kazan Transfiguration Monastery, 1553; Saints Jonah and Nectarius of Kazan, Commemorated on October 4; Uncovering of the relics of Saint Gurias, first Archbishop of Kazan, and Saint Barsanuphius, Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on October 4; St. Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Kazan Theological Academy, 1718
Kazan Theological Academy; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16;

Kazan diocese
Kazan diocese; St Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated October 21 ;

St Nicholas Church, Privolzhskaya, 32, Kazan 420078 Russia
St Nicholas Church, Privolzhskaya, 32, Kazan 420078 Russia; Hieromartyr Hermogenes, Patriarch of Moscow, Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17;

Mongol, Perm, Volga River Folder

Tsilibinsk, Perm (Tsilninsky District, Volga River 11, Ulyanovsk)
Tsilibinsk, Perm (Tsilninsky District) ; St Demetrius of Tsilibinsk, Commemorated on October 26 ;

Tetyakov, Perm (Volga River 11)
Tetyushi; In 1277, the allied forces of the Russian princes, in union with the Tatar forces, took part in a campaign in the Osetian land and in the taking of "its famed city Tetyakov."; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19 ;

Mongol, Crimea Folder

Crimea, Invasion Gateway to Russia both by Varangian Trade R and M Trail, always taken first
Crimea; Crimean Tartars; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10 ; Intercession of the œDon Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19; St Callinicus the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on August 23; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Apostle Andrew, the Holy and All-Praised First-Called, Commemorated November 30 ; St Stephen the Confessor the Archbishop of Surozha in the Crimea, Commemorated on December 15 ; Apostle Clement of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5 ; St Joachim, First Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated February 10 ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7 ; Hieromartyr Capiton of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7 ; Hieromartyr Eugene of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7 ; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Bathusius in the Crimea, Commemorated on March 26; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; St Martin the Confessor the Pope of Rome, Commemorated on April 14; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Ephraim the Abbot of Perekop, Novgorod, Commemorated on May 16; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Mongol, Crimea History Folder

Mongol, Crimea, 375-581, 4th-6th Century, Crimean Goths Folder

Mongol, Crimean Goths, 4th to 16th Centuries, Cembalo
Land of the Crimean Goths - Cembalo; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Mongol, Crimean Goths, 4th to 16th Centuries
Crimean Goths; Martyr Bathusius in the Crimea, Commemorated on March 26 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Mongol, Crimea, 375-383, Crimean Gothic King, Jungerich (Athanaric)
Crimean Goths; Gothic King Jungerich (Athanaric) (375-383); Martyr Bathusius in the Crimea, Commemorated on March 26 ;

Crimean, Goth, 741-791, Saint, John of Gothia
Crimean, Goth, 741-791, Saint, John of Gothia; St. John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Mongol, Crimea, 750-969, Khzaria Border, Northern Half of Crimea
Crimea, Khzaria Border, 750-969, Northern Half of Crimea; St. John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26

Mongol, Crimea, 581-980, Byzantine Era

Mongol, Crimea, 650-900, Khazar Eastern Crimea

Mongol, Crimea, Khazar Eastern Crimea, 650-900
Khazar Eastern Crimea, 650-900; The Khazars created what for its duration was the most powerful polity to emerge from the break-up of the Western Turkic Khaganate.[12] Astride a major artery of commerce between Eastern Europe and Southwestern Asia, Khazaria became one of the foremost trading empires of the medieval world, commanding the western marches of the Silk Road and playing a key commercial role as a crossroad between China, the Middle East and Kievan Rus'.[13][14] For some three centuries (c. 650-“965) the Khazars dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus.[15]; Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad Caliphate, after serving as Byzantium's proxy against the Sasanian Persian empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity.[16] Between 965 and 969, the Kievan Rus' ruler Sviatoslav I of Kiev conquered the capital Atil and destroyed the Khazar state.

