Mongol Lands Folder, Mongolia, China, Scythia, Kazan, Perm, Crimea, Turkmenistan.kmz

Mongol Lands Folder, Mongolia, China, Scythia, Kazan, Perm, Crimea, Turkmenistan

Tartars (could be Mongols, Turks, Chinese, or Persians; Tartary was a huge area, much of the World)
Tartars (could be Mongols, Turks or Persians; Tartary was a huge area, much of the World); Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Tartars (From Gobi Desert Mongolia, like vikings came down when it got cold)
Tartars (could be Mongols, Turks or Persians; Tartary was a huge area, much of the World);

Mongol, Mongolia Folder, including Tibet

Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongols; Tartars; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30 ; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Icon of the Mother of God "Elets-Chernigov", Commemorated February 5 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on March 6 ; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; St Pimen of Salosi the Enlightener of Dagestan and the North Caucasus People, Commemorated on March 16 ; Righteous Basil of Mangazea in Siberia, Commemorated on March 23 ; Metropolitan Philotheos of Tobolsk, Enlightener of Siberia, Commemorated on May 31; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20; St Dionysius the Archbishop of Suzdal, Commemorated on June 26; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Mongolia History Folder

Mongol, Mongolia, 1180-1368, Mongol Empire Folder

Mongolia, 12th Century, Tartars (from Gobi Desert)
Mongolia, 12th Century, Tartars (from Gobi Desert), Tartars' original land: Northeastern Gobi Desert; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum
Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

1206-35 Mongol Tartar Capital - Avarga
1206-35 Mongol Tartar Capital - Avarga;

Mongol, Mongolia, 1206-1368, Mongol-Tartar Empire 1206-1368
Mongol-Tartar Empire ;

Mongol, Mongolia, 1206-1227, Genghis Khan, Founder of the Mongol Empire
Mongol, Mongolia, 1206-1227, Genghis Khan, Founder of the Mongol Empire; Mongol-Tartar Empire ; Repose of St. Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Mongolia, 1227-1255, Mongol Khan, Batu Khan
Mongol Khan, 1227-1255, Batu Khan; Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Mongolia, 1225-1241 (Mongol Origins of the Golden Horde)
Mongol Horde, 1225-1241 (Mongol Origins of the Golden Horde); Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Mongolia, 1235-1260, Mongol-Tartar Capital - Karakorum, Mongolia
Mongol, Mongolia, 1235-1260, Mongol-Tartar Capital - Karakorum, Mongolia ;

Mongol, Mongolia, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan, Yuan Dynasty, China, Mongolia, Korea, Buddist, M Polo
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan ; (/ËˆkuËblaÉª/; Mongolian: Ð¥ÑƒÐ±Ð¸Ð»Ð°Ð¹, romanized: Hubilai; Chinese: å¿½å¿…çƒˆ; pinyin: Hūbìliè; 23 September  1215 – 18 February 1294), also known as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan, was the fifth khagan-emperor[note 1] of the Mongol Empire (Ikh Mongol Uls), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although after the division of the empire this was a nominal position). He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294. was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[2] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[3][4][5] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, from Siberia to what is now Afghanistan.[6] 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, and some adjacent areas; he also amassed influence in the Middle East and Europe as a Khagan. He assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to unite all of China proper. imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei. White, the color of the royal costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of the Yuan dynasty.[7] 1 Early years 2 Victory in North China 3 Enthronement and civil war 4 Reign 4.1 Great Khan of the Mongols 4.2 Emperor of the Yuan dynasty 4.2.1 Scientific developments and relations with minorities 4.2.2 Continuation of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices 5 Warfare and foreign relations 5.1 Tibet and Xinjiang 5.2 Kublai's annexation of Goryeo 5.3 Further naval expansion 5.4 Invasions of Japan 5.5 Invasions of Vietnam 5.6 Southeast Asia and South Seas 5.7 Europe 5.8 Africa 6 Capital City 6.1 Xanadu 7 Nayan's rebellion 8 Later years 9 Family 9.1 Wives and sons 9.2 Daughters 10 Poetry 11 Legacy 12 In popular culture 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 Further reading 17 External links years[edit] Khan was the fourth son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River.[8] Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Khagan (Mongol emperor) Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei, was enthroned as Khagan in 1229.[citation needed] the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.[citation needed] most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold).[9] Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist), and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing.[10] Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic.[11] in North China[edit] of young Kublai by Anige, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China. received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of Henan, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving Xi'an. acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty. 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his Chinese associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials.[12] 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he asked the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.[13] Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali King Duan Xingzhi (æ®µèˆˆæ™º) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.[14] Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan.[15] was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the Kingdom of Qocho (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished.[16] Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.[citation needed] Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory.[17] Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts.[18][19][20][21] Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of the Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).[citation needed] “The Emperor Kublai Khan in a tower carried by four elephants on the day of the battle“ French Engraving, 18th century. 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan, near the Yangtze. While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him.[citation needed] The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states.[22] Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao. and civil war[edit] article: Toluid Civil War received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plains.[23] he reached Mongolia, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum, which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu, opposed this. Kublai's Chinese staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in North China and Manchuria supported his candidacy.[24] returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the Borjigin lines except that of Jochi. This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become khan.[citation needed] Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next Great Khan at the Grand Kurultai in the year 1260. Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a Jami al-Twarikh (or Chingiznama). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31 [1] led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals.[25] To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou, but Jia broke his promise and arrested them.[26] Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu, crowned khan of Chagatai's territory. the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan, son of Ögedei Khan. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to Han Chinese warlords.[citation needed] Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.[27] When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai, Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, at first accepted Kublai's invitation.[28][29] However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters. Khan of the Mongols[edit] invasions and conquests mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258), and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire.[30] Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.[31] Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde.[32][33] The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime.[24][34] also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana, the empress of the Chagatai Khanate, who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death. Kaidu of the House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel.[35] This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.[citation needed] Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus.[36] 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrender his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy.[37] Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back.[37] called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander.[38] Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China.[39] The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there.[40] renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?"[41][42] Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan.[43][44] Defections from Kublai's Dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces. of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Han Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280. Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song, were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye.[citation needed] succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign.[43] Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China.[45] However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258), Sakhalin (1264), Burma (1277), Champa (1282), and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–8), and the invasion of Java (1293) failed. the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form a grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.[citation needed] son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids.[43] Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq. of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the Mongolian script, dated 1289. French National Archives. In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam (dhabihah) or Judaism (kashrut), which offended Mongolian custom.[46] Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the execution of Ahmad Fanakati, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor.[citation needed] niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke, Köchü, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes.[47] The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai.[48] Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.[49][50][51][52] of the Yuan dynasty[edit] also: Timeline of the Yuan dynasty Yuan Dynasty of China, c. 1294 Khan considered China his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.[53] From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng, and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.[54] also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor, giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks. 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.[55][56] In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their[whose?] corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.[citation needed] the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu (Chinese: å¤§éƒ½; Wade–Giles: Ta-tu; lit. 'Grand Capital', known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu (Chinese: ä¸Šéƒ½; lit. 'Upper Capital', also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor). unify China,[57] Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into the sea and ending the Song dynasty.[58] opera flourished during Yuan China. of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor.[59] This included China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.[60][61] The Central Region (Chinese: è…¹è£) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268.[62] the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean.[62] In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.[63] Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on.[64][65] In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins.[66] In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall.[67] It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.[citation needed] Sangha was a Tibetan.[68] A rich merchant from the Madurai Sultanate, Abu Ali, was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of Chaesongnyeon during the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo according to the Dongguk Tonggam, Goryeosa and Liu Mengyan's ZhÅng'ÄnjÃ.[69][70] encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjià, (Mysterious Order).[71] Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Europeans visited the empire, notably Marco Polo in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.[citation needed] the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79] The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.[80] developments and relations with minorities[edit] "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang. Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.[81] Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who became administrator of Yunnan. He was a well learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China. Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of the Yuan capitol). Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi.[82] Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar. cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced the knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants.[citation needed] physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna's works were also published in China during that period.[83] mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry, Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China.[84] brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented the Muslim trebuchet (or Huihui Pao), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang.[85] of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices[edit] Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish (kashrut) or Muslim (dhabihah) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision was also strictly forbidden.[86][87][88] and foreign relations[edit] also: Kublai Khan's campaigns, Mongol military tactics and organization, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty Yuan dynasty hand cannon Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian units.[89][90][91] Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.[92] Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.[citation needed] and Xinjiang[edit] 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya monasteries. The Chagatayid khan, Duwa, helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin.[93] Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu, killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.[citation needed] annexation of Goryeo[edit] also: Korea under Yuan rule and Mongol invasions of Korea dragons chasing a flaming pearl was a symbol associated with Goryeo Sumiyabaatar/ Ð‘. Ð¡ÑƒÐ¼ÑŒÑÐ°Ð±Ð°Ð°Ñ‚Ð°Ñ€, "Ð¥ÑƒÐ±Ð¸Ð»Ð°Ð¹ Ð˜Ñ… Ð¥Ð°Ð°Ð½Ñ‹ Ò¯ÐµÐ¸Ð¹Ð½ ÐœÐ¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð» – Ð¡Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾ÑÑ‹Ð½ Ñ…Ð°Ñ€Ð¸Ð»Ñ†Ð°Ð°", "Relationship between Mongolia and Korea during Kubilai Khan rule", 439p, 2015, ISBN 978-99973-302-5-3 Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo (the state on the Korean Peninsula) and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan.[94][95][96][97][98] Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.[citation needed] naval expansion[edit] Gangnido reflects the Chinese geographical knowledge during the Mongol Empire about countries in the West.[99] Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Song Dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.[100] of Japan[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Japan Japanese samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. MÅko ShÅ«rai Ekotoba (è’™å¤è¥²æ¥çµµè©ž), circa 1293. Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongols, Semu, Koreans, Hui and Chinese people.[81][101] Because the Wokou extended support to the crumbling Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated invasions of Japan. Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.[102] second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Chinese, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to 240 feet (73 m) long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by 180 kilometres (110 miles). The Mongols easily took over Tsushima Island about halfway across the strait and then Iki Island closer to Kyushu. The Korean fleet reached Hakata Bay on June 23, 1281 and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen. Mongolian landing forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Akasaka and the Battle of Torikai-Gata. Takezaki Suenaga's samurai attacked the Mongolian army and fought them, as reinforcements led by Shiraishi Michiyasu arrived and defeated the Mongolians, who suffered around 3500 dead.[103] samurai warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the KÅan Campaign (å¼˜å®‰ã®å½¹) or the "Second Battle of Hakata Bay", the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships by the Samurai. The Japanese army was heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with two-meter high walls, and was easily able to repulse the Mongolian forces that were launched against it.[citation needed] samurai boarding Yuan ships in 1281. archaeologist Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of Takashima District, Shiga. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of Nagasaki.[104] David Nicolle wrote in The Mongol Warlords, "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.[105] soldiers, second version ships, second version of a 14th-century prized Yuan dynasty junk of Vietnam[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Vietnam Khan invaded Äáº¡i Viá»‡t (now Vietnam) three times, each repelled by the ruling Tráº§n dynasty. The ancestors of the Tráº§n clan originated from the province of Fujian and migrated to Äáº¡i Viá»‡t under Tráº§n Kinh é™³äº¬ (Chén JÄ«ng),[106] where their mixed-blooded descendants later established the Tráº§n dynasty and came to rule Äáº¡i Viá»‡t; despite many intermarriages between the Tráº§n and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Tráº§n Lý[107][108] and Tráº§n Thá»«a,[109] some of the mixed-blood descendants of the clan could still speak Chinese, as evidenced when a Yuan dynasty envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Tráº§n prince Tráº§n Quá»‘c Tuáº¥n (later Supreme Commander Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o) in 1282.[110][111][112][113][114] first incursion was in 1257, but the Tráº§n dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty between the Mongols and Äáº¡i Viá»‡t in the twelfth lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Tráº§n dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a darughachi.[115][116] However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Tráº§n king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of Champa, but the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t court refused. Kublai sent another envoy to the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t to demand that the Tráº§n king surrender his land and his kingship. The Tráº§n king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.[citation needed] his first failure, Kublai wanted to install Nhân Tông's brother Tráº§n Ãch Táº¯c – who had defected to the Mongols – as king of Annam (Äáº¡i Viá»‡t?), but hardship in the Yuan's supply base in Hunan and Kaidu's invasion forced Kublai to abandon his plans.[citation needed] second Mongol invasion of Äáº¡i Viá»‡t began late in 1284, when the Mongol Yuan forces under the command of Toghan, the prince of Kublai Khan, crossed the border and quickly occupied ThÄƒng Long (now Hanoi) in January 1285, after the victorious battle of Omar in Váº¡n Kiáº¿p (north east of Hanoi). At the same time Sogetu, second in command of the Yuan army, moved from Champa northward and rapidly marched to Nghe An in the north central region of Vietnam, where the army of the Tráº§n dynasty under general Tráº§n Kien was defeated and surrendered to him. However, the Tráº§n king and the commander-in-chief Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o changed their tactics from defence to attack and struck against the Mongols. In April, General Tráº§n Quang Kháº£i defeated Sogetu in ChÆ°Æ¡ng DÆ°Æ¡ng and the Tráº§n king won a battle in Tây Káº¿t, where Sogetu died. Soon after, general Tráº§n Nháºt Duáºt also won a battle in Hàm Tá» (now HÆ°ng Yên) and Toghan was defeated by General Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o. Thus Kublai failed in his first attempt to invade Äáº¡i Viá»‡t. Toghan hid himself inside a bronze pipe to avoid being killed by the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t archers; this act brought humiliation upon the Mongol Empire and Toghan himself.[citation needed] third Mongol invasion began in 1287. It was better organized than the previous effort; a large fleet and plentiful stocks of food were used. The Mongol Yuan forces, under the command of Toghan, moved to Váº¡n Kiáº¿p from the north west and met the infantry and cavalry of Kublai's Kipchak commander Omar (coming by another way along the Red River) and quickly won the battle. The naval fleet rapidly attained victory in Vân Äá»“n near Háº¡ Long Bay. However, the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t General Tráº§n Khánh DÆ° managed to intercept and captured the heavy, fully stocked cargo ships, filled with food and supplies for Toghan's army. As a result, the Mongolian army in ThÄƒng Long suffered an acute shortage of food. With no news about the supply fleet, Toghan ordered his army to retreat to Váº¡n Kiáº¿p. The Äáº¡i Viá»‡t army began their general offensive and recaptured a number of locations occupied by the Mongols. Groups of Äáº¡i Viá»‡t infantry were ordered to attack the Mongols in Váº¡n Kiáº¿p. Toghan had to split his army into two and retreated in 1288.[citation needed] early April 1288 the naval fleet, led by Omar and escorted by infantry, fled home along the Báº¡ch Äáº±ng river. As bridges and roads were destroyed and attacks were launched by Äáº¡i Viá»‡t troops, the Mongols reached Báº¡ch Äáº±ng without an infantry escort. Äáº¡i Viá»‡t's small flotilla engaged in battle and pretended to retreat. The Mongols eagerly pursued the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t troops only to fall into their pre-arranged battlefield. Thousands of small Äáº¡i Viá»‡t boats quickly appeared from both banks, launched a fierce attack that broke the Mongols' combat formation. The Mongols, meeting such a sudden and strong attack, in panic tried to withdraw to the sea. The Mongols' boats were halted, and many were damaged and sank. At that time, a number of fire rafts quickly rushed toward the Mongols, who were frightened and jumped down to reach the banks where they were dealt a heavy blow by an army led by the Tráº§n king and Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o.[citation needed] Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Äáº¡i Viá»‡t's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Láº¡ng SÆ¡n. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to Yangzhou for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Tráº§n king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Tráº§n king, which continued to the end of the Yuan dynasty.[116][117] Asia and South Seas[edit] articles: First Mongol invasion of Burma and Mongol invasion of Java expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the Irrawaddy Delta, whereupon they captured Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom and established their government.[118] Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal suzerainty, but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s.[119] Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.[citation needed] Khan maintained close relations with Siam, in particular with prince Mangrai of Chiangmai and king Ram Khamheng of Sukhothai.[120] In fact, Kublai encouraged them to attack the Khmers after the Thais were being pushed southwards from Nanchao.[120][121][122] This happened after king Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire refused to pay tribute to the Mongols.[120][123][124] Jayavarman VIII was so insistent on not having to pay tribute to Kublai that he had Mongol envoys imprisoned.[120][124][122] These attacks from the Siamese eventually weakened the Khmer Empire. The Mongols then decided to venture south into Cambodia in 1283 by land from Champa.[125] They were able to conquer Cambodia by 1284.[126] Cambodia effectively became a vassal state by 1285 when Jayavarman VIII was finally forced to pay tribute to Kublai.[125][127][128] the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against Singhasari on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Chiang Mai had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.[118] articles: Marco Polo and Rabban Bar Sauma information: Europeans in Medieval China gives financial support to the Polo family. Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians – merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders – made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Chinese, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Rus, Persia, and Mesopotamia.[citation needed] Bar Sauma, ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and Ilkhan Arghun, travelled from Dadu to Rome, Tuscany, Genoa, Paris, and Bordeaux to meet with European rulers in 1287–88. the 13th century, the Sultanate of Mogadishu through its trade with medieval China had acquired enough of a reputation in Asia to attract the attention of Kublai Khan.[129] According to Marco Polo, the Mongol Emperor sent an envoy to Mogadishu to spy out the Sultanate but the delegation was captured and imprisoned. Kublai Khan then sent another envoy to treat for the release of the earlier Mongol delegation sent to Africa.[130] City[edit] White Stupa of Dadu (or Khanbaliq; now Beijing) Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in Xanadu on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's, Guo Shoujing, accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and armillary spheres that represented the celestial globe. Turkestani architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Chinese Dadu).[131] Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a Newar named Araniko, built the White Stupa that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.[132] advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a 30 km (19 mi) channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to Gansu to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.[citation needed] rebellion[edit] the conquest of the Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large appanages in Manchuria.[133] Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over Chang'an and Shanxi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria.[134] The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.[135] Yuan dynasty jade belt plaque featuring carved designs of the Azure Dragon, highly regarded as a symbol of Yuan dynasty China's maritime strength. by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, Nayan, a fourth-generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either Temüge or Belgutei, instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.[136]) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia.[137] Manchuria's native Jurchens and Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of Qasar, joined Nayan's rebellion,[138] and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.[139] rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of Chungnyeol of Goryeo assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.[139] Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of Liaoning but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the Khangai Mountains and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.[38] but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family.[140] Kublai harshly punished the darughachi appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.[141] This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.[citation needed] years[edit] section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ilkhanate Persia, Ghazan converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his suzerain. Khan dispatched his grandson Gammala to Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to ensure his claim to Ikh Khorig, where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the Central Siberian Plateau.[citation needed] his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son Zhenjin, who became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng and actively administered the dynasty according to Confucian fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the Golden Horde, expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).[citation needed] became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son Temür, who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.[citation needed] Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Mongolia, 1260-1271, Xanadu (Kubli Khan's Capitol, Inner Mongolia) summer only after 1271 and Peking
Xanadu, Mongolia;

Mongol, Mongolia, 1271-“1368, Mongol-Tartar Capital - Dadu (Peking or Beijing)
Mongol, Mongolia, 1260-“1368, Mongol-Tartar Capital - Dadu (Peking or Beijing);

Mongol, Mongolia, 1368-Present, Enlightener Philotheos oTobolsk

Mongol, Mongolia, 1671-1727, Philotheos oTobolsk, enlightner oSiberia, great admin &successful apostle, 400,000 conversions
Russia, Siberia, 1671-1727, Metropolitan Philotheos of Tobolsk, K., Capital of Siberia (Tobol Mouth at Irtysh River 11), enlightener oSiberia, 1702 Met oS, more extensive tToday, 1st centures example Spiritual Council, pastoral rules&instructions, more churches&pastors wBetter living conditions, widespread education, he funded Slavic-Russian school at Bishoprick, progenitor all Tobolsk schools, fOnly 160C t448 Churches&37Monasteries, renovations fBeauty, stopped supporting congregational Churches, cathedral choir fExiled Little Russians, pastoral success after he quit Met job & focused apostolic, began fKamchatka 1705, mObstacles, 1707 Ostyaks oBerezovsky, then Mongolia high priest Buddhists aKhalkhas, successful among Ostyaks, Voguls, other Siberian aliens, constant journeys among savages, teaching Samoyeds, Voguls, Ostyaks, far north churches Kyrgyz iAltai, Siberian outskirts Laplanders&Chukchi, baptized 400k foreigners, churches, parishes, cornerstones, not easy, traveling difficulties, muslim resistance, missionaries fled, Met P left alone on shore, bullet through clothing without touching, & danger at Konda, deceived Vogulsky Prince Satyga intended to kill Met P, warmly received S envoys who revealid plot, he sailed to S's camp, some fled but remaining baptized, other benefits to converts-protection, freedom, no head tax, no cart obligation, yasak payment benefits, no insults, Bread &Money distriution, so they loved him, 1711 illness, retired to Tyumen HT Monastery, received schema, as Theodore, even more difficult missionary feats nort of Siberia-1712 tBerezovsky T along Irtysh Ob &Sosve Rivers, supplied by Met John employees, by Prince Gagarin ship, rowers, interpreters, guard, 2000 Rubles, &gifts fNewly-baptized, Peter 1 wanted to destroy idols, proving them worthless, but Met P convinced Ostyaks to do it. 1715 replaced Tobolsk Siberian Met, attention to overseas Beijing Mission from 1714, sent Bishop to Beijing, retured second time 1726, visited Nizovsky T &Obdorsk, retired 1720 and 1726, died 1726, incorrupt relics Tobolsk; Metropolitan Philotheos of Tobolsk, Enlightener of Siberia, Commemorated on May 31; Most Reverend hierarch, the renowned Metropolitan of Siberia and Tobolsk, was from a noble, but poor family and received a theological degree at the then famous Kiev Theological Academy. the end of the course, he was ordained as a priest for one of the rural churches, but he was soon widowed. He was tonsured as a monk with the name Philotheos, and joined the brotherhood of the Kiev Caves Lavra. Siberia Christianity began to spread among the native pagans and Mohammedans from the very conquest of this country by the Russian state (in 1581), conversions of the Siberian non-Russians to faith in Christ were generally insignificant and mostly individual. newly-baptized aliens left their former places of residence and their compatriots and, settling in Russian cities and villages, they entered into the Russian population, their conversion did not influence the masses, who still remained solid pagans or Mohammedans. this was known to the great converter of Russia, Tsar Peter I, who decided to take measures to enlighten the Siberian aliens with the light of Christianity with them their neighbors, the Mongols and Chinese. implement this wise plan, by a decree of June 18, 1700, the Sovereign commanded Metropolitan Barlaam Yasinsky of Kiev to “find” in the Russian cities and monasteries Archimandrites, Igumens, and other monks to occupy the cathedra of Tobolsk, which had remained vacant after Metropolitan Ignatius. He wanted “Pastors who are not only good and adorned with a blameless life, but also scholars who would take with them to Siberia any educated monks who were capable of learning the local languages. God’s help, and with their help, the Metropolitan of Tobolsk could gradually lead the blind inhabitants of Siberia, Mongolia and China, who were stagnating in idolatry, to the knowledge of the true God. ” Barlaam’s choice fell on the Novgorod-Seversk Archimandrite Demetrios Tuptalo, later Saint Demetrios, the wonderworker of Rostov, who was summoned to Moscow in early 1700. On March 23, at the age of 50, he was consecrated as the Metropolitan of Siberia and Tobolsk. Saint Demetrios ruled his Siberian flock for only nine months, but he did not live in Siberia. Saint Demetrios of Rostov was appointed to the Siberian Diocese, primarily for missionary purposes, he refused to go to Siberia for good and was transferred to the cathedra of Rostov. Archimandrite Philotheos Leschinsky was appointed as someone who was well-known for his pious life, high education and energy. He was consecrated as Metropolitan of Siberia and Tobolsk on January 4, 1702. Diocese of Tobolsk and Siberia is extensive today; but in the 17th and early 18th centuries it was incomparably more extensive; borders were then in the north - the Arctic Sea, in the east - the Pacific Ocean, in the south - lands under the Chinese emperor, i.e. Dauria and so on, and the Kirghiz-kaysati steppe, in the west - the Urals and even part of European Russia, to the fortress of Beerskaya and Achitskaya. general, the diocese occupied more than 300,000 square miles, a space in which there are currently more than nine independent dioceses with several vicariates. difficulty of administering such a huge diocese was increased by its complete lack of organization. the new bishop of Siberia, Metropolitan Philotheos, energetically set to work. the very first year of his stay in Siberia he followed the example of the pastors of the first centuries of Christianity, decided to assemble a spiritual council from representatives of the Siberian clergy for the improvement of the Siberian Church. a council took place in Tobolsk in December 1702. It developed a number of rules and instructions to the clergy regarding the streamlining of their pastoral work. the new Metropolitan of Siberia occupied himself with the Tobolsk episcopal residence, multiplying churches in Siberia, increasing the number of clergy, improving their condition, etc. They paid great attention to widespread education, and he first set an example by teaching foreign children in the religious schools he established. order to provide the diocese with good pastors, Metropolitan Philotheos started a “Slavic-Russian” school in the episcopal residence, and paid for it with his own money. became the progenitor of all educational institutions in the city of Tobolsk. also got several learned monks from Kiev as teachers for the school. Metropolitan Philotheos took over the administration of the Tobolsk diocese, there were only 160 churches throughout its vast area. The saint made tremendous efforts to multiply of the churches of God in Siberia, and the Lord blessed these works with success. By the time he left the diocese there were already up to 448 churches and 37 monasteries. new churches, he also took care of maintaining their well-being and beauty: asked the government for permission to renovate some of the monasteries; stopped issuing “wax, incense, and red wine” to the congregational and unpaid churches. the cathedral, permission was given to form a choir of singers from the exiled Little Russians. missionary activity of Metropolitan Philotheos among the Siberian pagans was the main subject of his cares and labors and was crowned with good success, which the archpastor achieved, not during his administration of the diocese, but after his release from it, when he devoted himself entirely to the apostolic ministry. hierarch began his educational activity from Kamchatka, where in 1705 he sent a missionary, Archimandrite Martinian, and after him the missionary monk Ignatius Kozyrevsky, but the preaching of these missionaries was not particularly successful, since the missionaries had to experience many obstacles. hierarch’s second mission was sent in 1707 to the Ostyaks of the Berezovsky Territory, the third to Mongolia, to the Kutuhta (high priest) of the Buddhists, to the town of Khalkhas. preaching of the Tobolsk Metropolitan among the Ostyaks, Voguls and other Siberian aliens was particularly successful. by an insignificant retinue, with the then impossible ways of communication, the ever-memorable missionary spent most of his archpastoral ministry in Siberia in c,onstant journeys among savages, the Samoyeds, Voguls, Ostyaks, building churches in the far north, in the Kyrgyz territory in the Altai, then enlightening the distant sons of the outskirts of Siberia, Laplanders and Chukchi, helping them spiritually and materially. all the time of his archpastoral ministry, he enlightened and baptized up to 400,000 foreigners, to mention how many churches this great architect built across Siberia, how many parishes he founded, how many cornerstones he laid, so to speak, for the spread of Christianity among the pagans. It was not easy for Metropolitan Philotheos. Not to mention the incredible difficulties traveling along the wild outskirts, across steppes and marshes, taiga and northern tundra; not to mention all sorts of hardships associated with traveling under such conditions; the very life of the Metropolitan was repeatedly endangered. he came to the Ostyaks of Burinsky. Those who were invited to be baptized that they were Muslims and no one had the right to baptize them. left him and locked themselves in one large yurt.1 His Eminence nevertheless remained in their territory and from time to time he sent them missionaries who were with him to summon the Ostyaks. same savages, in order to put an end to the matter all at once, according to the suggestion of the Tatar preacher hiding from them, seized their weapons, and fiercely rushed at the Orthodox missionaries. of them was wounded in the head with an arrow, the other in the shoulder, and the third was punctured through and through by their hands. fright, the unarmed Russians all fled from the shore onto the ships. Metropolitan, who was then praying for the restraint of his enemies, was left alone on the shore. the Ostyak foreman Uman fired a rifle at the Metropolitan, but God preserved His Apostle-Preacher. The bullet passed through his clothing without touching his body. another occasion, the Metropolitan was threatened with danger in Konda. he stayed in the Katyshev yurts to rest, a messenger came to him from Vogulsky Prince Satyga inviting him to hasten to the nomad camp because a lot of people had gathered there, desiring to be baptized. fact, as it turned out, Satyga was deceived by a Tatar from Tobolsk, as though the Tsar himself wanted the Metropolitan’s death, and that there would be no punishment for the murderers. intended to kill Philotheos and all those with him. But for now, the Metropolitan avoided danger. ’s envoys were received kindly by the Metropolitan, and after receiving generous gifts, they informed Philotheos of the danger that threatened him. overtook the missionaries, and many advised him to flee to Tobolsk. Some, however, argued that such cowardice would impair the future work of preaching the Word of God. Metropolitan agreed with those who wished to stay, and it was decided to sail down to the nomad camp. was frightened when he learned that his plans were known to the Metropolitan. The intruders fled into the forest, and the remaining Voguls were willingly baptized. Philotheos not only cared about the spiritual enlightenment of the pagans who converted, but he also tried to deliver those or other benefits to the converts in civil matters. his request, those who were persecuted by the unbaptized were protected from being chased by guards; slaves were given their freedom, those who were included in the head tax were exempted from it. was relieved of the obligation to supply carts, received benefits in the payment of the yasak, they were protected from insults and harassment by the Cossacks and minor officials. Metropolitan distributed a significant amount of bread and money to the newly-baptized poor, and, in general, he helped as much as he could, anyway. newly-baptized loved the Metropolitan as a father. When he visited them, they immediately went out to meet him and greeted him with cordiality and pleasure clearly written on their faces; willingly they heeded his instructions, and gave a firm promise to put his advice into practice. general, they accepted the Metropolitan as their benefactor and their protector, as a man sent from God. memory of Metropolitan Philotheos still lives among the aliens who were enlightened by him. For example, the Ostyaks, when they were asked about him, usually said: “He was a kindly old man; the people did not give offense; he loved the Ostyaks very, very much.... ” 1711, Metropolitan Philotheos was relieved of the administration of the diocese “due to illness,” and retired to the Tyumen Holy Trinity Monastery, he received the schema and the name Theodore. Metropolitan did not give up his archiepiscopal cathedra for rest and peace, now that he was burdened with age and illnesses, but for even more difficult feats of missionary work in the harsh north of Siberia. June 1712, Metropolitan Schema-monk Theodore, the blessing of the then Siberian archpastor, Metropolitan John Maximovitch (June 10), by his own desire and inclination, and at the suggestion of Prince M. Gagarin, who was then the governor of Siberia, who fulfilled the command of Peter I to begin preaching the Gospel among Siberians, and entered into this apostolic spiritual exploit. that year, the hierarch made his first missionary journey to Berezovsky territory along the rivers Irtysh, Ob and Sosve. John, who ruled the diocese, gave him capable employees, Prince Gagarin supplied him from the treasury with a vessel for sailing, rowers, interpreters of the native languages, a guard for preserving the mission, the sum of 2000 rubles, and various gifts for newly-baptized. to the ukaz of Peter the Great, the evangelizer of Siberia wished to prepare the ground of this field on his previous journey; is, to destroy the pagan places of worship with their idols, and to show the pagans how powerless their imaginary gods are to protect even themselves. the help of God, Metropolitan Schema-monk Theodore managed to convince the Ostyaks, who lived near Samarov and in the yurts of Sherkal, to destroy the idols which were especially honored in those districts. June 10, 1715, Metropolitan John Maximovich of Tobolsk reposed, and the aged Metropolitan Schema-monk Theodore was again entrusted with the administration of the Siberian Diocese, he did not stop his favorite missionary activity. Schema-monk Theodore was so fond of the enlightened Ostyaks that, a year before his death, being retired and ill for the second time, the patient visited Nizovsky territory again in 1726 and even reached far off Obdorsk. this was to be the last journey of the ever-memorable hierarch. his second administration of the diocese, Metropolitan Theodore paid attention to the overseas Beijing mission, which from 1714 was headed by Archimandrite Hilarion of Lezhaysk, who was sent to the capital of China by imperial command, under Metropolitan John Maximovich. the death of this Archimandrite, his successor Anthony Platkovsky was appointed head of the mission, and returned to Russia in 1721, according to the suggestion of the Most Reverend Theodore and the Siberian governor, as well as the highest levels of government, it was decided to send a bishop to Beijing. during his first administration of the Tobolsk diocese, he had a vicar bishop, Barlaam Kossovsky, the Bishop of Irkutsk from 1706. He lived in Irkutsk until 1714, when he returned to Moscow, and he was soon appointed to the archiepiscopal cathedra of Tver. Theodore’s second tenure in the Siberian Diocese lasted for five years. 1720, at his own request, Tsar Peter I sent him a letter granting him retirement, in which he gave thanks to the holy hierarch of God for his zealous pastoral service, especially for his tireless and successful work in the missionary field. addition, the archpastor received a retirement pension: 200 rubles in cash, 50 quarters of bread (3000 bushels of grain) per year. exhausted hierarch settled in the Tyumen monastery which he himself had built. May 31, 1727, he reposed at the age of 76, among the brethren and children of the newly-baptized. by his portraits, Metropolitan Philotheos was tall, lean, with a long nose, and gray hair. to his character, in the words of the Siberian Chronicle of Cherepanov, “he was quiet, very indulgent to all, and had very little vanity.” life was most active and simple; in the summertime, he often used to go on foot to Tobolsk to the Ivanov monastery and fished there in the Shantalyne River. alone, he taught the children of the newly-baptized to read, write, and sing in his leisure hours. of them lived in his cell. he composed Church hymns; example - the Troparion and Kontakion of the wonderworker Saint Simeon of Verkhoturye (December 18), a Canon to the martyr Basil of Mangazea (March 23),2 and others, as well as poems of religious content. his own hand, he wrote many of the documents which he issued, especially those concerning the newly-baptized, or pertaining to the episcopal estates. only the residents of Tyumen, but also those from other places in Siberia, visit the grave of the pious archpastor with reverence and offer memorial services for him.3 the Russian Revolution, his relics were secretly reburied. On October 21, 2006, the incorrupt relics of Saint Philotheos were found in Tyumen in the Ascension-Saint George Church. Philotheos is commemorated on May 31, and also on June 10, the Synaxis of Siberian saints. 1 A yurt was a sort of tepee made from animal skins. 2 See Orthodox Life # 2, 1972. 3 Source: The Russian Pilgrim, 1900 (Русский Паломник, 1900 г.)

Khentii Mountains
Khentii Mountains ;

Mt Burkhan Khaldun (birthplace of Ghengis Khan)
Mt Burkhan Khaldun;

Kherlen River (Khentii Province)

Kherlen River (Choibalsan (city))
Choibalsan (city);

Kherlen River Mouth (Hulun Lake and Armur River)

Kherlen River

Hulun Lake
Hulun Lake;

Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Land of the Mongols
Inner Mongolia; Mongols; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Righteous Basil of Mangazea in Siberia, Commemorated on March 23 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Xanadu (Kubli Khan's Capitol, Inner Mongolia) 1260, summer only after 1271 and Peking
Xanadu, Mongolia;

Gobi Desert (Mongolian Steppes, Grasslands)
Gobi Desert; Mongolian-Manchurian Steppes (Grassland) surround the Gobi Desert; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4;

Mongolian-Manchurian Steppes (Grassland)
Mongolian-Manchurian Steppes (Grassland) surround the Gobi Desert; Gobi Desert; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4;

Mongolia, Karakorum (Orkhum River 3)
Mongolia, Karakorum: Karakorum was the capital of the Mongul Empire. Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14;

Orkhon River Source (Khangai Mountains)

Orkhum River 1

Orkhum River 2

Orkhum River 3 (Karakorum)

Orkhum River 4

Orkhon River 5

Orkhon River 6 (Tamir River Mouth)

Tamir River Mouth (Orkhon River 6)

Orkhon River 8

Tuul River Mouth (Orkhon River 8)

Orkhon River 9

Orkhon River Mouth (Selenga River 9)

Orkhon River

Lamaism, Home of Lamaism (Tibetan Buddhism)
Lamaism;

Tibet (Capitol Lhasa)
Tibet (Capitol Lhasa); St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28 ;

Tibetan Plateau

Geladaindong Peak
Geladaindong Peak;

Mongol, Turkmenistan Folder, Central Asia, Ochus and Oxus Rivers, Afghanistan and Pakistan

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia (between Ochus and Oxus Rivers, Afghanistan and Pakistan)
Turks; Turkmenistan; In 1227 Sultan Jalal al-Din of Khwarazm and his army of Turkmen attacked Georgia ; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18; Hieromartyr Gregory the Bishop of Greater Armenia, Equal of the Apostles and Enlightener of Armenia, Commemorated September 30 ; 100,000 Martyrs of Tbilisi by the Mongols, Commemorated on October 31 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Damascus, Commemorated on December 4 ; New-martyr John of Thasos, Commemorated December 20 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Venerable Luke of Hellas, Commemorated on February 7; Mongols; Martyr Avakum the Deacon of Serbia; Holy Queen Tamara, Commemorated on May 8; St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17; Greatmartyr George the New at Sofia, Bulgaria, Commemorated on May 26;

Silk Road Folder (to China to Turkey)

Silk Road North 1 Luoyang

Silk Road North 2 Changan

Xi'an, ancient capital of China (Silk Road Starting Point)
Xi'an, ancient capital of China;

Xianyang, China (Silk Road North 2 Changan)
Xianyang; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

Bin County, Shaanxi, China (Includes Xiaozhang)
Bin County, Shaanxi (Includes Xiaozhang), and is part of Xianyang, Shaanxi, China; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22 ;

Silk Road North 3 Shaanxi Province

Silk Road North 4 Gansu Province

Silk Road North 5a north of Taklimakan Desert

Silk Road North 5b South of Taklimakan Desert

Silk Road North 5c Turpan

Silk Road North 6a Kashgar

Silk Road North 6b Talgar

Silk Road Divider (Tian Shan Mountains)
Tian Shan Mountains;

Silk Road North 7 Amaty

Alma-Atu, Silk Road North 7, Turkestan, Kazakistan
Alma-Atu, Silk Road North 7, Turkestan, Kazakistan; Hieromartyr Hilarion, Archbishop of Vereiya, Commemorated on December 15;

Silk Road North Kokand

Silk Road North Termiz

Silk Road North Balkh

Silk Road North Fergana Valley

Silk Road North Karakum Desert

Silk Road North and South at Merv

Silk Road North and South at Black Sea at Trabzon

Silk Road South Karakoram

Silk Road South Karakoram Highway

Silk Road South Khunjerab Pass

Silk Road South, K Hwy 1, Upal China

Silk Road South, K Hwy 2, Tashkurgan, Xinjiang China

Silk Road South, K Hwy 3, Sost

Silk Road South, K Hwy 4, Passu

Silk Road South, K Hwy 5, Gulmit

Silk Road South, K Hwy 6, Hunza Valley

Silk Road South, K Hwy 7, Nagar Valley

Silk Road South, K Hwy 8, Gilgit

Silk Road South, K Hwy 9, Parri Bangla

Silk Road South, K Hwy 10, Chilas

Silk Road South, K Hwy 11, Kohistan

Silk Road South, K Hwy 12, Besham

Silk Road South over the Hindu Kush Mountains

Silk Road South, Hindu Kush Mountains to Merv

Silk Road South, Kashgar, China to Hindu Kush Mountains (Tea Horse Route)

Silk Road North to Kashgar by north of the Taklimakan Desert route

Silk Road North to Kashgar by south of the Taklimakan Desert route

Silk Road North and North of the Tian Shan Mountains

Silk Road from Kashgar to Fergana Valley to Koland to Merv

Silk Road from Kashgar to Termiz to Balkh to Merv

Silk Road, Trabezon to Merv
Western reaches of the Silk Road

Grand Trunk Road (between South China and Afganistan)

Grand Trunk Road 1 (Chittagong, Bangladesh)

Grand Trunk Road 2 (Dhaka, Bangladesh)

Grand Trunk Road 3 (Serampore Colony, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)

Grand Trunk Road 4 (Howrah, West Bengal, India)

Grand Trunk Road 5 (Murshidabad, West Bengal, India)

Grand Trunk Road 6 (Patna, Bihar, India)

Grand Trunk Road 7 (Banares, India)

Grand Trunk Road 8 (Ilhabad)

Grand Trunk Road 9 (Delhi, India)

Grand Trunk Road 10 (Lahore, Pakistan)

Grand Trunk Road 11 (Peshawar, Pakistan)

Grand Trunk Road 12 (Kabul, Afganistan)

Grand Trunk Road (Southeast Asia to Afganistan)

Southern Silk Road

Southern Silk Road - The Tea Route (Hunnan to Bengal)

Southern Silk Road- the Tea Route (Yunnan)

Southern Silk Road - The Tea Route (Dhaka, Bengal

Mongol, Turkmenistan, History Folder

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 750-1055, Oghuz Turks Folder, Founders of Ottoman Empire, Sunni and Shia

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 750-1055, Oghuz Turks, Founders of the Ottoman Empire
Turkmenistan, Oghuz Turks, 750-1055, Founders of the Ottoman Empire; Venerable Luke of Hellas, Commemorated on February 7;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1077-1231, Khwarazm Dynasty Folder, Turks, Attacked Georgia, Sunni

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1227, 100K Martyrs, Tbilisi, Jalal al-Din, Khwarazm, repelled but inside m traitors opened gates at night
Georgia, 1227, Tbilisi, Kartli, Georgia Capital (Tiblisi River Mouth, Kura River 9), Jalal al-Din of Khwarazm, Turkmenistan attacked, Georgia repelled but inside moslem traitors opened the gates at night; Tbilisi; 100,000 Martyrs of Tbilisi by the Mongols, Commemorated on October 31 ; 1227 Sultan Jalal al-Din of Khwarazm and his army of Turkmen attacked Georgia. the first day of the battle the Georgian army valorously warded off the invaders as they were approaching Tbilisi. night, however, a group of Persians who were living in Tbilisi secretly opened the gates and summoned the enemy army into the city. to one manuscript in which this most terrible day in Georgian history was described: “Words are powerless to convey the destruction that the enemy wrought: tearing infants from their mothers’ breasts, they beat their heads against the bridge, watching as their eyes dropped from their skulls....” river of blood flowed through the city. The Turkmen castrated young children, raped women, and stabbed mothers to death over their children’s lifeless bodies. The whole city shuddered at the sound of wailing and lamentation. The river and streets of the city were filled with death. sultan ordered that the cupola of Sioni Cathedral be taken down and replaced by his vile throne. And at his command the icons of the Theotokos and our Savior were carried out of Sioni Cathedral and placed at the center of the bridge across the Mtkvari River. invaders goaded the people to the bridge, ordering them to cross it and spit on the holy icons. Those who betrayed the Christian Faith and mocked the icons were spared their lives, while the Orthodox confessors were beheaded. hundred thousand Georgians sacrificed their lives to venerate the holy icons. One hundred thousand severed heads and headless bodies were carried by the bloody current down the Mtkvari River.