Mongol, Crimea, 980-1199, 10th -12th Century, Byzantine Korsun falls to Russia and Vladimir for Anna

Russia, Crimea, 980, Byzantine Korsun falls to Russia and Vladimir the Great for the hand of Anna
Korsun, 980, Byzantine Cherson falls to Russia and Vladimir the Great for the hand of Anna; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15;

Mongol, Crimea, 1200-1408, 13th - 14th Century, Land of the Crimean Tartars

Mongol, Crimea, 1200 - 1699, Crimea and Uzbekistan - Land of the Crimean Tatars - 13th - 17th Century
Crimean Tatars; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Mongol, Crimea, 1220's-1699, Crimean Tatars, 13th to 17th Centuries
Crimean Tatars; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God of Kiev-Bratsk, Commemorated on June 2;

Mongol, Crimea, 1223-1255, Mongol Khan Batu, Founder Golden Horde, Conquered Crimea first
Scythia, 1223-1255, Mongol Khan Batu, Founder Golden Horde; Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30; Icon of the Mother of God œof the Sign, the œKursk-Root, Commemorated on September 8; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Crimea, 1238, Fall of Vladimir to the Tartar Army, Batu Khan, Battle of Sit (Sita) River
Russia, Vladimir, 1238, Fall of Vladimir to the Tartar Army, Battle of Sit River; Venerable Euphrosyne of Suzdal, Commemorated on September 18; Icon of the Mother of God Elets-Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1251-1259, Golden Horde Khan, Mongke Khan, Christian, Touli's son
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1251-1259, Mongke Khan; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Crimea, 1255-1256, Mongol Khan Sartaq, Christian, Batu's son
Scythia, 1255-1256, Mongol Khan Sartaq, Christian; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old, Christian
Scythia, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1257-1266, Batu's brother Berke (Bergai) Khan, Blue Horde and White Horde, Established Islam
Scythia, 1257-1266, Berke Khan ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1259-1294, Golden Horde Khan, Kublai Khan, Yuan Dynasty China
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Crimea, 1355-1380, Golden Horde Crimean Governor, Mamai, lost at Kulikovo
Mongol Crimea, 1355-1380, Golden Horde Crimean Governor, Mamai; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Zvenigorod the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on December 3;

Mongol, Crimea, 1380-1419, Golden Horde Crimean Governor, Edigu, White H, muslim, for tribute a Rus
Mongol, Crimea, 1380-1419, Golden Horde Crimean Governor, Edigu; Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15;

Mongol, Crimea, 1408-1774, Crimean Khanate Folder, Muslim White Horde, Slave Traders

Mongol, Crimea, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Muslim White Horde
Scythia, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Destroying Rostov, New Novgorod, and Gorodets ; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of Radonezh the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius, Commemorated on November 17 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2;

Mongol, Crimea, 1437-1445, Kazan Tartar Khan, Ulugh Muhammad
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1437-1445, Ulugh Muhammad; St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29;

Mongol, Crimea, 1445-1466, Kazan Tartar Khan, Maxmud of Kazan
Mongol, Scythia, 1445-1466, Kazan Tartar Khan, Maxmud of Kazan; Repose of Saint Jonah, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31;

Mongol, Crimea, 1441-1774, Crimean-Nogali Tartar Slave Raids
Mongol, Crimea, 1441-1774, Crimean-Nogali Tartar Slave Raids Tatars descended upon Chernigov in 1662 and destroyed it - Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin Chernigov, Commemorated on April 16 ; Cossack Hetmanate ; Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands 1441-1774 ; Martyr Macarius the Archimandrite of Kanev and Pereyaslavl, Commemorated on September 7 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Theodosius the Archbishop of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 9 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1441-1466, Crimean Khan, Haca I Giray
Mongol, Crimea, 1441-1466, Crimean Khan, Haca I Giray; St. Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15;