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1370-1507, Tammerlane's Timurid Empire

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1370-1507, Timurid Empire, Tamurlane's Dynasty
Timurid Empire, 1370-1507, Tamurlane's Dynasty, founded by Tamur the Lame or Tamurlane; Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated on August 26 ; Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. Awakening in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God was painted by the Evangelist Luke on a board from the table at which the Savior ate together with His All-Pure Mother and Righteous Joseph. The Mother of God, upon seeing this image, exclaimed, “Henceforth, all generations shall call Me blessed. The grace of both My Son and Me shall be with this icon.” the year 1131, the icon was sent from Constantinople to Rus to holy Prince Mstislav (April 15) and was installed in the Devichi monastery in Vyshgorod, the ancient appanage city of the holy Equal of the Apostles Princess Olga. son of George Dolgoruky, Saint Andrew Bogoliubsky, brought the icon to the city of Vladimir in 1155 and installed it in the renowned Dormition cathedral which he built. At this time the icon received its name of “the Vladimir Icon.” The icon was first brought to Moscow in the year 1395. Thus, the blessing of the Mother of God established the spiritual bonds of Byzantium and Rus via Kiev, Vladimir and Moscow. festal celebration of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos occurs several times during the year (21 May, 23 June and 26 August). The most solemn celebration occurs on August 26, the Feast established in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon upon its Transfer from Vladimir to Moscow. the year 1395, the fearsome conqueror Khan Tamerlane (Temir-Aksak) reached the Ryazan frontier, took the city of Elets and advancing towards Moscow he came near the banks of the River Don. Great Prince Basil Dimitrievich went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the River Oka. He prayed to the holy Hierarchs of Moscow and Saint Sergius for the deliverance of the Fatherland, and he wrote to the Metropolitan of Moscow Saint Cyprian (September 16), that the pending Dormition Fast should be devoted to zealous prayers for mercy and repentance. were sent to Vladimir, where the famed wonderworking Vladimir Icon was. After Divine Liturgy and a Molieben on the feast of the Dormition, they clergy took the icon and brought it to Moscow. Along the way, on both sides of the road, countless people prayed kneeling: “O Mother of God, save the land of Russia!” At that same hour, when the people of Moscow were meeting the Vladimir Icon on Kuchkov Field, Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian Land from Tamerlane, they built the monastery of the Meeting on Kuchkov Field, where the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon took place. On August 26, the all-Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established. important events in Russian Church history have occurred before the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God: the election and elevation of Saint Jonah, advocate of an Autocephalous Russian Church (1448), and of Saint Job, first Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (1589), and of His Holiness Patriarch Saint Tikhon (1917). The enthronement of His Holiness Pimen, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, occurred on a day of celebration in honor of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God on May 21 (O.S.), 1971. historical days of 21 May, 23 June and 26 August, connected with this holy icon, have become memorable days for the Russian Orthodox Church. St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1395, Tammerlane retreats after Dream, Vladimir Icon Mother of God (Don River 1, Kulikovo Pole)
Kulikovo Pole (Kulikovo Field); Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated on August 26 ; Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. Awakening in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God was painted by the Evangelist Luke on a board from the table at which the Savior ate together with His All-Pure Mother and Righteous Joseph. The Mother of God, upon seeing this image, exclaimed, “Henceforth, all generations shall call Me blessed. The grace of both My Son and Me shall be with this icon.” the year 1131, the icon was sent from Constantinople to Rus to holy Prince Mstislav (April 15) and was installed in the Devichi monastery in Vyshgorod, the ancient appanage city of the holy Equal of the Apostles Princess Olga. son of George Dolgoruky, Saint Andrew Bogoliubsky, brought the icon to the city of Vladimir in 1155 and installed it in the renowned Dormition cathedral which he built. At this time the icon received its name of “the Vladimir Icon.” The icon was first brought to Moscow in the year 1395. Thus, the blessing of the Mother of God established the spiritual bonds of Byzantium and Rus via Kiev, Vladimir and Moscow. festal celebration of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos occurs several times during the year (21 May, 23 June and 26 August). The most solemn celebration occurs on August 26, the Feast established in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon upon its Transfer from Vladimir to Moscow. the year 1395, the fearsome conqueror Khan Tamerlane (Temir-Aksak) reached the Ryazan frontier, took the city of Elets and advancing towards Moscow he came near the banks of the River Don. Great Prince Basil Dimitrievich went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the River Oka. He prayed to the holy Hierarchs of Moscow and Saint Sergius for the deliverance of the Fatherland, and he wrote to the Metropolitan of Moscow Saint Cyprian (September 16), that the pending Dormition Fast should be devoted to zealous prayers for mercy and repentance. were sent to Vladimir, where the famed wonderworking Vladimir Icon was. After Divine Liturgy and a Molieben on the feast of the Dormition, they clergy took the icon and brought it to Moscow. Along the way, on both sides of the road, countless people prayed kneeling: “O Mother of God, save the land of Russia!” At that same hour, when the people of Moscow were meeting the Vladimir Icon on Kuchkov Field, Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian Land from Tamerlane, they built the monastery of the Meeting on Kuchkov Field, where the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon took place. On August 26, the all-Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established. important events in Russian Church history have occurred before the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God: the election and elevation of Saint Jonah, advocate of an Autocephalous Russian Church (1448), and of Saint Job, first Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (1589), and of His Holiness Patriarch Saint Tikhon (1917). The enthronement of His Holiness Pimen, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, occurred on a day of celebration in honor of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God on May 21 (O.S.), 1971. historical days of 21 May, 23 June and 26 August, connected with this holy icon, have become memorable days for the Russian Orthodox Church.

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1395, Luke's Vladimir Icon, Grace of Jesus and MOG shall be with this Icon
Kulikovo Pole (Kulikovo Field); Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated on August 26 ; Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. Awakening in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God was painted by the Evangelist Luke on a board from the table at which the Savior ate together with His All-Pure Mother and Righteous Joseph. The Mother of God, upon seeing this image, exclaimed, “Henceforth, all generations shall call Me blessed. The grace of both My Son and Me shall be with this icon.” the year 1131, the icon was sent from Constantinople to Rus to holy Prince Mstislav (April 15) and was installed in the Devichi monastery in Vyshgorod, the ancient appanage city of the holy Equal of the Apostles Princess Olga. son of George Dolgoruky, Saint Andrew Bogoliubsky, brought the icon to the city of Vladimir in 1155 and installed it in the renowned Dormition cathedral which he built. At this time the icon received its name of “the Vladimir Icon.” The icon was first brought to Moscow in the year 1395. Thus, the blessing of the Mother of God established the spiritual bonds of Byzantium and Rus via Kiev, Vladimir and Moscow. festal celebration of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos occurs several times during the year (21 May, 23 June and 26 August). The most solemn celebration occurs on August 26, the Feast established in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon upon its Transfer from Vladimir to Moscow. the year 1395, the fearsome conqueror Khan Tamerlane (Temir-Aksak) reached the Ryazan frontier, took the city of Elets and advancing towards Moscow he came near the banks of the River Don. Great Prince Basil Dimitrievich went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the River Oka. He prayed to the holy Hierarchs of Moscow and Saint Sergius for the deliverance of the Fatherland, and he wrote to the Metropolitan of Moscow Saint Cyprian (September 16), that the pending Dormition Fast should be devoted to zealous prayers for mercy and repentance. were sent to Vladimir, where the famed wonderworking Vladimir Icon was. After Divine Liturgy and a Molieben on the feast of the Dormition, they clergy took the icon and brought it to Moscow. Along the way, on both sides of the road, countless people prayed kneeling: “O Mother of God, save the land of Russia!” At that same hour, when the people of Moscow were meeting the Vladimir Icon on Kuchkov Field, Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian Land from Tamerlane, they built the monastery of the Meeting on Kuchkov Field, where the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon took place. On August 26, the all-Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established. important events in Russian Church history have occurred before the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God: the election and elevation of Saint Jonah, advocate of an Autocephalous Russian Church (1448), and of Saint Job, first Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (1589), and of His Holiness Patriarch Saint Tikhon (1917). The enthronement of His Holiness Pimen, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, occurred on a day of celebration in honor of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God on May 21 (O.S.), 1971. historical days of 21 May, 23 June and 26 August, connected with this holy icon, have become memorable days for the Russian Orthodox Church.

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1395, Dormition Feast, Vladimir Icon sent to Moscow, same hour, meeting at Kuchkov, T's dream
Kulikovo Pole (Kulikovo Field); Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated on August 26 ; Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. Awakening in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God was painted by the Evangelist Luke on a board from the table at which the Savior ate together with His All-Pure Mother and Righteous Joseph. The Mother of God, upon seeing this image, exclaimed, “Henceforth, all generations shall call Me blessed. The grace of both My Son and Me shall be with this icon.” the year 1131, the icon was sent from Constantinople to Rus to holy Prince Mstislav (April 15) and was installed in the Devichi monastery in Vyshgorod, the ancient appanage city of the holy Equal of the Apostles Princess Olga. son of George Dolgoruky, Saint Andrew Bogoliubsky, brought the icon to the city of Vladimir in 1155 and installed it in the renowned Dormition cathedral which he built. At this time the icon received its name of “the Vladimir Icon.” The icon was first brought to Moscow in the year 1395. Thus, the blessing of the Mother of God established the spiritual bonds of Byzantium and Rus via Kiev, Vladimir and Moscow. festal celebration of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos occurs several times during the year (21 May, 23 June and 26 August). The most solemn celebration occurs on August 26, the Feast established in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon upon its Transfer from Vladimir to Moscow. the year 1395, the fearsome conqueror Khan Tamerlane (Temir-Aksak) reached the Ryazan frontier, took the city of Elets and advancing towards Moscow he came near the banks of the River Don. Great Prince Basil Dimitrievich went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the River Oka. He prayed to the holy Hierarchs of Moscow and Saint Sergius for the deliverance of the Fatherland, and he wrote to the Metropolitan of Moscow Saint Cyprian (September 16), that the pending Dormition Fast should be devoted to zealous prayers for mercy and repentance. were sent to Vladimir, where the famed wonderworking Vladimir Icon was. After Divine Liturgy and a Molieben on the feast of the Dormition, they clergy took the icon and brought it to Moscow. Along the way, on both sides of the road, countless people prayed kneeling: “O Mother of God, save the land of Russia!” At that same hour, when the people of Moscow were meeting the Vladimir Icon on Kuchkov Field, Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian Land from Tamerlane, they built the monastery of the Meeting on Kuchkov Field, where the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon took place. On August 26, the all-Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established. important events in Russian Church history have occurred before the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God: the election and elevation of Saint Jonah, advocate of an Autocephalous Russian Church (1448), and of Saint Job, first Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (1589), and of His Holiness Patriarch Saint Tikhon (1917). The enthronement of His Holiness Pimen, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, occurred on a day of celebration in honor of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God on May 21 (O.S.), 1971. historical days of 21 May, 23 June and 26 August, connected with this holy icon, have become memorable days for the Russian Orthodox Church.

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1500-1785, Khanate of Bukhara Folder, Persian, Sunni, refined

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1500-1785, Central Asia, Khanate of Bukhara
Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1500-1785, Khanate of Bukhara ; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, 1511-1920, Khanate of Khiva, Khwarazm Folder, Turks, Sunni

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1511-1920, Khanate of Khiva
Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1511-1920, Khanate of Khiva; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1616, Eastern Georgia settled by Central Asian Turks
Turkmenistan, Central Asia, 1616, Eastern Georgia settled by Central Asian Turks; Turks; Turkmenistan; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated on September 18;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, Ochus River Folder

Ochus River

Mashhad (Silk Road)

Ochus (Panj) River Source (confluence
Parthia; Ochus River Map; Holy, Glorious Apostle Thomas;

Ochus River 1

Jam River Mouth (Ochus River 2)

Ochus River 3

Ochus River 4 (Turkmenistan)

Ochus River 5

Ochus River Mouth (Caspian Sea)

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, Oxus River Folder

Oxus River from Second Source

Oxus River Second Source (Parmir Mountains)

Pamir Mountains
Pamir Mountains;

Oxus River Source to Oxus River 5

Parmir River Source (Lake Zorkul)

Parmir River 1

Pamir River Mouth (Oxus (Panj) River 1)

Wakhan River

Wakhjir Pass
Wakhjir Pass;

Wakhan River Mouth (Oxus (Panj) River Source)

Wakhan River Source (along the border)

Nisa, Turkmenistan (first Parthian capital)
Nisa, Turkmenistan (first Parthian capital) ; Hieromartyr Gregory the Bishop of Greater Armenia, Equal of the Apostles and Enlightener of Armenia, Commemorated on September 30 ;

Karakum Desert (a sink)

Oxus River 2

Oxus River 3

Oxus River 4

Tukhari Fortress, Turkmenistan
Tukhari Fortress; St Vakhtang Gorgasali, King of Georgia, Commemorated on November 30 ;

Oxus River 7 (Tukhari Fortress)

fortress of Gulab-Kala, Guldursun-Kala, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan
fortress of Gulab-Kala, Guldursun-Kala, Uzbekistan; also Guldursun Qala, in modern Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan, was an ancient fortress in Chorasmia built in the 12th century CE.[1] It is one of the largest fortresses of Khwarezm, with perimeter walls of about 1 kilometer in total length, and an internal area of about 6.4 hectares (64,000 square meters, or 15.8 acres). is part of the "Fifty fortresses oasis" in modern-day Uzbekistan.[2] It was last occupied by Muhammad II of Khwarazm (1169, 1200-20), before it fell to the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire. Martyr Luarsab II, King of Georgia, Commemorated on June 21; Abbas I received Saint Luarsab II amicably and, it would seem, was prepared to fulfill his promise. After a hunt together Shah Abbas invited him to Mazandaran, but Luarsab II refused to eat fish (since it was Great Lent), despite the threats and demands of the shah. The enraged shah began to insist that the Georgian emperor accept Islam, in return for which he promised to let him go with great treasures to Kartli, threatening death by torture if he did not. The emperor Luarsab II, having from his youth kept strict fast and constantly at prayer, without hesitation refused the demands of the shah. They seized him and imprisoned him in the impenetrable fortress of Gulab-Kala, near Shiraz. The Mrovel Bishop Nicholas relates, that the emperor Luarsab spent seven years imprisoned in chains, undergoing cruel torments and frequent beatings to force him to accept Islam. But the holy confessor remained faithful to the Holy Church of Christ and accepted a martyr’s death in the year 1622 at 35 years of age. Two of his faithful retainers were martyred with him. night the bodies of the holy martyrs were cast out of the prison without burial, but on the next day Christians committed them to earth in a common grave.

Oxus River Mouth (South Aral Sea)

Khwarazm, Turkmenistan (near Oxus River Mouth)
Khwarazm, Turkmenistan (near Oxus River Mouth) ; 100,000 Martyrs of Tbilisi by the Mongols, Commemorated on October 31;

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, Hari River Folder

Hari River

Hari River, Afghanistan Mouth (Ochus River Source)
Hari River, Afghanistan ;

Hari River, Afganistan (Tejen or Tedzjen)

Mongol, Turkmenistan, Central Asia, Afghanistan Folder, its Helmand rivers and Grand Trunk Road

Afghanistan
Afghanistan; 100,000 Martyrs of Tbilisi by the Mongols, Commemorated on October 31; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836);

Afghanistan 30-1256, Afghanistan History Folder

Afghanistan, 30-376, Kushan Empire, Buddaist and Zoroastrian, trade with R Empire, Persia, and China
India, 30-375, Kushan Empire, 30-376; Kushan Empire was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of modern-day territory of Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India,[16] at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great.[17] Emperor Kanishka and the Kushans in general were great patrons of Buddhism, as well as Zoroastrianism.[18] They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent and its spread to Central Asia and China. Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation,[19][20] an Indo-European nomadic people of possible Tocharian[21][22][23][24][25] origin, who migrated from northwestern China (Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria.[20] Kushans possibly used the Greek language initially for administrative purposes, but soon began to use Bactrian language.[7] Kanishka sent his armies north of the Karakoram mountains. A direct road from Gandhara to China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraging travel across the Karakoram and facilitating the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to China. Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Aksumite Empire and the Han dynasty of China. The Kushan Empire was at the center of trade relations between the Roman Empire and China: according to Alain Danilou, "for a time, the Kushana Empire was the centerpoint of the major civilizations".[26] While much philosophy, art, and science was created within its borders, the only textual record of the empire's history today comes from inscriptions and accounts in other languages, particularly Chinese.[27] Kushan empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, which fell to the Sasanians invading from the west, establishing the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom in the areas of Sogdiana, Bactria and Gandhara. In the 4th century, the Guptas, an Indian dynasty also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian kingdoms were eventually overwhelmed by invaders from the north, known as the Kidarites, and then the Hephthalites.[12]

Afghanistan, 1077-1256, Khwarazmian dynasty
Afghanistan, Khwarazmian dynasty, 1077-1256; 100,000 Martyrs of Tbilisi by the Mongols, Commemorated on October 31;

Afghanistan, 1220-1231, Sultan, Jalal al-Din, Khwarazmian dynasty, Sunni Islam
Afghanistan Sultan, 1220-1231, Jalal al-Din, Khwarazmian dynasty, Sunni Islam; Afghanistan, Khwarazmian dynasty, 1077-1256; 100,000 Martyrs of Tbilisi by the Mongols, Commemorated on October 31;

Afghanistan, 1370-1507, Timurid Empire, Tamurlane's Dynasty
Timurid Empire, 1370-1507, Tamurlane's Dynasty, founded by Tamur the Lame or Tamurlane; Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated on August 26 ; Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. Awakening in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God was painted by the Evangelist Luke on a board from the table at which the Savior ate together with His All-Pure Mother and Righteous Joseph. The Mother of God, upon seeing this image, exclaimed, “Henceforth, all generations shall call Me blessed. The grace of both My Son and Me shall be with this icon.” the year 1131, the icon was sent from Constantinople to Rus to holy Prince Mstislav (April 15) and was installed in the Devichi monastery in Vyshgorod, the ancient appanage city of the holy Equal of the Apostles Princess Olga. son of George Dolgoruky, Saint Andrew Bogoliubsky, brought the icon to the city of Vladimir in 1155 and installed it in the renowned Dormition cathedral which he built. At this time the icon received its name of “the Vladimir Icon.” The icon was first brought to Moscow in the year 1395. Thus, the blessing of the Mother of God established the spiritual bonds of Byzantium and Rus via Kiev, Vladimir and Moscow. festal celebration of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos occurs several times during the year (21 May, 23 June and 26 August). The most solemn celebration occurs on August 26, the Feast established in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon upon its Transfer from Vladimir to Moscow. the year 1395, the fearsome conqueror Khan Tamerlane (Temir-Aksak) reached the Ryazan frontier, took the city of Elets and advancing towards Moscow he came near the banks of the River Don. Great Prince Basil Dimitrievich went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the River Oka. He prayed to the holy Hierarchs of Moscow and Saint Sergius for the deliverance of the Fatherland, and he wrote to the Metropolitan of Moscow Saint Cyprian (September 16), that the pending Dormition Fast should be devoted to zealous prayers for mercy and repentance. were sent to Vladimir, where the famed wonderworking Vladimir Icon was. After Divine Liturgy and a Molieben on the feast of the Dormition, they clergy took the icon and brought it to Moscow. Along the way, on both sides of the road, countless people prayed kneeling: “O Mother of God, save the land of Russia!” At that same hour, when the people of Moscow were meeting the Vladimir Icon on Kuchkov Field, Tamerlane was sleeping in his tent. Suddenly, he saw in a dream a great mountain, at the summit of which were the holy hierarchs with golden staffs coming towards him. Above them, in a brilliant radiance, was a Majestic Woman. She commanded him to leave the domains of Russia. in fright, Tamerlane asked the meaning of the vision. The experts answered that the Radiant Lady was the Mother of God, the great Protectress of Christians. Tamerlane then gave the order for his troops to retreat. In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian Land from Tamerlane, they built the monastery of the Meeting on Kuchkov Field, where the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon took place. On August 26, the all-Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established. important events in Russian Church history have occurred before the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God: the election and elevation of Saint Jonah, advocate of an Autocephalous Russian Church (1448), and of Saint Job, first Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (1589), and of His Holiness Patriarch Saint Tikhon (1917). The enthronement of His Holiness Pimen, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, occurred on a day of celebration in honor of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God on May 21 (O.S.), 1971. historical days of 21 May, 23 June and 26 August, connected with this holy icon, have become memorable days for the Russian Orthodox Church. St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17;

Afghanistan, 1395, Tammerlane retreats after Dream, Vladimir Icon Mother of God (Don River 1, Kulikovo Pole)

Afghanistan, 1395, Luke's Vladimir Icon, Grace of Jesus and MOG shall be with this Icon

Afghanistan, 1395, Feast of the Dormition, Vladimir Icon sent to Moscow, same hour of meeting at Kuchkov, T's dream

Afghanistan, Helmand River Folder

Helmand River

Helmand River Source (along the border near Kabul)

Helmand River (Arghandab River Mouth)

Helmand River Sink (near Zabol)

Sistan Basin (a sink)

Afghanistan, Arghastan River Folder

Arghastan River

Arghastan River Source

Afghanistan, Arghastan River Mouth, Tarnak River Folder

Tarnak River
Tarnak River;

Tarnak River Source

Afghanistan, Arghastan River Mouth, Arghandab River Folder

Arghandab River

Arghandab River Source (NW of Ghazni)

Kandahar, Afganistan (Arghandab River Mouth)
Kandahar, Afganistan

Arghandab River (Dahla Dam)

Afghanistan, Grand Trunk Road Folder (between South China and Afganistan)

Kabul, Afghanistan (end of the Grand Trunk Road)

Bagram, Afghanastan, capital of India's Kushan Empire, Grand Turk Road and Silk Road Intersection
Bagram, Afghanastan, capital of India's Kushan Empire; India and Afghanistan, 30-375, Kushan Empire, 30-376; Kushan Empire was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of modern-day territory of Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India,[16] at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great.[17] Emperor Kanishka and the Kushans in general were great patrons of Buddhism, as well as Zoroastrianism.[18] They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent and its spread to Central Asia and China. Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation,[19][20] an Indo-European nomadic people of possible Tocharian[21][22][23][24][25] origin, who migrated from northwestern China (Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria.[20] Kushans possibly used the Greek language initially for administrative purposes, but soon began to use Bactrian language.[7] Kanishka sent his armies north of the Karakoram mountains. A direct road from Gandhara to China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraging travel across the Karakoram and facilitating the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to China. Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Aksumite Empire and the Han dynasty of China. The Kushan Empire was at the center of trade relations between the Roman Empire and China: according to Alain Danilou, "for a time, the Kushana Empire was the centerpoint of the major civilizations".[26] While much philosophy, art, and science was created within its borders, the only textual record of the empire's history today comes from inscriptions and accounts in other languages, particularly Chinese.[27] Kushan empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, which fell to the Sasanians invading from the west, establishing the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom in the areas of Sogdiana, Bactria and Gandhara. In the 4th century, the Guptas, an Indian dynasty also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian kingdoms were eventually overwhelmed by invaders from the north, known as the Kidarites, and then the Hephthalites.[12]

Kushan Empire, out of Bagram, Afghanistan, 30-375, Grand Turk Road and Silk Road Intersection
Bagram, Afghanastan, capital of India's Kushan Empire; India and Afghanistan, 30-375, Kushan Empire, 30-376; Kushan Empire was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of modern-day territory of Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India,[16] at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great.[17] Emperor Kanishka and the Kushans in general were great patrons of Buddhism, as well as Zoroastrianism.[18] They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent and its spread to Central Asia and China. Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation,[19][20] an Indo-European nomadic people of possible Tocharian[21][22][23][24][25] origin, who migrated from northwestern China (Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria.[20] Kushans possibly used the Greek language initially for administrative purposes, but soon began to use Bactrian language.[7] Kanishka sent his armies north of the Karakoram mountains. A direct road from Gandhara to China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraging travel across the Karakoram and facilitating the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to China. Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Aksumite Empire and the Han dynasty of China. The Kushan Empire was at the center of trade relations between the Roman Empire and China: according to Alain Danilou, "for a time, the Kushana Empire was the centerpoint of the major civilizations".[26] While much philosophy, art, and science was created within its borders, the only textual record of the empire's history today comes from inscriptions and accounts in other languages, particularly Chinese.[27] Kushan empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, which fell to the Sasanians invading from the west, establishing the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom in the areas of Sogdiana, Bactria and Gandhara. In the 4th century, the Guptas, an Indian dynasty also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian kingdoms were eventually overwhelmed by invaders from the north, known as the Kidarites, and then the Hephthalites.[12]

Mongol, Khzaria Folder, Commands Western Silk Road, North Black Sea and Scythia

Mongol, Khazaria, 802-811, Nicholas, resisted inkeeper's daughter, fought Bulgars, only survivor, spared, left world, clairvoyance
Mongols, Khzaria, 802-811, Nicholas, monk of Bulgaria, resisted inkeeper's daughter, fought Bulgars, only survivor, vison, spared because overcame temptation, left world, settled in cave, schemamonk, unceasing prayer for fallen soldiers, granted clairvoyance; Bulgars; Venerable Nicholas the Monk of Bulgaria, Commemorated on December 24; Nicholas the Former General was a military commander under the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros I (802-811). He was ordered to lead his troops against the Bulgars. On the eve of battle he was approached by the innkeeper’s daughter, but he resisted her shameless attempts to seduce him. his comrades perished in the battle, but Nicholas remained alive. It was revealed to him in a vision that his life was spared because he had overcome temptation. After this Saint Nicholas left the world and settled into a cave. He became a schemamonk, and prayed unceasingly for his fallen soldiers. By his great ascetic efforts he so pleased the Lord, that he was granted the gift of clairvoyance.

Mongol, Khzaria, 965-969, Atil, Scythia. Capital of the Khazars
Atil, Scythia, 965-969. Capital of the Khazars; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Khazaria, Land of the Khzars, Dagestan , Derbent, North Caucusus, Above Silk Road
Land of the Khzars, Khazaria, Derbent ; Martyr Otar of the St David Gareji Monastery, Georgia, Commemorated on August 12; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11 and April 6;

Mongol, Khzaria, Western Silk Road Folder (to China to Turkey)

Mongol, Khzaria, Roman Road, Via Militaris Folder, from Belgrade, Serbia to Adrianopolis, Bulgaia

Roman Road, Via Militarius

Roman Road, Via Militaris 1, Singidunum (Belgrade)
Roman Road, Via Militarius 1, Singidunum (Belgrade); Roman Road, Via Militarius;

Roman Road, Via Militaris 2 , Viminacium, Roman Moesia Superior (Prima) Capitol
Viminacium, capital of Roman Moesia Superior (Prima), on Via Militarius; Saint Donatus, Bishop of Euroea in Epirus, Commemorated on April 30;

Roman Road, Via Militaris 3 (Naissus or Nish, Serbia (South Morava River 5)
Roman Road, Via Militaris 3 (Naissus or Nish, Serbia (South Morava River 5) Nish, Serbia; Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21;

Roman Road, Via Militaris 4, Serdica or Sofia, Bulgaria
Roman Road, Via Militaris 4, Sofia, Bulgaria Sofia occupies a strategic position at the centre of the Balkan Peninsula, on Roman Road. Repose of the Venerable John the Abbot of Rila, Commemorated on August 18; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated August 30; Greatmartyr George the New at Sofia, Bulgaria, Commemorated on May 26;

Roman Road, Via Militaris 5, Philippopolis, Thrace, Bulgaria (Maritza River 5)
Philippoplis; Martyr Severus and 38 Soldiers in Thrace, Commemorated on August 20; Martyr Theodotus of Adrianopolis, Commemorated on September 15 ; New Martyr Ignatius the Monk of Bulgaria, Commemorated October 8 ; Apostle Hermes of the Seventy, Commemorated November 5 ; Apostle Hermas of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Apostle Hermas of the Seventy, Commemorated on March 8; New Martyr Ignatius the Martyr of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 1; Martyr Alexander of Rome, Commemorated on May 13; Apostle Hermas of the Seventy, Commemorated on May 31 ; Venerable Paisius of Hilandar, Bulgaria, Commemorated on June 19;

Roman Road, Via Militaris 6, Adrianopolis, Thrace, Bulgaria
Adrianople; Venerable Cosmas the Eunuch and Hermit of Palestine, Commemorated on August 3; Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13; Martyr Agathonicus of Nicomedia, and others who suffered under Maximian, Commemorated on August 22; 40 Women Martyrs at Heraclea, in Thrace, Commemorated September 1 ; Martyr Theodotus of Adrianopolis, Commemorated on September 15 ; Repose of St. Anthimus, Bishop of Georgia, Commemorated on September 14; St. Stephen of Serbia, œthe blind oneÂ, Commemorated on October 9; St Alexander the Bishop at Adrianopolis, Commemorated on October 22 ; St Athanasius the Patriarch of Constantinople; Venerable Athanasius the Younger the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated October 28 ; Martyr Maximus of Adrianopolis, Commemorated February 19; Monkmartyr Euthymius of Prodromou of Mt Athos, Commemorated on March 22; New Martyr Euthymius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 1; St Anthimus, Bishop of Georgia, Commemorated on June 13;

Mongol, Khazaria, Scythia Folder

Mongol, Khzaria, Scythia, Don River Folder (to Sea of Azov, Crimea, Black Sea)

Mongol, Khzaria, Scythia, Lesser Scythia Folder (Dacia Pontica)

Mongol, Khzaria, Scythia, Volga River Folder

Mongol, Khzaria, Scythia, Ural River Folder

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region, Danube River Folder

Danube Mouth (Black Sea)
Apostle Andrew, the Holy and All-Praised First-Called;

Danube River

Danube River Trade Route from Germany's Black Forest to the Black Sea

Black Forest
Black Forest;

Danube Source (Germany's Black Forest)

Danube River 1 (near Lake Constance, and Bingen in Bavaria)

Danube River 2 (Ulm, Germany)

Danube River 3 (Munich (Isar) and Inn Rivers)

Danube River 4 (Linz, Austria)

Danube River 5 (Vienna, Amber Road 5)

Danube River 6 (Slovakian Hungarian border)

Danube Regions
Danube regions; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24;

Danube River 7 (Budapest, Hungary)

Danube River 8 (Srem Region)

Danube River 9 (Belgrade, Serbia)

Danube River 10 (Overview 2)

Danube River 11

Danube River 12 (Iskar River)

Danube River 13 (Oltenia)

Danube River 14 (Bucharest)

Danube River 15 (Overview 3)

Danube River 16 (Galats, Siret River Mouth)

Danube River 17

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region, Bosporan Kingdom Folder, in Thaurica (Crimea), Roman Empire

Mongol, Khazaria, North Black Sea, Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD
Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD; Bosporan Kingdom of the Roman Empire; Hieromartyrs of Cherson, 303-313 Diocletian Persecution; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7;

Mongol, Khazaria, North Black Sea, 303-313, Hieromartyrs of Cherson, 303-313 Diocletian Persecution
Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD; Bosporan Kingdom of the Roman Empire; Hieromartyrs of Cherson, 303-313 Diocletian Persecution; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7;

Mongol, Khazaria, North Black Sea,, 300-370, Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Crimea
Rome, 301-370, Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Crimea, Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD, North Black Sea Region from Danube to Dniper rivers, ruled by Roman Empire, The beginning of the enlightenment of Tauridia is attributed to the holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called; Cherson, Crimea; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyrs Basil, Ephraim, Eugene, Elpidius, Agathodorus, Aetherius, and Capiton carried the Gospel of Christ into the North Black Sea region from the Danube to the Dniper, including the Crimea. were bishops of Cherson at different times during the fourth century, and they sealed their apostolic activity with martyrdom. Only Aetherius died in peace. before the Baptism of Rus under Saint Vladimir, the Christian Faith had already spread into the Crimea, which in antiquity was called Tauridia and was ruled by the Roman Emperor. The beginning of the enlightenment of Tauridia is attributed to the holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called (November 30). Church’s enemies unwillingly contributed to the further spread of Christianity. The Roman emperors often banished traitors to this area. During the first three centuries, Christians were regarded as traitors because they would not follow the state religion. In the reign of Trajan (98-117), Saint Clement, Bishop of Rome (November 25), was sent to work in a stone quarry near Cherson. There he continued his preaching, and suffered martyrdom. pagans inhabiting the Crimea stubbornly resisted the spread of Christianity. But the faith of Christ, through its self-sacrificing preachers, grew strong and was affirmed. Many missionaries gave their lives in this struggle. the beginning of the fourth century a bishop’s See was established at Cherson. This was a critical period when Cherson served as a base for the Roman armies which constantly passed through the area. During the reign of Diocletian (284-305), the Patriarch of Jerusalem sent many bishops to preach the Gospel in various lands. Two of them, Ephraim and Basil, arrived in Cherson and planted the Word of God there. on, Saint Ephraim went to the peoples living along the Danube, where he underwent many tribulations and sorrows. He was beheaded at the start of the persecution. The preaching at Cherson was continued by Saint Basil, Saint Ephraim’s companion. He set many idol-worshippers on the path of truth. Other wayward inhabitants of the city, enraged at his activity, rose up against him. The saint was arrested, mercilessly beaten and expelled from the city. went to a mountain and settled in a cave, where he unceasingly prayed to God for those who had driven him out, asking that He might illumine them with the light of true knowledge. And the Lord provided the unbelievers with a miracle. The only son of an important citizen of Cherson died. The dead child appeared to his parents in a dream and said that a certain man named Basil could resurrect him from the dead by his prayers. the parents had found the saint and entreated him to work the miracle, Saint Basil replied that he himself was a sinful man and had not the power to raise the dead, but the Lord Almighty could fulfill their request if they were to believe in Him. For a long time the saint prayed, invoking the Name of the Holy Trinity. Then he blessed water, and sprinkled it on the dead one, who was restored to life. The saint returned to the city with honor, and many believed and were baptized. by order of the emperor Maximian Galerius (305-311), the persecution against Christians spread with renewed force. The Christ-haters rose up also against Saint Basil. On March 7, 309 he was dragged from his house during the night. They tied him up, dragged him along the streets and beat him to death with stones and rods. The body of the saint was thrown out of the city to be eaten by dogs and birds, and for many days it was left unburied, but remained untouched. Then Christians secretly buried the body of the holy martyr in a cave. year after the martyrdom of Saint Basil, three of his companions, Bishops Eugene, Elpidius and Agathodorus, ceased their preaching in the Hellespont, and arrived at Cherson to continue his holy work. They endured many hardships for the salvation of human souls. All three bishops shared the fate of their predecessor: they were stoned to death by the pagans on March 7, 311. Constantine the Great (May 21) took the throne, Bishop Aetherius was sent by emperor Constantine to Cherson from Jerusalem. At first he also encountered hostility on the part of the pagans, but the holy emperor would not tolerate acts of violence against the preacher. He issued a decree permitting the Christians of Cherson to have church services without hindrance. Through the efforts of Saint Aetherius a church was built in the city, where the saint peacefully governed his flock. Aetherius journeyed to Constantinople to thank the emperor for protecting the Christians. He fell ill and died on the return trip. holy emperor Constantine then sent Bishop Capiton to Cherson to replace Saint Aetherius. The Christians met him with joy, but the pagans demanded a sign from the new bishop, so they might believe in the God Whom he preached. Placing all his hope on the Lord, Saint Capiton put on his omophorion and went into a burning furnace. He prayed in the fire for about an hour, and emerged from it unharmed. “Shall anyone bind fire in his bosom, and not burn his garments?” Solomon asks (Prov. 6:27). Saint Capiton carried red-hot coals in his phelonion, yet neither his body nor his garments were scorched. Many of the unbelievers were then persuaded in the power of the Christian God. miracle and the great faith of Saint Capiton were reported to Saint Constantine and the holy Fathers of the First Ecumenical Council (325), and they all glorified God. several years Saint Capiton journeyed to Constantinople on business, but the ship encountered a storm at the mouth of the Dniepr River. The local people (pagans) seized the ship and drowned all those on board, including Saint Capiton. Although this occurred on December 21, Saint Capiton is commemorated with the other hieromartyrs of Cherson on March 7.

Cherson, Crimea,, Mongol, Khazaria, North Black Sea, Bosporan Kingdom in Thaurica (Crimea), 438 BC - 370 AD
Cherson, Crimea; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; St Callinicus the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on August 23; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Venerable Theodore the Confessor the Abbot of the Studion, Commemorated on November 11 ; Hieromartyr Clement the Pope of Rome, Commemorated November 25 ; Apostle Clement of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Capiton of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Eugene of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; St Martin the Confessor the Pope of Rome, Commemorated on April 14; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Crimea, Khzaria Border, 750-969, Northern Half of Crimea
Crimea, Khzaria Border, 750-969, Northern Half of Crimea; St. John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region, Kuban River Folder

Kuban River

Kuban River Source (Mount Elbrus)
Mount Elbrus;

Kuban River 1 (Karachayevsk)
Karachayevsk;

Kuban River 2 (Cherkessk)
Cherkessk;

Kuban River 3 (Nevinnomyssk)
Nevinnomyssk;

Kuban River 4 (Armavir, Russia)
Armavir, Russia;

Kuban River 5 (Ust-Labinsk)
Ust-Labinsk;

Kuban River 6 (Temryuk)
Temryuk;

Anapa, North Black Seacoast, near Kuban River mouth, Sochi and Crimea
Anapa, North Black Seacoast, near Kuban River mouth, Sochi and Crimea; Righteous Martyr Maria (Skobtsova), Commemorated on July 20;