Mongol, Crimea, 1451, Miraculous deliverance of Moscow by Robe of Theotokos
Russia, Moscow, 1451, Miraculous deliverance of Moscow by Robe of Theotokos; The holy Robe of the Mother of God, which previously saved Constantinople, later saved Moscow from hostilities. Tatars of the Horde of the princeling Mazovshi approached the walls of Moscow in the summer of 1451. Saint Jonah, Metropolitan of Moscow, with constant prayer and church services, encouraged the defenders of the capital. On the night of July 2, the Chronicle relates, great confusion occurred within the Tatar camp. The enemy abandoned their plundered goods and speedily departed in disarray. Moscow Prince, 1440-1505, Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, the Great; St Leucius of Volokolamsk, Commemorated on August 17 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19 ; Venerable Prince Andrew, in Monasticism Joasaph, of Kubensk, Vologda, Commemorated on September 10 ; Venerable Cassian of Uglich, Commemorated on October 2; Venerable Dionysius the Recluse of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on October 3; Venerable Dositheus the Abbot of Verkneostrov, Pskov, Commemorated on October 8; Icon of the Mother of God of Yakhrom, Commemorated on October 14; Venerable Joseph the Igumen and Wonderworker of Volokolamsk, Commemorated on October 18; St Theophilus of the Kiev Caves and Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated on October 26; St Philip of Rabanga, Commemorated on November 15; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Zvenigorod the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on December 3; St Pachomius of Keno Lake, Commemorated on January 7; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8; St Paisius of Uglich, Commemorated on January 8; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8 ; Venerable Michael the Fool-for-Christ of the Klops Monastery, Novgorod, Commemorated on January 11; St Anthony of Krasny Kholm, Commemorated on January 17 ; Venerable Athanasius the Abbot of Syandemsk, Vologda, Commemorated on January 18; Venerable Macarius the Roman of Novgorod, Commemorated on January 19 ; Venerable Euthymius of Syanzhemsk, Vologda, Commemorated on January 20; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29; St Tryphon, Bishop of Rostov, Commemorated on February 1; Right-Believing Prince Roman of Uglich, Commemorated on February 3; St Bassian of Uglich, Commemorated on February 12; Venerable Cosmas of Yakhrom, Commemorated on February 18; Right-believing Prince Daniel of Moscow, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk, and Yaroslav, and His Children, Commemorated on March 5; St Euthymius the Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated on March 11; Venerable Macarius the Abbot and Wonderworker of Kalyazin, Commemorated on March 17 ; St Innocent of Komel the Disciple of St Nilus of Sora, Vologda, Commemorated on March 19 ; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Zosimas the Abbot of Vorbozomsk, Commemorated on April 4; Venerable Daniel the Abbot of Pereyaslavl-Zalesski, Commemorated on April 7; Icon of the Mother of God of Vilnius, Commemorated on April 14; Venerable Zosimas the Abbot of Solovki, Commemorated on April 17; Venerable Alexander the Abbot of Oshevensk, Commemorated on April 20; Venerable Sylvester the Abbot of Obnora, Commemorated on April 25; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14; Venerable Serapion of Pskov, Commemorated on May 15; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Venerable Tikhon of Kaluga Or Medin, Commemorated on June 16;

Mongol, Crimea, 1468-1515, Crimean Khan, Mengli I Giray
Crimean Khan, 1468-1515, Mengli I Giray; Crimean Khanate, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr 1500 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Mongol, Crimea, 1478-1774 , Crimean Khanate, Sunni Muslim
Crimean Khanate, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr 1500 ; Mengli I Giray; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Kiev-Bratsk, Commemorated on June 2;

Mongol, Crimea, 1500, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr
Crimean Khanate, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr 1500 ; Mengli I Giray; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Mongol, Crimea,1512, Crimean Tartar War at Kaluga
Crimean Tartar War at Kaluga 1512; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10;