Anapa, 1911-1945, Maria Skobtsova, Riga, Latvia, athiest a14, radical ideas nAction, not tOrdinary people, Orthodox Social Work
Latvia, 1911-1945, Righteous Martyr Maria (Skobtsova) Riga, Latvia (Westerb Dvina River 19, Gulf of Riga, Baltic Sea), Russian Empire, tBlack Sea shore, Anapa, wNun a7, Athiest a14, 1906 St Petersburg, radical ideas, but do nothing, married Bolshevik, politics poetry theology, no connection to ordinary people, above actual Church, any old beggar woman's prostrations, church wIdea not community, read lives oSaints, concluded need not revolutionary theories but Christ, accepted by Theological Academy, 1913 marriage collapsed, daughter born, WWI, back to Southern Russia, lead weights, needs oOther people not self mortification, 1917 iSt Pete for Bolshevik overthrow, Trotsky's dismissing people from the party, actual revolution vs dreams, 1918 elected deputy mayor Anapa, arrested, defense loyalty to tPeople, married tJudge Daniel Skobtsov, fled to Georgia1921, tYugoslavia, tParis1923, dolls&scarves money, Orthodox lectures, 1926 daughter death grief devoted self to mother for all, social work theological writing, retold saints lives, 1930 Christian Movement traveling secretary, in contact wRussian Refugees, taught personal alms giving, vision new type community, monastic&fraternal, free church can perform miracles, devotion to social work&wanning marriage, Nun suggestion, Daniel accepted, 1932 ordination, monasticism itWorld, house oHospitality, young Russian women guests, chapel upstairs wIconostasis she painted, dining room lecture hall, new location from 25 people to 100, each person icon of God incarnate, venerate that image, other locations&rural sanatorium, not all responded to trust, theft common, said money found and thief cried, they sought the homeless, 1939 WWII German Occupation fFrance, Jews ask for babtismal certificates, arrested for helping Jews, several camps & gas chamber; Riga; Righteous Martyr Maria (Skobtsova), Commemorated on July 20; Pilenko, the future Mother Maria, was born in 1891 in Riga, Latvia, then part of the Russian Empire, and grew up in the south of Russia on the shore of the Black Sea. Her father was mayor of the town of Anapa, while on her mother's side, she was descended from the last governor of the Bastille, the Parisian prison destroyed during the French Revolution. parents were devout Orthodox Christians whose faith helped shape their daughter's values, sensitivities and goals. As a child she once emptied her piggy bank in order to contribute to the painting of an icon that would be part of a new church in Anapa. At seven she asked her mother if she was old enough to become a nun, while a year later she sought permission to become a pilgrim who spends her life walking from shrine to shrine. the age of 14, her father died, an event that seemed to her meaningless and unjust and led her to embrace atheism. "If there is no justice," she said, "there is no God." decided God's nonexistence was well known to adults but kept secret from children. For her, childhood was over. her widowed mother moved the family to Saint Petersburg in 1906, she found herself in the country's political and cultural center — also a hotbed of radical ideas and groups — and became part of radical literary circles that gathered around such symbolist poets as Alexander Blok, whom she first met at age 15. many of her contemporaries, she was drawn to the left, but was often disappointed at the radicals she encountered. Though regarding themselves as revolutionaries, they seemed to do nothing but talk. spirit longed to engage in heroic feats, even to perish, to combat the injustice of the world," she recalled. Yet no one she knew was actually laying down his or her life for others. her friends hear of someone dying for the Revolution, she noted, "they will value it, approve or not approve, show understanding on a very high level, and discuss the night away till the sun rises and it's time for fried eggs. But they will not understand at all that to die for the Revolution means to feel a rope around one's neck." 1910, she married Dimitri Kuzmin-Karaviev, a Bolshevik and part of a community of poets, artists and writers, but she later commented that it was a marriage born "more of pity than of love." addition to politics and poetry, she and her friends also talked theology, just as their political ideas had no connection at all to the lives of ordinary people, their theology floated far above the actual Church. There was much they might have learned, she reflected later in life, from "any old beggar woman hard at her Sunday prostrations in church." many intellectuals, the Church was an idea or a set of abstract values, not a community in which one actually lives. still regarding herself an atheist, gradually her earlier attraction to Christ revived and deepened, not yet Christ as God incarnate but Christ as heroic man. time, she found herself drawn toward the religious faith she had abandoned after her father's death. prayed and read the Gospel and the lives of saints and concluded that the real need of the people was not for revolutionary theories but for Christ. wanted "to proclaim the simple word of God," she told Blok in a letter written in 1916. Desiring to study theology, she applied for admission to Saint Petersburg's Theological Academy of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery, in those days an entirely male school whose students were preparing for ordination. surprising as her wanting to study there was the rector's decision that she could be admitted. 1913, her marriage collapsed. Later that year, her first child, Gaiana, was born. as World War I was beginning, she returned with her daughter to southern Russia, where her religious life grew more intense. a time she secretly wore lead weights sewn into a hidden belt as a way of reminding herself both "that Christ exists" and also to be more aware that minute-by-minute many people were suffering and dying in the war. realized, however, that the primary Christian asceticism was not self-mortification, but caring response to the needs of other people. October 1917, she was present in Saint Petersburg when Russia's Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks. part in the All-Russian Soviet Congress, she heard Lenin's lieutenant, Leon Trotsky, dismiss people from her party with the words, "Your role is played out. Go where you belong, into history's garbage can!" grew to see how hideously different actual revolution was from the dreams of revolution that had once filled the imagination of so many Russians! February 1918, she was elected deputy mayor of Anapa. she was arrested, jailed, and put on trial for collaboration with the enemy. court, she rose and spoke in her own defense: "My loyalty was not to any imagined government as such, but to those whose need of justice was greatest, the people. Red or White, my position is the same — I will act for justice and for the relief of suffering. I will try to love my neighbor." It was thanks to Daniel Skobtsov, a former schoolmaster who was now her judge, that she avoided execution. After the trial, she sought him out to thank him. Eventually they married. the course of the civil war was turning in favor of the Bolsheviks, the Skobtsovs fled to Georgia, where she gave birth to a son, Yura, in 1920. year later, having relocated to Yugoslavia, she gave birth to Anastasia, long journey ended with their arrival in Paris in 1923, where to supplement their income she made dolls and painted silk scarves, often working ten or twelve hours a day. friend introduced her to the Russian Student Christian Movement, an Orthodox association founded in 1923. She began attending lectures and other activities and felt herself coming back to life spiritually and intellectually. 1926, she grieved the death of her daughter Anastasia. She emerged from her mourning determined to seek a "new road before me and a new meaning in life, to be a mother for all, for all who need maternal care, assistance, or protection." devoted herself to social work and theological writing. 1927 two volumes, Harvest of the Spirit, were published, in which she retold the lives of many saints. 1930, she was appointed traveling secretary of the Russian Student Christian Movement, work which put her into daily contact with impoverished Russian refugees throughout France and neighboring countries. often lectured, but she was quick to listen to others as they related some terrible grief that had burdened them for years. She took literally Christ's words, that He was always present in the least person. "Man ought to treat the body of his fellow human being with more care than he treats his own," she wrote. "Christian love teaches us to give our fellows material as well as spiritual gifts. We should give them our last shirt and our last piece of bread. Personal alms-giving and the most wide-ranging social work are both equally justified and needed." time, she began to envision a new type on community, "half monastic and half fraternal," that would connect spiritual life with service to those in need, in the process showing "that a free Church can perform miracles." Sergei Bulgakov, her confessor, was a source of support and encouragement, as was her bishop, Metropolitan Evlogy [Georgievsky], who was responsible from 1921 to 1946 for the many thousands of Russian expatriates scattered across Europe. her devotion to social work, and knowing of her waning marriage, he suggested to her the possibility of becoming a nun. time, Daniel came to accept the idea after meeting with Metropolitan Evlogy. the spring of 1932, in the chapel at Paris' Saint Sergius Theological Institute, she was professed as a nun with the name Maria. made her monastic profession, Metropolitan Evlogy recognized, "in order to give herself unreservedly to social service." Mother Maria called it simply "monasticism in the world." "to share the life of paupers and tramps," she began to look for a house of hospitality and found it at 9 villa de Saxe in Paris, which she leased with financial assistance from Metropolitan Evlogy. began receiving guests, mainly young Russian women without jobs, giving up her own room to house them while herself sleeping on a narrow iron bedstead in the basement. A room upstairs became a chapel — she painted the iconostasis icons — while the dining room doubled as a hall for lectures and dialogues. need of larger facilities, a new location was found two years later in an area of Paris where many impoverished Russian refugees had settled. While at the former address she could feed only 25, here she could feed a hundred. her guests could regain their breath "until the time comes to stand on their two feet again." Her credo was: "Each person is the very icon of God incarnate in the world." this recognition came the need "to accept this awesome revelation of God unconditionally, to venerate the image of God" in her brothers and sisters. her ministry evolved, she rented other buildings, one for families in need, and another for single men. A rural property became a sanatorium. 1937, she housed several dozen women, serving up to 120 dinners every day. Every morning, she would beg for food or buy cheaply whatever was not donated. a seemingly endless array of challenges, Mother Maria was sustained chiefly by those she served — themselves beaten down, people in despair, cripples, alcoholics, the sick, survivors of many tragedies. not all responded to trust with trust. Theft was not uncommon. On one occasion a guest stole 25 francs. Everyone guessed who the culprit was, a drug addict, but Mother Maria refused to accuse her. Instead she announced at the dinner table that the money had not been stolen, only misplaced, and she had found it. "You see how dangerous it is to make accusations," she commented. At once the girl who stole the money burst into tears. Maria and her collaborators would not simply open the door when those in need knocked, but would actively seek out the homeless. place to find them was an all-night café at Les Halles where those with nowhere else to go could sit for the price of a glass of wine. also were cared for, and a part-time school was opened at several locations. her attention toward Russian refugees who had been classified insane, Mother Maria began a series of visits to mental hospitals. In each hospital five to ten percent of the Russian patients turned out to be sane and, thanks to her intervention, were released. Language barriers and cultural misunderstandings had kept them in the asylum. time, she and her associates helped establish clinics for TB sufferers and a variety of other ministries. Another landmark was the foundation in September 1935 of a group named "Orthodox Action" — a name proposed by her friend, philosopher Nicholas Berdyaev. Cofounders included Father Sergei Bulgakov, historian George Fedotov, the scholar Constantine Mochulsky, the publisher Ilya Fondaminsky, and her long-time coworker Fedor Pianov, with Metropolitan Evgoly serving as honorary president. financial support from supporters across Europe and the United States, a wider range of projects and centers were made possible: hostels, rest homes, schools, camps, hospital work, help to the unemployed, assistance to the elderly, publication of books and pamphlets, etc. all of these growing ministries, Mother Maria's driving concern was that it should never lose its personal or communal character. October 1939, Father Dimitri Klepinin, then 35 years old, began to assist Mother Maria as she began the last phase of her life — a series of responses to World War II and Germany's occupation of France. Mother Maria could have fled Paris when the Germans were advancing, or even sought refuge in America, she would not budge. "If the Germans take Paris, I shall stay here with my old women. Where else could I send them?" She had no illusions about the Nazi threat, which to her represented a "new paganism" bringing in its wake disasters, upheavals, persecutions and wars. defeat came greater poverty and hunger, and the local authorities in Paris declared her house an official food distribution point, where volunteers sold at cost price whatever food Mother Maria had bought in that morning. refugees were among the particular targets of the occupiers. June 1941, a thousand were arrested, including several close friends and collaborators of Mother Maria and Father Dimitri, who launched an aid project for prisoners and their dependents. in 1942, their registration now underway, Jews began to knock at Mother Maria's door, asking Father Dimitri if he would issue baptismal certificates to them. The answer was always yes. names of those "baptized" were also duly recorded in his parish register in case there was any cross-checking by the police or Gestapo, as indeed did happen. Father Dimitri was convinced that in such a situation Christ would do the same. the Nazis issued special identity cards for those of Russian origin living in France, with Jews being specially identified, Mother Maria and Father Dimitri refused to comply, though they were warned that those who failed to register would be regarded as citizens of the USSR — enemy aliens — and be punished accordingly. the subsequent mass arrest of Jews — 12,884, of whom 6,900 (two-thirds of them children) were brought to the Velodrome d'Hiver sports stadium and held for five days before being sent to Auschwitz — Maria entered the stadium and for three days offered comfort to the children and their parents, distributing what food she could bring in. even managed to rescue a number of children by enlisting the aid of garbage collectors and smuggling them out in trash bins. her house house was bursting with people, many of them Jews. "It is amazing," Mother Maria remarked, "that the Germans haven't pounced on us yet." Father Dimitri, Mother Maria and their coworkers set up routes of escape to the unoccupied south. It was complex and dangerous work. Forged documents had to be obtained. A local resistance group helped secure provisions for those Mother Maria's community was struggling to feed. February 8, 1943, while Mother Maria was traveling, Nazi security police entered the house and found a letter in her son Yura's pocket in which Father Dimitri was asked to provide a Jew with a false baptismal document. now actively a part of his mother's work, was taken to the office of Orthodox Action, soon after followed by his distraught grandmother, Sophia Pilenko. The interrogator ordered her to bring Father Dimitri. Once the priest was there, said the interrogator, they would let Yura go. His grandmother Sophia was allowed to embrace Yura and give him a blessing. It was last time she saw him in this world. following morning, after celebrating the Divine Liturgy, Father Dimitri set off for the Gestapo office, where he was interrogated for four hours, making no attempt to hide his beliefs. The next day, February 10, Mother Maria was arrested and her quarters were searched. Several others were called for questioning and then held by the Gestapo. She was confined with 34 other woman at the Gestapo headquarters in Paris. Her son Yura, Father Dimitri and their coworker of many years, Feodor Pianov, were held in the same building. Pianov later recalled witnessing Father Dimitri being prod and beaten by an SS officer while Yura stood by, weeping. Father Dimitri "began to console him, saying the Christ withstood greater mockery than this." April, the prisoners were transferred to Compiegne, where Mother Maria was blessed with a final meeting with Yura, who said his mother "was in a remarkable state of mind and told me ... that I must trust in her ability to bear things and in general not to worry about her. Every day [Father Dimitri and I] remember her at the proskomidia ... We celebrate the Eucharist and receive Communion each day." Hours after their meeting,Mother Maria was transported to Germany. December 16, Yura and Father Dimitri were deported to Buchenwald concentration camp in Germany, followed several weeks later by Pianov. In January 1944, Father Dimitri and Yura were sent to another camp, Dora. Within ten days of arrival, Yura contracted furunculosis. On February 6, "dispatched for treatment" — a euphemism for "sentenced to death." Four days later Father Dimitri, lying on a dirt floor, died of pneumonia. His body was disposed of in the Buchenwald crematorium. Mother Maria — now "Prisoner 19,263" — was sent in a sealed cattle truck to the Ravensbruck camp in Germany, where she endured for two years, an achievement in part explained by her long experience of ascetic life. was assigned to Block 27 and befriended the many Russian prisoners who were with her. Unable to correspond with friends, little testimony in her own words has come down to us, but prisoners who survived the war remembered her. of them, Solange Perichon, recalls: "She was never downcast, never. She never complained.... She was full of good cheer, really good cheer. We had roll calls which lasted a great deal of time. We were woken at three in the morning and we had to stand out in the open in the middle of winter until the barracks [population] was counted. She took all this calmly and she would say, 'Well that's that. Yet another day completed. And tomorrow it will be the same all over again.' ... She allowed nothing of secondary importance to impede her contact with people." that her own exit point from the camp might be via the crematoria, Mother Maria asked a fellow prisoner whom she hoped would survive to memorize a message to be given at last to Father Sergei Bulgakov, Metropolitan Evlogy and her mother: state at present is such that I completely accept suffering in the knowledge that this is how things ought to be for me, and if I am to die, I see this as a blessing from on high." work in the camp varied. There was a period when she was part of a team of women dragging a heavy iron roller about the camp's pathways for 12 hours a day. In another period she worked in a knitwear workshop. legs began to give way. As her health declined, friends no longer allowed her to give away portions of her own food, as she had done in the past to help keep others alive. the Red Army approaching from the East, the concentration camp administrators further reduced food rations while greatly increasing the population of each block from 800 to 2,500. serious decline, Mother Maria accepted a pink card freely issued to any prisoner who wished to be excused from labor because of age or ill health. January 1945, those who had received such cards were transferred to what was called the Jugendlager — the "youth camp" — where the authorities said each person would have her own bed and abundant food. Mother Maria's transfer was on January 31. the food ration was further reduced and the hours spent standing for roll calls increased. Though it was mid-winter, blankets, coats and jackets were confiscated, and then even shoes and stockings. The death rate was at least fifty per day. Next all medical supplies were withdrawn. Those who still persisted in surviving now faced death by shootings and gas, the latter made possible by the construction of a gas chamber in March 1945, in which 150 were executed every day. Mother Maria survived five weeks in the "youth camp" before she was returned to the main camp on March 3. Though emaciated and infested with lice, with her eyes festering, she began to think she might actually live to return to Paris, or even go back to Russia. was not to be the case. On March 30, 1945 — Great, Holy and Good Friday that year — Mother Maria was selected for the gas chambers, in which she perished the following day, on Great and Holy Saturday. are at odds about what happened. According to one, she was one of the many selected for death that day. According to another, she took the place of another prisoner, a Jew, who had been chosen. perishing in the gas chamber, she did not perish in the Church's memory. Survivors of the war who had known her would again and again draw attention to the ideas, insights and activities of the unusual nun who had spent so many years coming to the aid of people in desperate straits. after the end of World War II, essays and books about her began to appear in France and Russia. A Russian film, "Mother Maria," was made in 1982. There have been two biographies in English and, little by little, the translation and publication in English of her most notable essays. January 18, 2004, the Holy Synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople recognized Mother Maria Skobtsova as a saint, along with her son Yuri; the priest who worked closely with her, Fr. Dimitri Klépinin; and her close friend and collaborator Ilya Fondaminsky. Their glorification took place in Paris' Cathedral of Saint Alexander Nevsky.

Kuban River Mouth

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region, Northwestern Georgia Folder, Abkhazeti

Colchis Region, Northwestern Georgia
Colchis Region; Apostle Matthias of the Seventy, Commemorated on August 9 ;

Abkhazeti Region (Northwest Georgia, Southwest Caucasus Mts)
Abkhazeti Region, A disputed territory on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of the Caucasus ; St Gregory of Chandzoe in Georgia, Commemorated on October 5; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27 ; Martyr Abo the Perfumer, of Tibilisi, Georgia, Commemorated January 8 ; St Ephraim the Lesser, Commemorated January 18 ; St Gabriel, Bishop of Imereti, Commemorated January 25 ; St Ephraim the Great of Atsquri, Commemorated on April 15; Martyred Fathers and Mothers of Atchara, Commemorated on May 29;

Sochi, Russia (Northwestern Georgia, Alania)
Sochi; New Martyr John the New of Sochi, who suffered at Belgrade, Commemorated on June 2;

Alania, Land of the Bagrationi Dynasty, North Ossetia
Alania, Land of the Bagrationi Dynasty, North Ossetia; Georgia, 1187-1207, David Soslan Bagrationi, King Consort to Tamar; Holy Queen Tamara, Commemorated on May 8;

Pityus in Abkhazia, Northwest Georgia on the Black Sea
Pityus in Abkhazia on the Black Sea ; St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople, Commemorated November 13 ; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24 ;

Pitindeia, Northwest Georgia (Pitsunda)
Pitindeia (Pitsunda); Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24;

New Athos monastery, Abkhazeti, Georgia, 1875
New Athos Simono-Kananitsk monastery in the Caucasus; Icon of the Mother of God the "Deliveress", Commemorated October 17 ;

Simono-Kananitsk monastery, New Athos, in the Caucasus, 1875
New Athos Simono-Kananitsk monastery in the Caucasus; Icon of the Mother of God the "Deliveress", Commemorated October 17 ;

Khobi River

Khobi River Source

Schemarum Fortress, Tsageri, Khzaria, North Black Sea, Scythia (Khobi River 1)
Schemarum Fortress, Tsageri (in lower Svaneti); Tsageri (in lower Svaneti); St Jacob the Elder, and disciple of St Anthony of Chkondidi, Commemorated on October 13 ; St. Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on January 21; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on January 21;

Khobi, Western Georgia
Khobi, Western Georgia ; Venerable Hieromonk Alexei of Teklati, Commemorated on January 18 ;

Lazika, Northwest Georgia (planned city, Black Sea)
Lazika (planned city, Black Sea); Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13;

Enguri River (Inguri)

Egrisi (now Samegrelo Province)
Egrisi (now Samegrelo Province); St Jacob the Elder, and disciple of St Anthony of Chkondidi, Commemorated October 13 ;

Samegrelo Province, Northwestern Georgia
Samegrelo Province; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27; Venerable Hieromonk Alexei of Teklati; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16

Mingrelia (Samegrelo)
Mingrelia (Samegrelo); Georgia, 1621-1682, Queen Mariam Dadiani; Martyr Evdemoz the Catholicos of Georgia, Commemorated on October 4;

Ilori Theological School in Ochamchire, Northwestern Georgia
Ilori Theological School in Ochamchire; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27 ;

Bedia Cathedral, 999
Bedia Cathedral, 999; Georgia, 975-1014, Georgia King, Bagrat III, Bedia Cathedral ; Bedia Cathedral; St Hilarion of Tvali, Commemorated on July 24; St Melchizedek I, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated October 1 ; Venerable George the Scribe, of Khakhuli, Commemorated on December 19; Venerable Macarius the Faster, Abbot of the Khakhuli Monastery, Commemorated on December 21; Venerable Sabiana, Abbess of the Samtskhe Monastery, Commemorated on December 31; Martyr Luke of Jerusalem, the Georgian, Commemorated on February 12; St Prochorus of Georgia, Commemorated on February 12; St John (Chrysostom) IV, the Catholicos of Georgia, Commemorated on March 3; St John of Khakhuli the Oqropiri, also called Chrysostom, Commemorated on March 10; St Basil of Georgia, the son of King Bagrat III, Commemorated on May 27 ;

Enguri River Source (along the border, Caucasus Mountains)

Enguri River (Inguri) Mouth (Black Sea)

River Atcharistsqah

Egrisi, Northwestern Georgia
Egrisi; St Jacob the Elder, and disciple of St Anthony of Chkondidi, Commemorated October 13 ; St Vakhtang Gorgasali, King of Georgia, Commemorated November 30;

Tskhumi, Northwestern Georgia
Tskhumi, Northwestern Georgia Martyr David the Prince of Georgia, Commemorated October 2 ;

Sokhumi, Northwestern Georgia
Sokhumi; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated October 27 ; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27;

Bridge of Queen Tamar, Northwest Georgia
Bridge of Queen Tamar; Martyred Fathers and Mothers of Atchara, Commemorated on May 29;

River Atcharistsqali 1
River Atcharistsqali; Martyred Fathers and Mothers of Atchara, Commemorated on May 29;

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black Sea Region - Khazars, Commanded Western Silk Road

Mongol, Khazaria, North Black Sea Region, 650-1048, Khazars, Commanded Western Silk Road
Scythia, 650-1048, Khazars Scythia, Turks of Atil, 750-969, Khazars; Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black to Caspian Seas Region, Dagestan Folder

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black to Caspian Seas Region, Derbend Area Folder, West Caspian, North Caucusus

Derbend, Dagestan
Derbend, Dagestan; Martyr Otar of the St David Gareji Monastery, Georgia, Commemorated on August 12; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28;

Caucasus, Greater Caucasus Mountains Southeast
Greater Caucasus Mountains;

Land of the Huns, 1st to 7th century AD, Caspian Sea and Cacausus Mts
Land of the Huns, Caspian Sea, Cacausus Mts, Scythia, and Hungary ; Venerable Genevieve of Paris, Commemorated on January 3 ;

Albanus (Albanapolis, Derbent, Dagestan, Caspian Sea)
Albanus (Derbent, Dagestan, Caspian Sea) ; BARTHOLOMEW THE APOSTLE, (24 AUGUST NT) ;

Dagestan, Land of the Khzars, Khazaria, Derbent, North Caucusus, West Caspian
Land of the Khzars, Khazaria, Derbent ; Martyr Otar of the St David Gareji Monastery, Georgia, Commemorated on August 12; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11 and April 6;

Sarir, Dagestan
Sarir, Dagestan; Prophet Ezekiel, Commemorated on July 21 ;

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black to Caspian Seas Region, Terek River Folder, Ossetia North

Terek River

Terek River Source (SW of Mount Kazbek)

Mt. Kazbegi
Mt. Kazbegi; Venerable Joseph the Elder and Wonderworker of Khevi, Georgia, Commemorated October 7 ;

Khevi Area (Kazbegi District, Ossetia North, and Mtskheta Region, Ossetia South)
Khevi Area; Venerable Joseph the Elder and Wonderworker of Khevi, Georgia, Commemorated October 7 ;

Khevi Creek

Trinity Church, Gergeti (Ossetia Region, near Terek River Source) 1300-1399, 14th Century
Gergeti Trinity Church; Venerable Joseph the Elder and Wonderworker of Khevi, Georgia, Commemorated October 7 ;

Trinity Creek

Trinity Creek Upper Trinity Creek

Trinity Church (a picture)
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Stepantsminda-Sameba Georgia
http://www.heritagesites.ge/

Trinity Church, Gergeti, Tsminda samebo church, Georgia
Stepantsminda-Sameba,,Georgia

Bethlehem Cave, Betlemi in the rocks of Mt Mkinvartsveri (Georgia)
,,Georgia

Bethlehem Cave 13,450 feet on this trail to the peak?

Stepantsminda, Dagestan (Terek River Source)
Stepantsminda ; St John Zedazneli of Zaden, in Georgia with his 12 Disciples, Commemorated on May 7;

Terek River 1 (Terek, Ossetia)

Ossetia Region (North and South of the Caucasus, Ossetian Language)
Ossetia Region North and South; Blessed David IV the King of Georgia;

Terek, Ossetia or Vladikavkaz (capital of North Ossetia)
Terek, Ossetia or Vladikavkaz (capital of North Ossetia); St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ;

Ingushetia Region (Assa River Valley, Chechnya, North Caucasus, Dagestan)
Ingushetia Region; Located in the North Caucasus region with its capital at Magas.

Chechnya
Chechnya; St. Arsenius the Great, Catholicos of Georgia, Commemorated on September 25;

Alania, Christian Bagrationi's
Alania, Christian Bagrationi's; David Soslan, King Consort, Kingdom of Georgia, 1187-1189, 1207, Bagrationi, Husband of Queen Tamar; Right-believing Tamara, Queen of Georgia, Commemorated on May 1;

North Caucasus
North Caucasus ; St Pimen of Salosi the Enlightener of Dagestan and the North Caucasus People, Commemorated on March 16;

Osetian land, Dagestani Persians, Alans
Ossetia: Ossetian Land is the area both north and south of the Caucasus Mountians ; Ossetians came from Persia (Iran). ; These persians were Alans; These Alans were Aryan or Indo-Persians; These Aryans were from northern Indian including Nepal, Pakistan and the Ganges River Area called Aryavarta; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19 ; St Vakhtang Gorgasali, King of Georgia, Commemorated November 30 ; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; Holy Queen Tamara, Commemorated on May 8 ;

Ossetia North, Dagestan
Ossetia; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19 ; St Vakhtang Gorgasali, King of Georgia, Commemorated November 30 ; Blessed David IV the King of Georgia, Commemorated on January 26; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28 ; St John Zedazneli of Zaden, in Georgia with his 12 Disciples, Commemorated on May 7; Holy Queen Tamara, Commemorated on May 8 ;

North Ossetia-“Alania
North Ossetia-“Alania; Khan Mengu-Temir, 1266-1280; Saint Theodore, Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, and his sons Saints David and Constantine, Commemorated on September 19;

North Osetia-Alania, Khan Mengu-Temir, 1266-1280,
North Ossetia-“Alania; Khan Mengu-Temir, 1266-1280; Saint Theodore, Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, and his sons Saints David and Constantine, Commemorated on September 19;

Terek River 2 (Ossetia)

Terek River 3 (Sunzha River Mouth)

Georgia, Dagestan and Azerbaijan,Terek River 3, Sunzha River Folder

Sunzha River Source (Greater Caucasus Mountains)

Caucasaus, Greater Caucasus Mountains
Greater Caucasus Mountains;

Sunzha River

Sunzha River Mouth (Terek River 3)

Terek River 4 (Kizhar, Terek River Delta)

Kizliar, Dagestan (Terek River Delta, Caspian Sea)
Kizliar; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28;

Terek River Mouth (Caspian Sea)

Dagestan, Avar people (Caucasus)
Dagestan, Avar people (Caucasus) ; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2 ;

Mongol, Khzaria, North Black to Caspian Seas Region, Kuma River Folder

Kuma River

Kuma River Delta

Kuma River Delta 2

Kuma River Tributary

Kuma River Source (west of Kislovodsk)

Kuma River 1 (Mineralnye Vody)
Kuma River 1 (Mineralnye Vody);

Dagestan, Kuma River 1.5, Podkumok River Folder

Podkumok River

Podkumok River Source

Podkumok River 1 (Kislovodsk)
Podkumok River 1 (Kislovodsk);

Podkumok River 2 (Yessentuki)
Podkumok River 2 (Yessentuki);

Podkumok River 3 (Pyatigorsk)
Podkumok River 3 (Pyatigorsk);

Podkumok River 4 (Georgiyevsk)
Podkumok River 4 (Georgiyevsk);

Podkumok River Mouth (Kuma River 1.5)

Kuma River 2 (Zelenokumsk)
Kuma River 2 (Zelenokumsk);

Kuma River 3 (Budyonnovsk)
Kuma River 3 (Budyonnovsk);

Kuma River 4 (Neftekumsk)
Kuma River 4 (Neftekumsk);

Kuma River (Russia) Mouth
Kuma River (Russia) Mouth;

Mongol, Perm Folder, and its rivers, Tartarstan

Kazan Region (Perm)
Kazan Region; Repose of the Blessed Maximus of Moscow, Commemorated on November 11 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Juliana the Princess of Vyazma, Commemorated December 21 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin Chernigov, Commemorated on April 16 ; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; St Dionysius the Archbishop of Suzdal, Commemorated on June 26; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27;

Perm, Land of the Zyrian (Komi) People 2 (Kama River Basin)
Land of the Zyrian (Komi) People 2 (Kama River Basin, Perm Region); St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26;

Perm, Land of the Voguls
Voguls; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19;

Perm, Gubernia,
Gubernia - a division of the Russian Empire
Perm Gubernia - Perm in the Russian Empire

Vogulani, Voguls, Perm, Land of the Voguls
Voguls; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19;

Tartarstan (Perm)
Tartarstan is a federal subject of Russia (a republic) located in the Volga Federal District. Its capital is the city of Kazan; Tatars; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; SERGIUS, ABBOT OF HOLY TRINITY (25 SEPT 1392) ; Repose of the Blessed Maximus of Moscow, Commemorated on November 11 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 24 ; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia ; St Juliana the Princess of Vyazma, Commemorated December 21 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on February 5; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God œCzestochowaÂ, Commemorated on March 6 ; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21 ; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on April 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; St Dionysius the Archbishop of Suzdal, Commemorated on June 26; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4;