Mongol, Crimea, 1515-1523, Crimean Khan, Mehmed I Giray, control steppe nomads, b at Kazan, killed before
Mongol, Crimea, 1515-1523, Crimean Khan, Mehmed I Giray; I Giray (1465-1523, reigned 1515-1523) was khan of the Crimean Khanate. was preceded by his father Menli I Giray (r. 1478-1515) and followed by his son Gazi I Giray (1523-1524). gained control of the steppe nomads, put his brother on the throne of Kazan and was killed after taking Astrakhan. he not been killed he might have joined the three khanates with the Nogais and re-created something like the Golden Horde.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] Crimean Khan, 1468-1515, Mengli I Giray; Crimean Khanate, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr 1500 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Mongol, Crimea, 1521, Invasion of Moscow by Tatars led by Khan Makhmet-Girei
Moscow, 1521, Invasion of Moscow by Tatars led by Khan Makhmet-Girei ; Icon of the Mother of God "Virgin of Tenderness" of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated August 26 ; Finding of the relics of Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonsk, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on November 19; Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonye, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on March 5; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1551-1577, Khan, Devlet I Giray
Mongol, Crimea, 1551-1577, Khan, Devlet I Giray ; Intercession of the œDon Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1574-1595, Khan, Murad III Giray
Mongol, Crimea, 1574-1595, Khan, Murad III Giray; Intercession of the œDon Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1641-1666, Crimean Khan, Mehmed IV Giray
Crimean Khan, 1641-1666, Mehmed IV Giray; Uncovering of the relics of St Theodosius the Archbishop of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 9 ; Martyr Macarius the Archimandrite of Kanev and Pereyaslavl, Commemorated on September 7;

Mongol, Crimea, 1662, Crimean-Nogali Tatars descended upon Chernigov in 1662
Tatars descended upon Chernigov in 1662 and destroyed it - Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin Chernigov, Commemorated on April 16 ; Cossack Hetmanate ; Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands 1441-1774 ; Martyr Macarius the Archimandrite of Kanev and Pereyaslavl, Commemorated on September 7 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Theodosius the Archbishop of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 9 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1666-1671, Crimean Khan, Adil Giray
Crimean Khan, 1666-1671, Adil Giray ; Martyr Macarius the Archimandrite of Kanev and Pereyaslavl, Commemorated on September 7;

Mongol, Crimea, 1671-1704, Crimean Khan, Selim I Giray
Mongol, Crimea, 1671-1704, Crimean Khan, Selim I Giray; Commemoration of the Miraculous Appearance of the Mother of God at Pochaev, which saved the Monastery from the assault of the Tatars and Turks, Commemorated on July 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1774-1783, Independent Crimea Folder

Crimea, 1774-1776, Independent Crimea
Crimea, 1774-1776, Independent Crimea; Crimea, 1783, Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5;

Mongol, Crimea, 1783-1917, Crimea in the Russian Empire Folder

Mongol, Crimea, 1783, Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire
Crimea, 1783, Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5;

Mongol, Crimear, 1853-1856, Crimean War, East v Ottomans and West
Crimean War (1853-1856); FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE, NURSE, RENEWER OF SOCIETY (12 AUGUST 1910); Icon of the Mother of God of Gerbovets, Commemorated on October 1 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29;

Cherson, Mongol Crimea
Cherson, Crimea; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; St Callinicus the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on August 23; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Venerable Theodore the Confessor the Abbot of the Studion, Commemorated on November 11 ; Hieromartyr Clement the Pope of Rome, Commemorated November 25 ; Apostle Clement of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Capiton of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Eugene of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; St Martin the Confessor the Pope of Rome, Commemorated on April 14; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Korsun, Mongol Crimea
Cherson, Crimea; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; St Callinicus the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on August 23; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Venerable Theodore the Confessor the Abbot of the Studion, Commemorated on November 11 ; Hieromartyr Clement the Pope of Rome, Commemorated November 25 ; Apostle Clement of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Capiton of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Eugene of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; St Martin the Confessor the Pope of Rome, Commemorated on April 14; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Azov Lands (Sea of Azov)
Sea of Azov; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ;

Alma River Source

Alma River 1

Alma River Mouth (Black Sea)

Alma River

Perekop Isthmus, Crimea (meaning to dig through)
Perekop Isthmus; between Crimea and Ukraine; Venerable Ephraim the Abbot of Perekop the Wonderworker of Novgorod, Commemorated on September 26; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Ephraim the Abbot of Perekop, Novgorod, Commemorated on May 16 ;

Tmutarakan, Crimea
Tmutarakan peninsula (on the eastern banks of the Kerchensk straits); Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23;

Taman Peninsula, Crimea
Taman Peninsula; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23;

Surozh, Crimea, Mongol Lands
Sudak (Surozha, Surrentium), Crimea;; Icon of the Mother of God of Novgorod; St Stephen the Confessor the Archbishop of Surozha in the Crimea, Commemorated on December 15 ;

Sudak (Surozha, Surrentium), Mongol Crimea
Sudak (Surozha, Surrentium), Crimea; St Stephen the Confessor the Archbishop of Surozha in the Crimea, Commemorated on December 15 ;

Taurida (Taurica, the Crimean Penninsula)
Taurida; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15;

Akritian, Cherson, Crimea
Akritian (Anti Moslem Frontier) Cherson; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ;

Korsun, Crimea, Mongol Lands
Korsun, Crimea ; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Icon of the Mother of God of Korsun, Commemorated on October 9; St Joachim, First Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated February 10 ; Korsun, , the Greek name for Cherson; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11 and April 6 ; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Cyril, Commemorated on May 11 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Mount Ayu-Dag, Crimea
Mount Ayu-Dag; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Alushta, Crimea
Alushta, Crimea; Martyrs Inna, Pinna, and Rimma, disciples of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated on January 20; Holy Martyrs Inna, Pinna and Rimma were Slavs from northern Scythia (modern Bulgaria), and they were disciples of the holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called. They preached the Gospel of Christ and they baptized many barbarians who converted to the true Faith. They were seized by the local chieftain, but they would not deny Christ, nor would they offer sacrifice to idols. was wintertime, and the rivers were so frozen that not only people, but also horses with carts could travel on the ice. The chieftain had the saints tied to logs on the ice, and gradually lowered them into the freezing water. When the ice reached their necks, they surrendered their blessed souls to the Lord. Martyrs Inna, Pinna, and Rimma, disciples of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Khzaria Folder, Commands Western Silk Road, North Black Sea and Scythia

Mongol, Khazaria, Scythia Folder

Mongol, Khzaria, Scythia, Don River Folder (to Sea of Azov, Crimea, Black Sea)

Mongol, Khzaria, Scythia, Lesser Scythia Folder (Dacia Pontica)

Mongol, Khzaria, Scythia, Volga River Folder

Mongol, Khzaria, Scythia, Ural River Folder

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region, Danube River Folder

Danube Mouth (Black Sea)
Apostle Andrew, the Holy and All-Praised First-Called;

Danube River

Danube River Trade Route from Germany's Black Forest to the Black Sea

Black Forest
Black Forest;

Danube Source (Germany's Black Forest)

Danube River 1 (near Lake Constance, and Bingen in Bavaria)

Danube River 2 (Ulm, Germany)

Danube River 3 (Munich (Isar) and Inn Rivers)

Danube River 4 (Linz, Austria)

Danube River 5 (Vienna, Amber Road 5)

Danube River 6 (Slovakian Hungarian border)

Danube Regions
Danube regions; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24;

Danube River 7 (Budapest, Hungary)

Danube River 8 (Srem Region)

Danube River 9 (Belgrade, Serbia)

Danube River 10 (Overview 2)

Danube River 11

Danube River 12 (Iskar River)

Danube River 13 (Oltenia)

Danube River 14 (Bucharest)

Danube River 15 (Overview 3)

Danube River 16 (Galats, Siret River Mouth)

Danube River 17

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region, Bosporan Kingdom Folder, in Thaurica (Crimea), Roman Empire

Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD
Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD; Bosporan Kingdom of the Roman Empire; Hieromartyrs of Cherson, 303-313 Diocletian Persecution; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7;