Bashkortostan, south of Perm (between Volga River and Ural Mts)
Bashkortostan, located between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains. Its capital is the city of Ufa; Tatars; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God œCzestochowaÂ, Commemorated on March 6; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31;

Trans-Siberian RWY 6 - Perm
Trans-Siberian RWY 6 - Perm;

Mongol, Perm, 1241-1552, Kazan Tartars
Kazan Tartars; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25 ; Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated September 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; a and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated September 18 ; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; Repose of the Blessed Maximus of Moscow, Commemorated on November 11 ; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Maximus, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on December 6 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Juliana the Princess of Vyazma, Commemorated December 21 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂœElets-ChernigovÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on February 5; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonye, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on March 5; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂœCzestochowaÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on March 6; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂœIlyin ChernigovÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on April 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27 ; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6 ; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; St Dionysius the Archbishop of Suzdal, Commemorated on June 26; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Perm Kazan Tartars History Folder

Mongol, Perm, 600-1240, Volga Bulgaria Islamic Tartars Folder, 7th -13th Centuries

Mongol, Perm, 600-1240's, Kazan, Volga Bulgaria, Islamic Kazan Tartars
Perm, Kazan, Volga Bulgaria, 7th Century to 1240's (Islamic Kazan Tartars), Tartarstan, Islamic, Land of the Volga Bulgars) ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5;

Mongol, Perm, 1221, Vladimir-Suzdal forces against Islamic Volga Bulgars, Nizhny Novgorod
Vladimir-Suzdal forces against Islamic Volga Bulgars (1219); Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1241-1552, Kazan Tartar's Folder

Mongol, Perm, 1227-1255, Kazan Tartar, Batu Khan of the Golder Horde Founder, Nvertsky's loyalty
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1227-1255, Batu Khan of the Golder Horde; Khan (c. 1205–1255),[note 1] also known as Sain Khan (Mongolian: Good Khan) and Tsar Batu,[2] was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Golden Horde, a division of the Mongol Empire. was a son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. His ulus was the chief state of the Golden Horde, which ruled Rus', Volga Bulgaria, Cumania, and the Caucasus for around 250 years, after also destroying the armies of Poland and Hungary. or Bat literally means "firm" in the Mongolian language. After the deaths of Genghis Khan's sons, he became the most respected prince, called agha ("elder brother"), in the Mongol Empire. 1 Personality and appearance 2 Early years 3 Conquest of Kievan Rus' 4 Invasion of Central Europe 5 Viceroy and struggle with Güyük 6 Möngke and Batu 7 Family and legacy 8 Ancestry 9 Gallery 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Books 14 External links and appearance[edit] to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Batu was "kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time."[3] of Rubruck described him as about the height of his lord John de Beaumont and his entire face was covered with reddish spots.[4] years[edit] his son Jochi's death, Genghis Khan assigned Jochi's appanages to his sons. the Great Khan installed Batu as Khan of the Golden Horde (also known as the Ulus of Jochi or Kipchak Khanate). eldest son, Orda Khan, also agreed that Batu should succeed their father. Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge attended the coronation ceremony as an official representative of Genghis.[5] Genghis Khan died in 1227, he left 4,000 Mongol men to Jochi's family. Jochi's lands were divided between Batu and his older brother Orda. White Horde ruled the lands roughly between the Volga river and Lake Balkhash, while Batu's Horde ruled the lands west of the Volga. 1229, Ogedei dispatched three tumens under Kukhdei and Sundei to conquer the tribes on the lower Ural River. to Abulghazi, Batu joined Ogedei's military campaign against the Jin dynasty in North China while his younger brother was fighting the Bashkirs, the Cumans, the Bulghars and the Alans in the west. heavy resistance of their enemies, the Mongols conquered major cities of the Jurchens (Manchuria, northeast China) and made the Bashkirs their ally. the 1230s, Ogedei distributed lands in Shanxi, China to Batu and the family of Jochi, but they appointed their officials under the supervision of the Imperial governor likewise in Khorasan, Persia.[6] of Kievan Rus'[edit] articles: Kievan Rus', Mongol invasion of Rus', and Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria showvte invasions and conquests the kurultai in Mongolia after the end of the Mongol-Jin War, the Great Khan Ogedei ordered Batu to conquer western nations. 1235 Batu, who earlier had directed the conquest of the Crimean Peninsula, was assigned an army of possibly 130,000 to oversee an invasion of Europe. relatives and cousins Guyuk, Büri, Möngke, Khulgen, Khadan, Baidar and notable Mongol generals Subutai (Subeedei), Borolday, and Mengguser joined him by the order of his uncle Ogedei. The army, actually commanded by Subutai, crossed the Volga and invaded Volga Bulgaria in 1236. It took them a year to extinguish the resistance of the Volga Bulgarians, Kypchaks, and Alani. of the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal by Mongol armies. From the medieval Russian annals November 1237 Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal and demanded his allegiance. Yuri refused to surrender the Mongols besieged Ryazan. After six days of bloody battle, the city was totally annihilated and never restored to its former glory. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the horde, but they were soundly defeated. burnt Kolomna and Moscow, the horde laid siege to the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal on 4 February 1238. Three days later the city was taken and burnt to the ground. The royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince hastily retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, he mustered a new army, which was totally exterminated by the Mongols on the Sit River on 4 March. Batu Khan divided his army into smaller units, which ransacked fourteen Rus' cities: Rostov, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Gorodets, Galich, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuriev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Volokolamsk, Tver, and Torzhok. most difficult to take was the small town of Kozelsk, whose boy-prince Titus and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks. As the story goes, at the news of Mongol approach, the city of Kitezh was submerged in a lake with all its inhabitants, where it may be seen to this day. Khadan and Buri stormed the city in three days after they joined Batu. only major cities to escape destruction were Smolensk, which submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute, and Novgorod with Pskov, which could not be reached by the Mongols on account of considerable distance and the intervening marshlands. of the Golden Horde sack Suzdal. Batu drank a cup of wine before the others at the victory banquet, Buri complained of the unfairness of Batu receiving such a vast and fertile steppe, and the Mongol army, along with Guyuk and others, ridiculed Batu as an "old woman with beard". They then left the banquet. Batu sent an envoy to his uncle Ogedei to complain of his cousins' rude behavior. Ogedei got angry on hearing the news and recalled Buri and Guyuk. to some sources, Buri, who was sent to his grandfather Chagatai, never returned to join the Mongol conquest of Europe; Guyuk returned to the Russian steppe after his father Ogedei harshly criticized him. the summer of 1238, Batu Khan devastated the Crimea and pacified Mordovia and the Kipchak-controlled steppe. the winter of 1239, he sacked Chernigov and Pereyaslav. several days of siege, the Mongols stormed Kiev in December 1240. fierce resistance by Danylo of Halych, Batu Khan managed to take the two principal capitals of his land, Halych and Volodymyr-Volynsky. Ruthenian principalities became vassals of the Mongol Empire. of Central Europe[edit] article: Mongol invasion of Europe Cuman refugees took shelter in the Kingdom of Hungary. Batu sent at least five messengers to Bela IV, the king of Hungary, but they were all killed. For the last time Batu demanded that Bela have the Cumans returned and warned: "It is much easier for the Cumans to escape than it is for you...you dwell in houses and have fixed towns and fortresses, so how will you escape me"?[7] Batu Khan then decided to "reach the ultimate sea", where the Mongols could proceed no further. Some modern historians speculate that Batu intended primarily to assure his flanks were safe for the future from possible interference from the Europeans, and partially as a precursor to further conquest. Most believe he intended the conquest of all Europe, as soon as his flanks were safe and his forces ready. IV flees from Mohi, detail from Chronicon Pictum devastated the various Rus principalities, Subutai and Batu sent spies into Poland, Hungary, and as far as Austria in preparation for an attack into the heartland of Europe. a clear picture of the European kingdoms, they brilliantly prepared an attack. Batu Khan was the overall leader, but Subutai was the actual commander in the field and as such was present in both the northern and southern campaigns against The Mongols invaded central Europe in three groups. One group invaded and devastated Poland, defeating a combined force under Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order at Legnica. second crossed the Carpathian Mountains, a third followed the Danube. armies swept the plains of Hungary over the summer, and in the spring of 1242 they regained impetus and extended their control into Austria and Dalmatia, as well as invading Morava. the northern force under Ogedei's son Khadan and Baidar, the son of Chagatai, won the Battle of Legnica, and another army of Guyuk or Buri triumphed in Transylvania, Subutai was waiting for another victory over the Magyars, the Croats, and the Templars on the Hungarian plain. 1241, a Tatar (Mongol) army led by Bujek crossed the mountains of the Kara Ulagh ("Black Vlachs"); Bujek defeated the Vlachs and one of their leader named Mslav.[8] the siege of Pest, Batu's army withdrew to the Sajo River and inflicted a tremendous defeat on King Bela IV and his allies at the Battle of Mohi on 11 April. Baidar, and Orda went to Hungary, devastating Moravia en route. The Mongols appointed a darughachi in Hungary and minted coins in the name of the Khagan.[9] country of Bela was assigned to Orda by Batu as an appanage; Batu sent Khadan in pursuit of Bela, who fled to Croatia.[citation needed] Chinese drawing of young Batu Khan (14th century). Mongol battalions checked the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Babenberg Austria.[10] his campaign in Central Europe, Batu demanded that Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, dethrone himself, and said: "I am coming to usurp your throne instead of you". The latter only replied that he would make a good falconer, for he understood birds very The Emperor and Pope Gregory IX called for a crusade against the Mongol Empire, but Europe was plagued by internal strife. achieved lasting fame with his victories in Europe, as he had in Eastern Persia. late 1241, Batu and Subutai were finalizing plans to invade Austria, Italy, and Germany when the news came of the death of Ogedei Khan, who died in December 1241. wanted to continue the war[citation needed], but Subutai reminded him of the law of Yassa (Ð˜Ñ… Ð—Ð°ÑÐ°Ð³)[citation needed]. Mongols withdrew in late spring of 1242, as the Princes of the blood, and Subutai, were recalled to Karakorum where the kurultai was held. Second Bulgarian Empire was forced to acknowledge Batu's supremacy. was a potential Great Khan, but when he failed to gain the title he turned to consolidate his conquests in Asia and the Urals. and struggle with Guyuk[edit] from Hungary, Batu made his camps along the banks of the Volga. When the Great Khatun Töregene invited him to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire, Batu announced his inability to attend any immediate kurultai, thus delaying the succession for several years. Guyuk was elected Khagan in 1246, with Batu's brothers representing the Jochid lineage. As one of the oldest members of Chingisid Borjigin, Batu became a viceroy over all the western parts of the empire, controlling routine affairs among the Russian princes, nominating Jochid retainers as governors of Iran, and receiving in audience grandees from the Caucasus. At no point, however, did he openly challenge the authority of the Great Khan. the absence of Batu, the Mongols who were left behind put to death Mstislav, the prince of Rylsk, in Kievan Rus'. his return Batu summoned the Grand prince Yaroslav II of Vladimir to meet him. Yaroslav was well received by Batu, who confirmed him as suzerain over the other Russian princes, and gave him authority of Kiev. princes of Suzdal followed Yaroslav's example. Batu sent Yaroslav to the imperial court of Karakorum to assist at the inauguration of Guyuk Khan in 1246. Plano Carpini, who got approval from Batu to go further, noted that the Great Khan's aunt was executed. At the same time Yaroslav was poisoned in Mongolia. Michael of Chernigov was passed between fires in accordance with ancient Turco-Mongol tradition. Batu Khan stabbed him to death for his refusal to do obeisance to Genghis Khan's shrine in the pagan ritual. had commissaries in the various towns where the dependent Russian princes and other princes held their courts. princes from Russian states such as Vladimir Constantine, Boris, Gleb, Vasili, Constatantine, Vladimir Constantinovich, Vasilko and Sviatoslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir, went to the court of Batu in person. Michael of Chernigov, who had murdered the Mongol envoy in Kiev, arrived, the Mongol overseers were engaged in taking a census of the inhabitants for the poll tax. Michael was ordered to repair to Batu. When summoned before Batu, he was made to pass between two fires and ordered to prostrate himself before the tablets of Genghis Khan. replied that he did not object to do obeisance to Batu himself but to adore images of a dead man was repugnant. As he persisted in his refusal, Batu ordered his death. of Halych summoned to Batu and diplomatically made obeisance to the Mongols. Batu, addressing him, said "You have for a long time refused to come, but have effaced your ill conduct by your obedience" and saluted him with a draught of airag. exchanged hostages whereby 100 families of Keraites were re-settled in Carpathian-Galicia. the defeat of the Sultanate of Rum, Baiju freed David VII Ulu from Turkish imprisonment and sent him to Batu and Guyuk. Baiju's aggressive policy, Queen Rusudan of Georgia sent her son David VI Narin to Batu's court to get official recognition as heir apparent. supported David VI and granted him the rights above the Georgian and Armenian nobles and the Mongol tammachis. Guyuk made David Ulu the senior king of Georgia and ordered Batu's protege David Narin to be subordinate to David Ulu. between Batu and Guyuk increased, however, and Guyuk replaced the officials in Iran and the Caucasus with his own men, including Eljigidei. gave a good reception to Alexander Nevsky and Andrey II. Andrey was assigned the throne of Vladimir-Suzdal while Alexander was given southern Russia. Guyuk began moving west, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Tolui, warned Batu that he was actually the Great Khan's target. Guyuk summoned Batu to appear before him, Batu moved slowly. Before meeting Batu, Guyuk died suddenly. According to William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicle, one of Batu's brothers murdered or poisoned the Great Khan Guyuk and Batu then killed the imperial envoy, though this account is not completely confirmed by other major sources. öngke and Batu[edit] loyal vassal Alexander Nevsky in the Horde opportunity had arrived for deposing the House of Ogedei from the overlordship of the Mongols, and Batu was determined to avail himself of it. But Batu seemed to allow Oghul Qaimish to serve as regent. He also suggested unruly princes listen to her words. When Batu was ill, Mongke went to the Ulus of Jochi to greet him as his mother Sorghagtani advised. Batu was much delighted on seeing him. last, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. Members of the Ogedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend the kurultai beyond the Mongolian heartland. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu Khan who had no interest in promoting himself as the new Grand Khan. Rejecting it, he instead nominated Mongke, who led a Mongol army in Russia, the Northern Caucasus, and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction (Genghis 4th son, Yuan Dynasty) rose up and supported his choice. Given its limited attendance and location, this kurultai was of questionable validity. sent Mongke under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. supporters of Mongke invited Oghul Qaimish and other main Ogedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time, demanding descendants of Ogedei must be khan. In response, Batu accused them of killing his aunt Altalaun and defying Ogedei's nominee, Shiremun. the assembled throng proclaimed Mongke Great Khan of the Mongol Empire in 1251, he punished the Ogedeid and Chagataid families for the organized plot against him. sent Buri to Batu who had him executed by Buri's opponent general. Eljigidei was also ordered to be executed. Grand prince Andrey II allied with the rebellious-minded princes of western Rus, giving umbrage to the Mongols. sent a punitive expedition under Nevrui. On their approach, Andrey fled to Pskov and thence to Sweden. The Mongols spread over Vladimir and harshly punished the people there. Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov on hearing the news about the Mongols. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq, Alexander was installed as the Grand Prince of Vladimir (i.e., the supreme Russian ruler) by Batu in 1252. 1256 Andrey travelled to Sarai to ask pardon for his former infidelity and was shown mercy. the reign of Mongke, Batu's prestige as kingmaker and viceroy of the great khans in the west reached its height. Even so, Batu allowed Mongke's census takers to operate freely in his realm. to a Muslim chronicle and the History of Yuan, Batu had free access to the imperial treasury.[12] Of all the grandsons of Genghis Khan, he and Mongke seemed most capable and the most dedicated to following the spirit of Mongolian law.[13] dispatched a large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu's expedition in the Middle East. However, Berke's persuasion might have forced him to delay to strengthen Hulagu's force, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there, for few years. Batu, Mongke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey. He left state affairs to his son Sartaq before Batu died in 1255. Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Icon of the Mother of God œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on November 27;

Mongol, Perm, 1241-1552, Kazan Tartars
Kazan Tartars; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25 ; Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated September 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; a and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated September 18 ; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; Repose of the Blessed Maximus of Moscow, Commemorated on November 11 ; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Maximus, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on December 6 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Juliana the Princess of Vyazma, Commemorated December 21 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÃƒÂƒÃ‚ÂƒÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂƒÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â‚ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂƒÃƒÂƒÃ‚ Commemorated on February 5; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonye, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on March 5; Icon of the Mother of God œCzestochowa, Commemorated on March 6; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping Ilyin Chernigov, Commemorated on April 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27 ; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6 ; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; St Dionysius the Archbishop of Suzdal, Commemorated on June 26; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1266-1280, Kazan Tartar Khan, Mengu-Timur of the Golder Horde, pro Orthodox
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1266-1280, Mengu-Timur of the Golder Horde; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Kholm, Commemorated September 8 ; Icon of the Mother of God œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on November 27;

Mongol, Perm, 1360-1396, Saint Stephen of Perm
Perm, 1360-1396, Saint Stephen of Perm; Repose of the Venerable Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh, Commemorated on September 25;

Mongol, Perm, 1437-1445, Ulugh Muhammad, Crimea and Kazan Tartar Khan, Vytautas s, Ottoman s, Vasilly II, Golden Horde
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1437-1445, Ulugh Muhammad; Muhammad (1405-1445) was a medieval Tatar statesman, Gengisid, Khan of the Golden Horde (before 1436), ruler of Crimea (1437), and the founder of the Khanate of Kazan, which he ruled from 1438-1445. He was the son of the oglan Ichkile Hassan and the cousin of Tokhtamysh. He received the nickname "Ulugh", meaning older or large, in contrast to another Muhammed who was called "Kichi", meaning younger or small. Muhammad was Khan of the Golden Horde in 1419-1423, 1426, 1428. In 1428-1432 he waged a stubborn struggle for possession of the Ulug Ulus with the representatives of a minor branch of the Tukaytimurids (one of the branches of the Gengisids). being defeated, Ulugh Muhammad escaped to Volga Bulgaria vilayet in 1423. With the support Vytautas, Ulugh Muhammad was able to regain the throne of the Golden Horde in 1426. He succeeded in spreading the power of the Horde to Crimea and established friendly relations with the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. Muhammad sent an embassy to Egypt in 1428-1429. In 1431 the son and grandson of the ruler of Moscow, Dmitriy Donskoy came to the court to Ulugh Muhammad in order to reach a decision about princely succession. Ulugh Muhammad ruled in favour of the grandson, Vasiliy II . St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29;

Mongol, Perm, 1462, Saint Jonah, Bishop of Perm, Converted Great Perm to Christ
Saint Jonah, Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6; Jonah, Bishop of Great Perm, was successor to Saint Pitirim, Bishop of Perm (August 19), who was murdered by the Vogulani in 1455. In the year 1462 Saint Jonah converted the inhabitants of Great Perm to Christ. He journeyed throughout his extensive diocese to spread and consolidate the Christian Faith. The saint reposed on June 6, 1470 and was buried at Ust-Vym at the Annunciation cathedral.

Mongol, Perm, 1467-1479, Tartar Khan, Ibrahim of Kazan, Moscow wars then treaty with Ivan III
Mongol, Perm, 1467-1479, Tartar Khan, Ibrahim of Kazan; khan (died 1479) was the Khan of Kazan from 1467. He was the son of Mäxmüd. He was crowned after Xälil's death and was married to Nursoltan. 1467–1469 and 1478 he participated in wars against Muscovy. After concluding a treaty with Ivan III, all Russian prisoners of war held by the Khanate were released. He supported a policy of non-intervention into Muscovy's politics. Wars against Muscovy[edit] 1467 Ivan III began to wage war against the Kazan Khanate. In the fall he sent as a pretender oglan Kasim, Ibrahim's uncle, which was supported by a part of Kazan nobility. Ibrahim destroyed numerous Muscovite forces in the battle on the Idel(Volga). the head of opposition was mirza Gabgul-Mumin. The Russian campaign ended unsuccessfully, with the Russian army deciding to not cross the Volga to engage in combat with the Tatars. In response to this Ibrahim-khan in winter made a dragoon to the border areas of the enemy and plundered environs of Galich Merskoy. 1468 Ivan III sent strong garrisons to Nizhniy Novgorod, Murom, Kostroma, Galich and began military action on the territory of Khanate. This campaign accompanied by extreme violence against ordinary people with the purpose of provoking Kazan into a big war. sent its armies by two directions: Galich and Nizhniy Novgorod-Muromsk. On the first way, the Khanate's army was contributed by success. Tatars captured the Kichmeng town and two volosts of Kostroma were been occupied. On the second way Russians stopped Tatars defeating Khadzhi-Berdy's troop. opened a third front from Khlynov. Ushkuyniks went by boats to Kama from Vyatka and began robbing the hinterland of the Khanate (deep behind the lines). In response to this Tatars sent troops that captured the capital of Vyatka Land - Khlynov. Wars of Ivan III, 1467-1506; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1;

Mongol, Perm, 1521, Invasion of Moscow by Tatars led by Khan Makhmet-Girei
Moscow, 1521, Invasion of Moscow by Tatars led by Khan Makhmet-Girei ; Icon of the Mother of God "Virgin of Tenderness" of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated August 26 ; Finding of the relics of Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonsk, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on November 19; Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonye, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on March 5; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1524-1549, Khan, Safa Giray of Kazan
Perm Khan, 1524-1549, Safa Giray of Kazan ; Hieromartyr Philip the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on January 9 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated on January 24; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1529, John of Kazan, moslem tartars captured him from Nizhni Novgorod, to Kazan, slave to Khan's relative, killed
Mongol, Perm, 1529, John of Kazan, Perm, moslem tartars captured him from Nizhni Novgorod, brought to Kazan, slave to Khan's relative, killed ; Kazan ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; Martyr John of Kazan suffered for Christ in the city of Kazan on January 24, 1529. During the reign of Great Prince Basil the Tatars swooped down upon Nizhni Novgorod. Many of the inhabitants were taken into captivity and brought to Kazan. Also among their number was the fearless John. the captives were distributed to their new owners, he was given to Alei-Shnura, who was related to the Khan. By day John honestly served his master, but at night he went without sleep and prayed, patiently enduring insults and abuse. The master resolved to force his servant to become a Moslem, but John firmly declared that he worshiped Jesus Christ as God. the winter the Tatars tied him up and led him to a Russian cemetery, mortally wounded him with swords, and threw him into the snow. That night, Saint John reached the door of some Russians living in Kazan, and he asked them to summon a priest. He received the Holy Mysteries and prayed all night, then died the following morning.