Hieromartyrs of Cherson, 303-313 Diocletian Persecution
Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD; Bosporan Kingdom of the Roman Empire; Hieromartyrs of Cherson, 303-313 Diocletian Persecution; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7;

Cherson, Crimea, Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD
Cherson, Crimea; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; St Callinicus the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on August 23; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Venerable Theodore the Confessor the Abbot of the Studion, Commemorated on November 11 ; Hieromartyr Clement the Pope of Rome, Commemorated November 25 ; Apostle Clement of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Capiton of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Eugene of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; St Martin the Confessor the Pope of Rome, Commemorated on April 14; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Crimea, Khzaria Border, 750-969, Northern Half of Crimea
Crimea, Khzaria Border, 750-969, Northern Half of Crimea; St. John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region, Kuban River Folder

Kuban River

Kuban River Source (Mount Elbrus)
Mount Elbrus;

Kuban River 1 (Karachayevsk)
Karachayevsk;

Kuban River 2 (Cherkessk)
Cherkessk;

Kuban River 3 (Nevinnomyssk)
Nevinnomyssk;

Kuban River 4 (Armavir, Russia)
Armavir, Russia;

Kuban River 5 (Ust-Labinsk)
Ust-Labinsk;

Kuban River 6 (Temryuk)
Temryuk;

Kuban River Mouth

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region, Northwestern Georgia Folder, Abkhazeti

Colchis Region, Northwestern Georgia
Colchis Region; Apostle Matthias of the Seventy, Commemorated on August 9 ;

Abkhazeti Region (Northwest Georgia, Southwest Caucasus Mts)
Abkhazeti Region, A disputed territory on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of the Caucasus ; St Gregory of Chandzoe in Georgia, Commemorated on October 5; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27 ; Martyr Abo the Perfumer, of Tibilisi, Georgia, Commemorated January 8 ; St Ephraim the Lesser, Commemorated January 18 ; St Gabriel, Bishop of Imereti, Commemorated January 25 ; St Ephraim the Great of Atsquri, Commemorated on April 15; Martyred Fathers and Mothers of Atchara, Commemorated on May 29;

Sochi, Russia (Northwestern Georgia, Alania)
Sochi; New Martyr John the New of Sochi, who suffered at Belgrade, Commemorated on June 2;

Alania, Land of the Bagrationi Dynasty, North Ossetia
Alania, Land of the Bagrationi Dynasty, North Ossetia; Georgia, 1187-1207, David Soslan Bagrationi, King Consort to Tamar; Holy Queen Tamara, Commemorated on May 8;

Pityus in Abkhazia, Northwest Georgia on the Black Sea
Pityus in Abkhazia on the Black Sea ; St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople, Commemorated November 13 ; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24 ;

Pitindeia, Northwest Georgia (Pitsunda)
Pitindeia (Pitsunda); Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24;

New Athos monastery, Abkhazeti, Georgia, 1875
New Athos Simono-Kananitsk monastery in the Caucasus; Icon of the Mother of God the "Deliveress", Commemorated October 17 ;

Simono-Kananitsk monastery, New Athos, in the Caucasus, 1875
New Athos Simono-Kananitsk monastery in the Caucasus; Icon of the Mother of God the "Deliveress", Commemorated October 17 ;

Khobi River

Khobi River Source

Schemarum Fortress, Tsageri, Khzaria, North Black Sea, Scythia (Khobi River 1)
Schemarum Fortress, Tsageri (in lower Svaneti); Tsageri (in lower Svaneti); St Jacob the Elder, and disciple of St Anthony of Chkondidi, Commemorated on October 13 ; St. Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on January 21; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on January 21;

Khobi, Western Georgia
Khobi, Western Georgia ; Venerable Hieromonk Alexei of Teklati, Commemorated on January 18 ;

Lazika, Northwest Georgia (planned city, Black Sea)
Lazika (planned city, Black Sea); Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13;

Enguri River (Inguri)

Egrisi (now Samegrelo Province)
Egrisi (now Samegrelo Province); St Jacob the Elder, and disciple of St Anthony of Chkondidi, Commemorated October 13 ;

Samegrelo Province, Northwestern Georgia
Samegrelo Province; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27; Venerable Hieromonk Alexei of Teklati; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16

Mingrelia (Samegrelo)
Mingrelia (Samegrelo); Georgia, 1621-1682, Queen Mariam Dadiani; Martyr Evdemoz the Catholicos of Georgia, Commemorated on October 4;

Ilori Theological School in Ochamchire, Northwestern Georgia
Ilori Theological School in Ochamchire; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27 ;

Bedia Cathedral, 999
Bedia Cathedral, 999; Georgia, 975-1014, Georgia King, Bagrat III, Bedia Cathedral ; Bedia Cathedral; St Hilarion of Tvali, Commemorated on July 24; St Melchizedek I, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated October 1 ; Venerable George the Scribe, of Khakhuli, Commemorated on December 19; Venerable Macarius the Faster, Abbot of the Khakhuli Monastery, Commemorated on December 21; Venerable Sabiana, Abbess of the Samtskhe Monastery, Commemorated on December 31; Martyr Luke of Jerusalem, the Georgian, Commemorated on February 12; St Prochorus of Georgia, Commemorated on February 12; St John (Chrysostom) IV, the Catholicos of Georgia, Commemorated on March 3; St John of Khakhuli the Oqropiri, also called Chrysostom, Commemorated on March 10; St Basil of Georgia, the son of King Bagrat III, Commemorated on May 27 ;

Enguri River Source (along the border, Caucasus Mountains)

Enguri River (Inguri) Mouth (Black Sea)

River Atcharistsqah

Egrisi, Northwestern Georgia
Egrisi; St Jacob the Elder, and disciple of St Anthony of Chkondidi, Commemorated October 13 ; St Vakhtang Gorgasali, King of Georgia, Commemorated November 30;

Tskhumi, Northwestern Georgia
Tskhumi, Northwestern Georgia Martyr David the Prince of Georgia, Commemorated October 2 ;

Sokhumi, Northwestern Georgia
Sokhumi; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated October 27 ; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27;

Bridge of Queen Tamar, Northwest Georgia
Bridge of Queen Tamar; Martyred Fathers and Mothers of Atchara, Commemorated on May 29;

River Atcharistsqali 1
River Atcharistsqali; Martyred Fathers and Mothers of Atchara, Commemorated on May 29;

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region - Khazars, Commanded Western Silk Road

North Black Sea Region, 650-1048, Khazars, Commanded Western Silk Road
Scythia, 650-1048, Khazars Scythia, Turks of Atil, 750-969, Khazars; Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Mongol, Persia Folder, Mongolian Ilkhanate Empire

Mongol, Persia, 1256-1353, History Folder, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Empire

Mongol, Persia, 1256-1353, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Empire, 1256-1353
Persia, 1256-1353, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Empire, 1256-1353; St Demetrius the Devoted, King of Georgia, Commemorated on March 16;

Mongol, Persia, 1265-1282, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Abaqa Khan
Persia, 1265-1282, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Abaqa Khan ; St Demetrius the Devoted, King of Georgia, Commemorated on March 16; St Pimen of Salosi the Enlightener of Dagestan and the North Caucasus People, Commemorated on March 16;

Mongol, Persia, 1282-1284, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Tekuder
Persia, 1282-1284, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Tekuder; St Demetrius the Devoted, King of Georgia, Commemorated on March 16; St Pimen of Salosi the Enlightener of Dagestan and the North Caucasus People, Commemorated on March 16;

Mongol, Persia, 1284-1291, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Arghun
Persia, 1284-1291, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Arghun; St Demetrius the Devoted, King of Georgia, Commemorated on March 16; St Pimen of Salosi the Enlightener of Dagestan and the North Caucasus People, Commemorated on March 16;