Mongol, Perm, 1551-1568, Saint, Herman of Kazan, Volokolamsk, Staritsa and Svyazhsk, library, Moscow, Tsar d
Kazan Saint, 1551-1568, St Herman, Herman of Kazan and Svyazhsk; St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on November 6; Herman, Archbishop of Kazan, lived during the sixteenth century. He was born in the city of Staritsa, and was descended from the old boyar nobility of the Polevi. In his youth Gregory (his baptismal name) was tonsured at the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery under Igumen Gurias, who later became Archbishop of Kazan (December 5). (Saint Gurias was head of the monastery from 1542 to 1551). the monastery Saint Herman occupied himself with copying books, and he was a close friend of Saint Maximus the Greek (January 21), who was living there in confinement. In 1551 the brethren of the Staritsa Dormition monastery, seeing his piety, chose him as their archimandrite. up the governance of this monastery with a pastoral zeal, Saint Herman concerned himself with its internal and external order, for he himself was a model of humility and meekness. He exhorted all to observe their monastic commitment strictly, and he introduced into his monastery the Rule of Saint Joseph of Volokolamsk (October 18). after two and a half years Archimandrite Herman left the Staritsa monastery, leaving its direction to the hieromonk Job (June 19), who afterwards was to become the first Patriarch of Moscow, and was an ascetic and sufferer for the Russian Land. Herman’s love for solitary struggles brought him to return to his original Volokolamsk monastery, where he strove toward salvation as a simple monk. However, when the new heretic Matthew Bashkin (who refused to acknowledge the Holy Mysteries and denied faith in the Holy Trinity) appeared at Moscow, Saint Herman and his own father (who had received tonsure at the Volokolamsk monastery with the name Philotheus) were summoned to the Moscow Council of 1553. The Council censured the heretic Bashkin and resolved to send him for correction to Saint Herman at the Volokolamsk monastery, since Saint Herman was known for his holy life and zeal for the faith in Christ. 1555, after the taking of Kazan, an archepiscopal See was established there. Saint Gurias, the former igumen of Volokolamsk monastery, was chosen as archbishop. He was entrusted with building the Dormition monastery in the city of Sviyazhsk for missionary purposes. By decree of Saint Gurias, Saint Herman was appointed as head of this new monastery in Sviyazhsk. A stone cathedral was built with a belltower and monastic cells. The igumen of the monastery lived very frugally in a cramped cell beneath the cathedral belltower. Saint Herman particularly concerned himself with acquiring a library for the monastery. his monastery became famous for its good works, and it became a center of enlightenment for the Kazan region. March 12, 1564, after the repose of Saint Gurias, Saint Herman was consecrated Bishop of Kazan. The short duration of his tenure there was marked nonetheless by his efforts to build churches and to enlighten the people of the region with the light of Christ. 1566, Ivan the Terrible summoned Saint Herman to Moscow and ordered that he be elected to the Metropolitan cathedra. At first, Saint Herman refused to have this burden imposed upon him. The Tsar would not tolerate any objection, however, and the saint was obliged to settle into the Metropolitan’s quarters until his elevation to the position of Metropolitan. injustice among those of the Tsar’s inner circle, Saint Herman, true to his pastoral duty, attempted to admonish the Tsar. “You are not yet elevated to Metropolitan, and already you place constraints upon my freedom,” the Tsar told him through his aides. He ordered Saint Herman expelled from the Metropolitan’s quarters and that he be kept under surveillance. saint lived in disgrace for about two years, and died on November 6, 1567. They buried him in the church of Saint Nicholas the Hospitable. In 1595, at the request of the inhabitants of Sviyazhsk, the relics of the saint were transferred from Moscow to the Sviyazhsk Dormition monastery. Saint Hermogenes, then Metropolitan of Kazan, visited his grave. Herman is also commemorated on September 25 (first translation of his relics in 1595) and June 23 (second translation of his relics in 1714).

Mongol, Perm, 1552, Kazan campaign 1552 Tsar Ivan the Terrible
Russo-Kazan Wars; Fall of Kazan 1552; Tsar Ivan the Terrible took the icon of the Appearance of the Mother of God on his Kazan campaign (1552). Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Venerable Abramius the Archimandrite of Rostov, Commemorated on October 29; Hieromartyr Philip the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on January 9 ; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Sergius of Shukhtom, Commemorated on May 19; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27 ;

Mongol, Perm, 1552, Fall of Kazan Tartars 1552, to Russia
Fall of Kazan Tartars 1552; Tsar Ivan the Terrible took the icon of the Appearance of the Mother of God on his Kazan campaign (1552). Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24;

Mongol, Perm, 1552 and on, became Christian and Russian

Mongol, Perm, 1555, Kazan Diocese Established
Mongol, Perm, 1555, Kazan Diocese Established; History[edit] Kazan Diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church was established April 3, 1555, three years after the conquest of the Kazan Khanate. The first ruling bishop was the abbot of the monastery of Tver Selizharovo Guri, who went to Kazan with archimandrites Varsonofy and Germany. The most important events in the life of the Kazan diocese were acquiring in 1579 the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God of Kazan participation in the militia of Minin and Pozharsky with the blessing of Patriarch Hermogenes, a former Metropolitan of Kazan and the glorification of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God. During 1741 the missionaries were able to baptize the entire province of 9159 people, Tatars and Bashkirs were among these, only 143 (see A. Chuloshnikov). Anyway, missionary work in the Kazan region was in time rather weak character and the activities of the Kazan Theological Academy was limited mainly to the deeper study of the linguistic and cultural aspects of life of the peoples of the East. Mongol, Perm, 1555-1563, Archbishop Gurius of Kazan; Fall of Kazan Tartars 1552; Tsar Ivan the Terrible took the icon of the Appearance of the Mother of God on his Kazan campaign (1552). Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Saints Jonah and Nectarius of Kazan, Commemorated on October 4; Uncovering of the relics of Saint Gurias, first Archbishop of Kazan, and Saint Barsanuphius, Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on October 4; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24;

Mongol, Perm, 1555-1563, Archbishop Gurius of Kazan
Mongol, Perm, 1555-1563, Archbishop Gurius of Kazan; Fall of Kazan Tartars 1552; Tsar Ivan the Terrible took the icon of the Appearance of the Mother of God on his Kazan campaign (1552). Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; Saints Jonah and Nectarius of Kazan, Commemorated on October 4; Uncovering of the relics of Saint Gurias, first Archbishop of Kazan, and Saint Barsanuphius, Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on October 4; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24;

Mongol, Perm, 1579, Kazan Icon, discovered by 10 yr old girl's dream
after a fire destroyed Kazan in 1579, the Virgin appeared to a 10-year-old girl, Matrona, revealing the location where the icon lay hidden. The girl told the archbishop about the dream but she was not taken seriously. However, on 8 July 1579, after two repetitions of the dream, the girl and her mother recovered the icon on their own, buried under a destroyed house where it had been hidden to save it from the Tatars Mongol, Perm, 1579, Kazan Icon; Lady of Kazan, also called Mother-of-God of Kazan, was a holy icon of the highest stature within the Russian Orthodox Church, representing the Virgin Mary as the protector and patroness of the city of Kazan, and a palladium of all of Russia, known as the Holy Protectress of Russia. to legend, the icon was originally acquired from Constantinople, lost in 1438, and miraculously recovered in pristine state over 140 years later in 1579. Two major cathedrals, the Kazan Cathedral, Moscow, and the Kazan Cathedral, St. Petersburg, are consecrated to Our Lady of Kazan, and they display copies of the icon, as do numerous churches throughout the land. The original icon in Kazan was stolen, and likely destroyed, in 1904. "Fátima image" is a 16th-century copy of the icon, or possibly the 16th-century original, stolen from St. Petersburg in 1917 and purchased by F. A. Mitchell-Hedges in 1953. It was housed in Fátima, Portugal from 1970 to 1993, then in the study of Pope John Paul II in the Vatican from 1993 to 2004, when it was returned to Kazan, where it is now kept in the Kazan Monastery of the Theotokos. Copies of the image are also venerated in the Catholic Church. days of Our Lady of Kazan are 21 July, and 4 November (which is also the Russian Day of National Unity). 1 History 1.1 Fátima image 2 See also 3 References 4 External links to tradition, the original icon of Our Lady of Kazan was brought to Russia from Constantinople in the 13th century. After the establishment of the Khanate of Kazan (c. 1438) the icon disappeared from the historical record for more than a century. Hermogenes' chronicle, written at the request of Tsar Feodor in 1595, describes the recovery of the icon.[1][unreliable source?] According to this account, after a fire destroyed Kazan in 1579, the Virgin appeared to a 10-year-old girl, Matrona, revealing the location where the icon lay hidden. The girl told the archbishop about the dream but she was not taken seriously. However, on 8 July 1579, after two repetitions of the dream, the girl and her mother recovered the icon on their own, buried under a destroyed house where it had been hidden to save it from the Tatars.[2][1][unreliable source?] Monastery of the Theotokos where the icon was conserved until 1904, and the home of the "Fátima image" since 2004 Other churches were built in honour of the revelation of the Virgin of Kazan, and copies of the image were displayed at the Kazan Cathedral of Moscow (constructed in the early 17th century), at Yaroslavl, and at St. Petersburg. military commanders Dmitry Pozharsky (17th century) and Mikhail Kutuzov (19th century) credited invocation of the Virgin Mary through the icon with helping the country to repel the Polish invasion of 1612, the Swedish invasion of 1709, and Napoleon's invasion of 1812. The Kazan icon achieved immense popularity, and there were nine or ten separate miracle-attributed copies of the icon around Russia.[1][unreliable source?] the night of June 29, 1904, the icon was stolen from the Kazan Convent of the Theotokos [ru] in Kazan where it had been kept for centuries (the building was later blown up by the communist authorities[citation needed]). Thieves apparently coveted the icon's gold frame, which was ornamented with many valuable jewels. Several years later, Russian police apprehended the thieves and recovered the frame. The thieves originally declared that the icon itself had been cut to pieces and burnt, although one of them eventually confessed that it was housed in a monastery in the wilds of Siberia. This one, however, was believed to be a fake, and the Russian police refused to investigate, using the logic that it would be very unlucky to venerate a fake icon as though it were authentic.[3] The Orthodox Church interpreted the disappearance of the icon as a sign of tragedies that would plague Russia after the image of the Holy Protectress of Russia had been lost. Indeed, the Russian peasantry was wont to credit all the miseries of the Revolution of 1905, as well as Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, to the desecration of her image.[3] of Saint Nicolas and the Venerable Gerasimus holding the icon Lady of Kazan in Makaryev Monastery (17th century, photograph by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky) Lady of Kazan (1850s reproduction) Our Lady of Kazan. Mid 19th-century Our Lady of Kazan átima image[edit] section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Our Lady of Kazan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Lady of Kazan (Fátima image) Cathedral, Kazan (1561–62) to the site of the icon's recovery, 21 July 2015. the Russian Revolution of 1917, there was speculation that the original icon was in fact preserved in St. Petersburg. Reportedly, an icon of Our Lady of Kazan was used in processions around Leningrad fortifications during the Siege of Leningrad (1941-1944) during World War II.[4] theory proposed that the Bolsheviks had sold the image abroad, although the Russian Orthodox Church did not accept such theories. The history of the stolen icon between 1917 and 1953 is unknown. In 1953 Frederick Mitchell-Hedges purchased an icon from Arthur Hillman. Although the status of the icon as the original Kazan icon remained disputed, Cyril G.E. Bunt concluded "that it is the work of a great icon painter of the 16th century [...] the pigments and the wood of the panel are perfectly preserved as exhaustive X-ray tests have proved, and have mellowed with age", suggesting that while it was a copy of the original icon, it was nevertheless the original icon carried by Pozharski in 1612. It was exhibited at the World Trade Fair in New York in 1964–1965. On 13 September 1965, members of the Blue Army of Our Lady of Fátima spent the night in veneration of the icon in the pavilion in New York. The Blue Army eventually bought the icon from Anna Mitchell-Hedges for US$125,000 in January 1970, and the icon was enshrined in Fátima, Portugal. 1993 the icon from Fátima was given to the Vatican and Pope John Paul II had it installed in his study, where he venerated it for eleven years. In his own words, "it has found a home with me and has accompanied my daily service to the Church with its motherly gaze".[5] John Paul II wished to visit Moscow or Kazan so that he himself could return the icon to the Russian Orthodox Church. However the Moscow Patriarchate was suspicious that the Pope might have other motives, so he presented the icon to the Russian Church unconditionally in August 2004.[6] On August 26, 2004, it was exhibited for veneration on the altar of St. Peter's Basilica and then delivered to Moscow.[7] On the next feast day of the holy icon, July 21, 2005, Patriarch Alexius II and Mintimer Shaymiev, the president of Tatarstan, received it in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kazan Kremlin [ru].[8] icon is now enshrined in the Cathedral of the Elevation of the Holy Cross, part of the Convent of the Theotokos (re-established as a monastery in 2005), on the site where the original icon of Our Lady of Kazan was found, and plans are underway to make the monastery's other buildings into an international pilgrimage centre. The Complicated History of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated July 8/21 and October 22/November 4, Sergei Milov; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8; Icon œNot Made by Handsfrom Lydda, Commemorated on March 12;

Mongol, Perm, 1579, Appearance of the Kazan Icon, Kazan, Perm (Kazanka and Kama Rivers, Volga River 10)
Mongol, Perm, 1579, Appearance of the Kazan Icon, Kazan, Perm (Kazanka and Kama Rivers, Volga River 10); Kazan ; Bulgars and Tartars of Kazan; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated July 8 ; Wonderworking Copy of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, found in 1579, in the Kazan cemetery church named for the holy Prince Theodore and his sons David and Constantine. The holy icon is venerated by the residents of the city.

Mongol, Perm, 1588-1611, Kazan-Yaroslavl Icon, MOG sent man tKazan &take K Icon t Romanov, stolen, r by Y, MOG YChurch, copy t R
Mongol, Perm, 1588, Kazan-Yaroslavl Icon, found 1588 by hand crippled Gerasimos because MOG told him go to place in Kazan, take icon to Romanov church, after that hand healed, Kazan icon stayed there 21 yrs until R taken by Polish-Lithuanian forces, L officer stole icon, Yaroslavl citizens begged officer for it, he wanted much cash, he rejected offers but suddenly brought it march 1609, as P-L troups attack Tver it was taken Yaroslavl i1609, MOG appeared twice to Eleazar commanding build church for icon, where many miracles, also womans monastery, 1610 Romanov begged Tsar Basin IV for it's return, same day new Yaroslavl healings, Tsar decided remain in Y, but Y make exact copy w metal cover for R, annually original brought to Romanov Kazan ; Kazan-Yaroslavl Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8; Kazan-Yaroslavl Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos was found in the year 1588 a man named Gerasimos, who had traveled to Kazan to pray before its famous Icon, because his right hand had become crippled. Mother of God appeared to him and ordered him to go to a certain place, and then to take her Icon and bring it to the city of Romanov and place it in a church. After the man had followed these directives to the letter, his hand was healed. holy Kazan Icon remained at Romanov for twenty-one years, but on March 9,1609 the city was taken by the Polish-Lithuanian forces. Lithuanian officer stole the Icon from the Kazan cathedral in Romanov. it was learned that the holy Icon had been found in the officer's home, the citizens of Yaroslavl begged him to let their city have it. said he would give it to them if they paid him a considerable sum of money. a long time the officer rejected their offers, but then suddenly, on March 18, he brought it to one of Yaroslav's most honorable citizens - Basil Lytkin. Icon was solemnly transferred to the country parish church of the "Laudation of the Virgin” Icon (Fifth Saturday of Great Lent). the Polish-Lithuanian troops attacked Tver that year the holy Icon was taken into the city to the church of the Nativity of the Lord on the banks of the Volga. the Mother of God appeared twice to Deacon Eleazar, commanding him to build a new church to house the Icon. people of Yaroslavl placed the wonderworking Kazan Icon in that church, and many miracles occurred. also worked most energetically to build a women's monastery for seventy-two sisters whose own monastery had been destroyed by the Polish-Lithuanian army. 1610, the residents of Romanov begged Tsar Basil IV Shuisky to allow the Icon to be taken from Yaroslavl and returned to Romanov. new healings took place before the Icon that same day. The nun Anysia, who was unable to move her hands or feet recovered, and a man named Constantine was delivered from his madness. view of these miracles, the citizens of Yaroslavl, in their turn, asked the Tsar to let the Icon remain at Yaroslavl. Moscow there came a request for detailed information about the Icon, and the Tsar decided that the Icon would remain at Yaroslavl. the people of Yaroslavl were ordered to make an exact copy of the Icon, and to adorn it with an oklad (metal cover), just like the one on the wonderworking Icon, and then send the copy to Romanov. this was done. 1611, the copy was taken to Romanov and it was placed in the Kazan church, where the wonderworking Icon had once stood. year the original wonderworking Icon was brought to the city of Romanov with great ceremony.

Mongol, Perm, 1598-1627, Procopius of Vyatka, Perm, Fool for Christ, Clairvoyant
Mongol, Perm, 1598-1627, Procopius of Vyatka, Perm, Fool for Christ, Clairvoyant Vyatka (Kirov); Blessed Procopius of Vyatka the Fool-For-Christ, Commemorated December 21 ; Procopius, Fool-for-Christ, of Vyatka, was the son of pious peasants. Procopius reached age twenty, they wanted him to marry, but he secretly went to the city of Khlynov and took upon himself the feat of foolishness. holy fool endured hunger, cold, mocking and insults. The Lord glorified him with the gift of clairvoyance. Procopius died at the age of forty-nine in 1627.

Mongol, Perm, 1615-1771, Seven Lakes Icon, Kazan, Perm, f Ustiug by Euthymius 1615, plague deliverances 1654,1655&1771
Mongol, Perm, 1615-1771, Seven Lakes Icon, Kazan, Perm, brought from Ustiug by Euthymius Seven Lakes M founder 1615, plague deliverances 1654,1655&1771; The Seven Lakes Hermitage of the Mother of God, 420099 Republic of Tatarstan; Seven Lakes Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 28; Seven Lakes (Sedmiezernaya) Icon of the Mother of God was glorified by great miracles in the seventeenth century in the area around the city of Kazan. holy icon was in the Seven Lakes hermitage near the city of Kazan. seven small lakes surrounded the monastery, but these later merged into one large body of water. wonderworking Icon of the Mother of God was brought from Great Ustiug near Kazan on October 13, 1615 by the monk Euthymius, of the Seven Lakes monastery. placed this icon in the temple of the newly established monastery. the middle of the seventeenth century, a deadly plague raged throughout all Russia, and reached Kazan. 48,000 men died within a short time, almost all the inhabitants of the city. certain pious monk had a vision in a dream: radiant man apeared to him and commanded that the inhabitants of the city should establish a seven-day fast go out to meet the icon of the Mother of God which was coming to them from the Seven Lakes hermitage for their deliverance. monk told the authorities about the vision. Seven Lakes Icon was brought through the city gates in procession. circling the entire stone city, it was placed in the church of the Annunciation. an All Night Vigil and Liturgy the next morning, icon was carried to visit homes in the wooden city. seven days of prayer and processions, deadly pestilence began to abate. the monks asked to have their icon returned, was decided to celebrate an All Night Vigil, to carry the icon in procession back to the hermitage. heavy snow storm came up, however, prevented them from leaving the church. was repeated three times, it was decided to let the holy icon remain in Kazan a time. was returned to the Seven Lakes monastery in 1655. ’s Feast commemorates a second deliverance of Kazan from pestilence in 1771. inhabitants of Kazan and the surrounding area deeply revere this holy icon, and receive healing from sickness and help in misfortune from the Mother of God. Seven Lakes Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos is also commemorated on October 13 and June 26. Seven Lakes Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on October 13; Seven Lakes Icon of the Mother of God was brought from Ustiug near Kazan on October 13, 1615 by the monk Euthymius, of the Seven Lakes Mother of God monastery. blessed the place of the future monastery with this icon. of the Seven Lakes Icon were established in memory of its transfer from Ustiug, memory of the deliverance of Kazan a plague epidemic in 1654 and 1655 (June 26), again from pestilence in 1771 (July 28).