Mongol, Turkmenistan Folder, Central Asia, Ochus and Oxus Rivers

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia (between Ochus and Oxus Rivers)
Turks; Turkmenistan; In 1227 Sultan Jalal al-Din of Khwarazm and his army of Turkmen attacked Georgia ; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18; Hieromartyr Gregory the Bishop of Greater Armenia, Equal of the Apostles and Enlightener of Armenia, Commemorated September 30 ; 100,000 Martyrs of Tbilisi by the Mongols, Commemorated on October 31 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Damascus, Commemorated on December 4 ; New-martyr John of Thasos, Commemorated December 20 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Venerable Luke of Hellas, Commemorated on February 7; Mongols; Martyr Avakum the Deacon of Serbia; Holy Queen Tamara, Commemorated on May 8; St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17; Greatmartyr George the New at Sofia, Bulgaria, Commemorated on May 26;

Silk Road Folder (to China to Turkey)

Mongol, Turkmenistan, History Folder

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 750-1055, Oghuz Turks Folder, Founders of Ottoman Empire, Sunni and Shia

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 750-1055, Oghuz Turks, Founders of the Ottoman Empire
Turkmenistan, Oghuz Turks, 750-1055, Founders of the Ottoman Empire; Venerable Luke of Hellas, Commemorated on February 7;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1077-1231, Khwarazm Dynasty Folder, Turks, Attacked Georgia, Sunni

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1227, Central Asia, Sultan Jalal al-Din attacked Georgia
Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1227, Sultan Jalal al-Din attacked Georgia; Turks; Turkmenistan; In 1227 Sultan Jalal al-Din of Khwarazm and his army of Turkmen attacked Georgia ; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1500-1785, Khanate of Bukhara Folder, Persian, Sunni, refined

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1500-1785, Central Asia, Khanate of Bukhara
Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1500-1785, Khanate of Bukhara ; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1511-1920, Khanate of Khiva, Khwarazm Folder, Turks, Sunni

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1511-1920, Khanate of Khiva
Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1511-1920, Khanate of Khiva; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1616, Eastern Georgia settled by Central Asian Turks
Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1616, Eastern Georgia settled by Central Asian Turks; Turks; Turkmenistan; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, Ochus River Folder

Ochus River

Mashhad (Silk Road)

Ochus (Panj) River Source (confluence
Parthia; Ochus River Map; Holy, Glorious Apostle Thomas;

Ochus River 1

Jam River Mouth (Ochus River 2)

Ochus River 3

Ochus River 4 (Turkmenistan)

Ochus River 5

Ochus River Mouth (Caspian Sea)

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, Oxus River Folder

Oxus River from Second Source

Oxus River Second Source (Parmir Mountains)

Pamir Mountains
Pamir Mountains;

Oxus River Source to Oxus River 5

Parmir River Source (Lake Zorkul)

Parmir River 1

Pamir River Mouth (Oxus (Panj) River 1)

Wakhan River

Wakhjir Pass
Wakhjir Pass;

Wakhan River Mouth (Oxus (Panj) River Source)

Wakhan River Source (along the border)

Nisa, Turkmenistan (first Parthian capital)
Nisa, Turkmenistan (first Parthian capital) ; Hieromartyr Gregory the Bishop of Greater Armenia, Equal of the Apostles and Enlightener of Armenia, Commemorated on September 30 ;

Karakum Desert (a sink)

Oxus River 2

Oxus River 3

Oxus River 4

Tukhari Fortress, Turkmenistan
Tukhari Fortress; St Vakhtang Gorgasali, King of Georgia, Commemorated on November 30 ;

Oxus River 7 (Tukhari Fortress)

Oxus River Mouth (South Aral Sea)

Khwarazm, Turkmenistan (near Oxus River Mouth)
Khwarazm, Turkmenistan (near Oxus River Mouth) ; 100,000 Martyrs of Tbilisi by the Mongols, Commemorated on October 31;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, Hari River Folder

Hari River

Hari River, Afghanistan Mouth (Ochus River Source)
Hari River, Afghanistan ;

Hari River, Afganistan (Tejen or Tedzjen)