Mongol, Perm, 1644-1800, Dalmatia Icon, named after fr Dalmatos, Theotokos helped him , icon survives several fires
Croatia, 1644-1800, Dalmatia Icon, Dalmatia, Croatia (Stridon), named after fr Dalmatos, not Dalmatia, Croatia, he went to Nevyan Monastery in Tobolsk, rejected being Igumen, then to Perm, Tyumen Tatar Ilegei's land, I went to expel, Theotokos protected D, she appeared to I, ordered him to give land for the monastery, Kalmyks burn m, only D survives w icon, D begins to rebuild, people come, 1651 burned again by Siberian muslim Devlet-Girei, icon unscathed, scorched spot for muslim's hand, 1702 icon restored, monastery restored by D's son, 1800 icon adorned, 1852 another fire, icon unscathed ; Dalmatia; Icon of the Mother of God of Dalmatia, Commemorated on February 15 ; Perm Gubernia, Shadrinsk county, on the banks of the Iseti River, is the Dalmatian Monastery of the Dormition. the cathedral church of this monastery is a wonderworking Icon of the Dormition of the Mother of God, which belonged to Father Dalmatios, the founder of this monastery. the first half of the XVII century, a certain resident of Tobolsk, a nobleman by the name of Demetrios Mokrinsky, left his wife and children, and went to the Nevyan Monastery (Tobolsk Diocese), where he was tonsured with the name Dalmatios, in honor of the fourth century ascetic Saint Dalmatios of Constantinople (August 3). Father Dalmatios was known for his exalted life of asceticism and virtue, the brethren of the Nev'yan Monastery wanted to choose him as their Igoumen, but out of humility, the Elder would not accept such an august position with all its responsibilities. He left the monastery, taking with him an Icon of the Dormition of the Mother of God. 1644 he arrived in Perm Gubernia, where he settled in a cave on land owned by the Tyumen Tatar Ilegei. When Iligei discovered that a monk had settled on his property, and even intended to establish a monastery there, he was indignant. Gathering his relatives, he went with the intention of expelling Dalmatios. Iligei spent the night near the cave, beyond the River Iseti, waiting for dawn to make an unexpected attack on the recluse. Dalmatios seemed to be in imminent danger of death, if he tried to resist or defend himself. He could not expect help from anyone anywhere, nor could he flee, since he did not know that an enemy lurked beyond the river in the darkness of night, ready to spill his blood at any moment. The monk did not require any human protection, however, for his protector was the Queen of Heaven. Iligei was asleep, the Mother of God appeared to him in a dream, wearing a crown and dressed in a crimson robe, holding a flaming sword in her hands. The Most Holy Theotokos strictly forbade him to harm Father Dalmatios, and ordered Iligei to give the monk some land for a monastery. Awakened by this terrible vision, the Tatar went to Father Dalmatios, accompanied by all his companions, and gave him a piece of land on which to build a monastery. Queen of Heaven's wondrous protection of Dalmatios occurred in 1646. In that same year, the Dalmatian Monastery was founded. the end of 1646, the newly-established monastery was attacked by the Kalmyks. They set fire to the monastery's buildings; some of the monks who fled were killed, and some were taken captive. this time, only Dalmatios, the founder of the monastery, escaped death, saved by the wonderworking Icon. This was the same Icon of the Dormition of the Mother of God which he brought with him from the Nevyan Monastery. the Kalmyks went away, Elder Dalmatios returned to the same site and began working alone to rebuild the monastery. A few years later, because of his diligence, a wooden church was already standing on the site of the ruined monastery, and nearby there were also cells for monks. Pilgrims began to visit and made donations for the adornment of the monastery and the temple. From that time, word of the monastery quickly spread all over, not only in the places close by, but also in very remote places. 1651, less than twenty years after the founding of the Dalmatian Monastery, it was attacked again. This time it was attacked by the Siberian Prince Devlet-Girei. He ransacked and burned the monastery. The Icon of the Mother of God, however, remained unscathed, although the church completely burned down. In just one place, on the back of the board, there was a scorched spot where a certain Muslim had put his hand. 1702, the icon was restored by the Tobolsk iconographer Ivan Nikitin. monastery was restored by Archimandrite Isaac, the son of Father Dalmatios. He built a stone church in 1707, and in it he placed the wonderworking Icon of the Dormition of the Mother of God. the reign of Empress Catherine II, the monastery withstood a three-day siege by the troops of Emelian I. Pugachev, while the monks prayed before the Dalmatian Icon. 1800 the Icon was adorned with a gilded riza with silver crowns and precious gems, by order of Igoumen Gideon. In 1864 Archimandrite Methodios ordered a new silver and gilded riza from Moscow, decorated with precious stones. The Icon was in a special kiot, decorated with carvings, and was covered with a colorful silk curtain, which could be opened when necessary. April 19, 1852, many of the Monastery buildings, including the upper church, were destroyed by fire. again, the Dalmatian Icon remained damaged. year on February 15th, and again on August 15th, the Monastery's Altar Feast, great crowds would travel to the Dalmatian Monastery in order to venerate the wonderworking Icon. The sick receive healing, according to their faith, from this wonderworking Icon of the Mother of God. This custom continued until 1917. the early 1920s, after the monastery was abolished, the monks went to other monasteries, taking the Dalmatian Icon with them. At present, there is no information about the location of the Icon. who experience physical or spiritual suffering pray before the Dalmatian Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos for deliverance.

Mongol, Perm, 1843, œthe Surety of sinners Icon, Orlov, Perm (Vyatka River 2), I am surety for my son entrusted me to hear them
Mongol, Perm, 1843, œthe Surety of sinners Icon, Orlov, Perm (Vyatka River 2), I am surety for my son entrusted me to hear them; Orlov; Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Surety of sinners" of Odrino, Orlov, Commemorated on March 7 ; Icon of the Mother of God Surety of Sinners is known by this name because of the inscription on the icon: I am the Surety of sinners for My Son Who has entrusted Me to hear them, and those who bring Me the joy of hearing them will receive eternal joy through Me. The Mother of God embraces Her Child, Who holds Her right hand with both His hands so that Her thumb is in His right hand, and Her small finger in His left hand. This is the gesture of one who gives surety for another. we do not know when or by whom the icon was originally painted, it is believed that the basis of the icon is to be found in the Akathist to the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos: Rejoice, You Who offer Your hands in surety for us to God. icon was first glorified by miracles at the Saint Nicholas Odrino men’s monastery of the former Orlov gubernia in the mid-nineteenth century (the Assuage My Sorrows Icon commemorated on October 9 is also from this monastery). The Surety of Sinners icon of the Mother of God was in an old chapel beyond the monastery gates, and stood between two other ancient icons. Because it was so faded and covered with dust, it was impossible to read the inscription. 1843 it was revealed to many of the people in dreams that the icon was endowed with miraculous power. They solemnly brought the icon into the church. Believers began to flock to it to pray for the healing of their sorrows and sicknesses. The first to receive healing was a crippled child, whose mother prayed fervently before the icon in 1844. The icon was glorified during a cholera epidemic, when many people fell deathly ill, and were restored to health after praying before the icon. large stone church with three altars was built at the monastery in honor of the wonderworking icon. Surety of Sinners Icon is also commemorated on May 29 and on Thursday of the week of All Saints. Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Surety of sinners", Commemorated on May 29; Icon of the Mother of God “Surety of Sinners” is known by this name because of the inscription on the icon: “I am the Surety of sinners for My Son Who has entrusted Me to hear them, and those who bring Me the joy of hearing them will receive eternal joy through Me.” The Mother of God embraces Her Child, Who holds Her right hand with both His hands so that Her thumb is in His right hand, and Her small finger in His left hand. This is the gesture of one who gives surety for another. we do not know when or by whom the icon was originally painted, it is believed that the basis of the icon is to be found in the Akathist to the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos: “Rejoice, You Who offer Your hands in surety for us to God.” icon was first glorified by miracles at the Saint Nicholas Odrino men’s monastery of the former Orlov gubernia in the mid-nineteenth century (The “Assuage My Sorrows Icon” commemorated on October 9 is also from this monastery). The “Surety of Sinners” icon of the Mother of God was in an old chapel beyond the monastery gates, and stood between two other ancient icons. Because it was so faded and covered with dust, it was impossible to read the inscription. 1843 it was revealed to many of the people in dreams that the icon was endowed with miraculous power. They solemnly brought the icon into the church. Believers began to flock to it to pray for the healing of their sorrows and sicknesses. The first to receive healing was a crippled child, whose mother prayed fervently before the icon in 1844. The icon was glorified during a cholera epidemic, when many people fell deathly ill, and were restored to health after praying before the icon. large stone church with three altars was built at the monastery in honor of the wonderworking icon. 1848, through the zeal of Lt. Col. Demetrius Boncheskul, a copy of the wonderworking image was made and placed in his home. Soon it began to exude a healing myrrh, which was given to many so they might recover their health after grievous illnesses. Boncheskul donated this wonderworking copy to the church of Saint Nicholas at Khamovniki in Moscow, where a chapel was built in honor of the icon. “Surety of Sinners” Icon is also commemorated on March 7 and on Thursday of the week of All Saints.

Mongol, Perm, 1843-1882, Ioannikios, Orlov, Church vision, C built there, Monk vision dream, Hesychast, much more
Mongol, Perm, 1843-1882, Hiermonk Ioannikios, Orlov, Perm (Vyatka River 2), large family, kept from church, Church vision story, Church built on his spot, at 16 Monasticism vision dream, come with us, it is God' will, ran away tM, but father brought him back, father died, mother released him, 1845 to Holy Mt M for life, very long story; Orlov; Saint Ioannikios, Father Confessor of the Dormition Holy Mountain Hermitage, Commemorated on February 10; Ioanikkios (in the world Trophimos N. Averkiev) was born in 1823 and was named Trophimos in Holy Baptism. parents were Government-owned peasants in Orlov Province, and they had a large family. was one of the younger children. The boy was quite bright and also very pious. He loved to be in church, and if his mother went to church for the Feast Days he always begged to go along. however, was not easy. The village where they lived was not near the church. had to cross a stream on the way, and the bridge was so old and rotten that once Trophimos fell in and caused his mother to be delayed. she did not always take him with her. Most of the time, she left him at home. When he stayed at home, Trophimos wept bitterly because she would not bring him to church. He felt drawn there by some “overpowering force,” as he expressed himself later in life. Sunday his father and mother went to church for the Divine Liturgy and took his older brothers, but they left him at home. After crying for some time, Trophimos went out into the yard, before which there was a field covered with grass. he noticed a beautiful stone church on a hillock. He was surprised to see it and wondered how it got there, so he started walking toward it in order to take a closer look at it. For a while he walked around the church, admiring its beauty. tried to enter, but the door was locked. When his hand touched the door knob, it vanished, and there he was, standing in the middle of an empty field! This astonished him even more, and he could not understand anything for a while. When his parents came home, he hastened to tell them what had happened. first, they paid no attention to him, but later, when his father mentioned this at a meeting of all the peasants in the village, an old man stated that he had also had seen a church on that very spot at dawn. peasants asked to see Trophimos and to hear the story from his own lips. When Trophimos was brought to the meeting, he told them in detail where he had seen the church in the field, and described what sort of church it was. showed them the exact spot, and the men marked the spot with four stakes. They decided to collect money and to build a stone church there. Indeed, a church was needed because the parish church was far away. In addition, there was the stream to be crossed. In the spring, when the stream was full, it became difficult and dangerous to cross. the peasants were wealthy, the required funds were soon collected, and they began to build a church in honor of the Kazan Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos (July 8, Oct. 22). a few years the church was completed and consecrated, and on the outside it closely resembled the church that Trophimos had seen in a vision. the boy was sixteen years old, he wanted to enter a monastery, so he begged his parents to give their blessing for him to go to Tolshev’s Savior-Transfiguration Monastery. parents were very unhappy about this, especially his father. The young man became very sad and did not know what to do. night he had a dream wherein he saw a group of monks in a church in their mantiyas and klobuks. All of them went to the middle of the church and sang a divine hymn. Taking Trophimos by the hand they said, “Come with us, and do not be afraid of grieving your parents. It is God’s will that you be with us.” from his dream, he decided to run off to the monastery in secret. He got ready, placing a piece of bread in a shepherd’s sack. Dressed in an old peasant’s coat, and without shoes, he left for the Tolshev Monastery. road was not easy for him, but he arrived at the gates of the Monastery in the afternoon, and he saw a few monks standing there. Seeing the barefoot boy, they asked him why he had come. Trophimos replied that he had come in order to be a monk. monk, an Elder with a grey beard, volunteered to take him to the Superior’s cells. This was Hieromonk Jacob from Sarov Hermitage, where he had been known and loved by Batushka Seraphim. Jacob led an ascetical life, and was respected by the brethren. Trophimos now sat in the waiting room, fearfully awaiting the Superior’s decision concerning him. Superior, a short, grey-headed old man, was surprised at the young man’s appearance because he was dressed in rags. He thought that Trophimos was a beggar seeking alms. When Father Jacob started to tell him that the young man wanted to be a monk, the Superior said that he was much too young, and he would never be able to endure the labors and the sorrows of the monastic life. So he advised him to go back home. When this did not work, and the young man remained unshaken, the Superior pretended to be angry and ordered a bundle of rods to be brought over, saying; “Now I will teach you not to wander needlessly and leave home in order to avoid work. Take off your shirt and I will punish you so that you will remember our monastery.” young man immediately removed his shirt and lay on the ground before the Superior to receive his punishment. Seeing his readiness and weakness, the Superior and Father Jacob looked at each other and changed their tone. Superior told Trophimos to get up and to tell him in detail where he was from, and why he had come. Had he perhaps committed some crime and thought to hide in the monastery? After telling him everything in detail, Trophimos fell down on the floor, tearfully begging the Superior not to chase him away and to make him a monk. Superior ordered Father Jacob to take him to his cell and teach him the monastic Rule for novices. Jacob fed him and got him some clothes, making him his cell attendant. cell was the very cell which the wonderworker Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk (August 13) had occupied when he lived at Tolshev Monastery in retirement. Here the holy bishop’s belongings were preserved. chair stood in the corner, covered up. Elder Jacob never dared to sit in the chair himself, but Trophimos, who did not know the value of the chair, once tried to sit in it when the Elder was out of the cell, but he was pushed away by some force he did not understand. Father Jacob returned Trophimos told him what had occurred. Father Jacob explained the chair’s significance to him and strictly forbade him to sit in it. his humility, obedience, and meekness, Trophimos soon won Father Jacob’s paternal love. Trophimos loved the order and customs of the monastery and had no time to become bored. He could only thank God and be happy that he lived in such a holy place. particular he loved being in church when the monks all came to the center in their mantiyas and klobuks. always wondered how he had been able to see all this in such detail in his dream. was especially attracted to the mantiya, and when Father Jacob was not in the cell he would put it on and walk around the cell with measured footsteps. greatest wish was to receive the mantiya and to be able to wear it to church. One day Father Jacob caught him in the cell wearing his mantiya. He forbade him to do this, explaining the spiritual meaning of the mantiya. He told him to pray to God, asking Him for His mercy, so that perhaps he might receive a mantiya in due time. was not destined to remain at Tolshev Hermitage, since his father did not wish it. He came to the monastery and bound his son’s legs so he could not get away. brought him home that way and punished him severely for running away. The poor young man had to submit to his parents’ wishes for the time being, waiting for the time to come when he might fulfill his heartfelt desire. had lived at Tolshev Monastery only three months, but in that short time it left its mark on the future course of his life. father’s death released Trophimos from his burdensome situation. Now the family’s finances were controlled by his mother and older brothers. mother no longer tried to hold him there against his will, but blessed him to be a monk. even gave him an icon of the Great Martyr George (April 23). He kept this icon as a great treasure and revered Saint George until the end of his life. After obtaining his identification papers, Trophimos went to Kiev to venerate the holy places. there, he went to the Holy Mountain Hermitage in Kharkhov Province with the intention of remaining there for the rest of his life. He arrived on October 10, 1845 and went to see Igumen (later Archimandrite) Arsenios. The latter asked him detailed questions concerning the events of his past life. Then he accepted him into the monastery and assigned him to the kitchen for his obedience. first, Trophimos lived in the attic with his knapsack for two weeks, until the cold forced him to move elsewhere. Hieromonk Theodosios, the Father Confessor of the monks, who had come from Glinsk Hermitage with Father Arsenios, took him into his cell as his cell attendant. Trophimos lived behind a thin wall in the narrow entryway. the beginning, Father Theodosios treated him sternly, testing his character and intentions. He would leave money lying around in the cell, or he would leave some tea or sugar, as though he had forgotten to put them away, or perhaps he would leave some honey on the table and go out. After seeing that nothing was ever touched, he stopped doing this and began to trust Trophimos. Hieromonk Theodosios, who had received his spiritual formation under the guidance of the well-known Igumen of Glina Hermitage, Saint Philaretos (March 31, 1841) of holy life, was himself a strict ascetic. He often went into the woods with his prayer rope, walking about with his mind focused on the Jesus Prayer. When he returned from the forest his face was always radiant. So much so that at first his novice Trophimos feared this radiance, and he was afraid to approach him or talk to him. Trophimos was illiterate, Father Theodosios saw to it that he learned to read. instructor was Father Philotheos, who worked in the monastery office. He was not yet old, but he led a life of strict asceticism. learned to read and write under his guidance. At the same time, he continued his careful study of the monastic Rule, taught by his Elder. the evening Prayer Rule, Father Theodosios would dismiss the monk who came to him for Confession. Trophimos a prayer rope, he made him repeat the Jesus Prayer slowly and in a loud voice. At first it was frightening for him to repeat the prayer under the watchful eye of his Elder, and his voice would tremble. The Elder noticed this and ordered him to be In this fear, Father Theodosios saw in this the work of the Enemy, who especially hated the Jesus Prayer. it happened, his fear soon disappeared and was replaced by a tender, compunctionate feeling, which produced abundant tears in him. Sometimes, because of these tears, he could scarcely say the words of the prayer. was a time of strict judgment for Trophimos under the Elder’s watchfulness. He would forget all the sins he had committed during the day, but all the details would come back to his mind during prayer. This brought about sincere repentance in him. After prayer, he would confess to his Elder and receive absolution. After this, Trophimos would feel an unusual lightness and joy in his soul. He went through all the trials of his novitiate before the eyes of his experienced Elder without concealing any of his transgressions from him. Almost unnoticed, he raised himself up. Psalter, the Holy Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles became his favorite books. He always read a certain amount from each of them every day. He tried to do this without fail, often cutting short his night’s rest if he had no time to read during the day. Seeing his zeal, simplicity, and loyalty, his Elder sometimes told him some of the things that happened to him. Once, for example, he came back from the woods with his riasson and prayer rope badly torn. As he sewed up the sleeves of the riasson, Trophimos was amazed and wondered how the Elder could have torn them so much. Elder said, “I was battling with the devils in the forest. They jumped me, a whole bunch of them, and they wanted to tear the prayer ropes from my hands, screaming that I must not say the Jesus Prayer. God helped me, however. I held on to the prayer ropes, even though they were torn in many places, but the riasson really got it from them.” Father Theodosios strictly forbade him to mention this to any of the monks. Theodosios did not have a bed, but slept on the floor. Noticing that there were bedbugs on the floor where the Elder slept, Trophimos brought a kettle of hot water, and wanted to pour it on them. The Elder would not allow this saying, “Their bites remind me of the never-resting worm which is ready for the sinners who have angered God. In this way they bring me to repentance. Do not deprive me of these insects so that I will not feel sorry later.” lived for about two and a half years in his obedience as cell attendant to Father Theodosios. In 1850, he was listed officially as a novice of the Holy Mountain Hermitage. On March 24, he was tonsured as a riassophore monk by Father Arsenios and was named Timon. At that time he was appointed as overseer of the caves. October 21, 1850 Hieromonk Theodosios, the Monastery’s Father Confessor, reposed. His death was a severe blow to his loyal spiritual son Timon, who shed bitter tears at the loss of his father, instructor, and benefactor. Father Arsenios gave him a wooden cross which belonged to Father Theodosios. He accepted it as a treasure in memory of his Elder. Later, Timon gave the cross to the Skete church, where it is a reminder of the labors and prayers of the great ascetic, Father Theodosios. the repose of Father Theodosios, he received a certain comfort when he was appointed to serve the recluse Hieromonk John in his cave. Timon was quite attached to the recluse. He did everything he could for him, watching over him, and fulfilling all of his requests, even the smallest. Later, when others replaced Timon, the recluse often remembered how Timon always pleased him and was always sincerely predisposed toward him. April 2, 1854, Timon was tonsured into the mantiya and renamed Ioannikios. After this he was appointed as the sacristan (ризничий). This was not an easy obedience, for it required a lot of work. After a while he was appointed to the caves, and once again he served Hieromonk John, who lived there. he was ordained to the diaconate, he became even more diligent toward the church services, while continuing his labors of fasting and prayer in his cell. He acquired a fair number of spiritual books and read them with fervor, increasing his knowledge, and using them as guides in his life. In his spare time he liked to go into the woods and converse with God in seclusion. He practiced the Jesus Prayer with attentiveness (π ρο σοχή), and it became more and more a part of his soul. During one of his walks he ventured deep into the forest, and was taken by its seclusion and beauty as he sat down beside the roots of a large spruce tree. As soon as he touched the moss with his hand, he felt heat coming from it, as if from a stove. He was amazed by this, so he began to inspect the place carefully, and discovered that the moss had been placed there skillfully to conceal the entrance of a cave. Inside he saw a a small stove, and a table, upon which was a Psalter. A lampada was burning before an icon, but the occupant of the cave was not at home, giving Father Ioannikios a chance to examine the cave. Except for some old dried bread, some dried fruit, and a pitcher of water, there was nothing in the cave that indicated the hermit’s life of strict fasting. For some time he had been hearing rumors in the Holy Mountain Hermitage about solitaries who lived nearby in the forest, unknown to the world. It was said that they were living there even before the monastery was rebuilt.1 Archimandrite Arsenios, the Superior, was very uneasy about this because he feared that the secular authorities might regard these unknown persons as vagabonds without identification papers, and this could cause trouble for the newly reopened monastery. Father Arsenios discovered two of these hermits, and so he sent them away from the monastery in a peaceful manner. These two happened to be aged Elders, and soon afterward they completed the course of their lives in nearby villages. their departure Father Arsenios felt somewhat more at ease and stopped searching for the others. The brethren of the monastery continued to wonder if there were more hermits were living in the forest, because they saw thin, blackened people at the church services who were dressed like peasants. They avoided all contact with the monks and left quickly after the service, heading in the direction of the nearest farm. Ioannikios realized that the cave he found must belong to one of these hermits, so he decided to wait for him to return. Soon a tall, very thin man of middle age arrived dressed in a white peasant’s shirt and carrying an armload of firewood from another part of the forest. The hermit was rather disturbed to find a guest waiting for him. He sighed deeply and said, “Apparently, it is God’s will that I leave here. I know you. You are the servant of God, Father Ioannikios. Perhaps you will not tell the Archimandrite about me, but I do not wish to place you in such a position. So tomorrow I shall leave here and go elsewhere.” he invited Father Ioannikios to sit down and offered to let him taste some of his cooked dried pears. The hermit told him that his name was Leontios, and he was a soldier who had deserted. He had been living in that vicinity for about twenty years. Here he found an Elder, who was also a hermit, and who taught him to fast, to pray and to sing Psalms. When the Elder was dying he left him this cave. Father Ioannikios loved the hermit and, in his simplicity, he tried to persuade him to stay in the monastery with them. Not understanding, he offered to go to Father Arsenios with him, saying that he would probably be accepted into the monastery. the hermit shook his head and said, “I am a runaway soldier and have no identification whatsoever. Your Superior will not take me in without papers, so it is useless to ask him to do what is impossible. I thank you, Father, for your love, for which the Lord will reward you in Heaven. But now demonstrate your love and do not say anything to anyone in the monastery until tomorrow about finding my cave and seeing me here until I can move to a place farther away from the monastery. Also bow down before the Father Confessor Epiphanios and say to him that by God’s will Leontios left here and went farther away from those who would pursue him.” leaving the hermit, Father Ioannikios did as he requested, and said nothing to anyone about seeing him. About two days later, he went into the woods again, to the cave, thinking that he might find the hermit still there. However, the entrance to the cave was filled in with dirt, and there was no sign that anyone had lived there. When Father Ioannikios described to Father Epiphanios how he had found the hermit, the Confessor felt sorry for him. He said that he had known him for a long time, and that he was his Spiritual Father. He called him a true servant of God, and an ascetic of lofty spiritual life. years later, a peasant came to Father Ioannikios from a nearby village, bringing him several pounds of beeswax. He said, “Leontios orders you to live a long life, and wishes you to know of his repose. The wax is given to you to make candles to be used in the services offered for the repose of his soul.” The hermit had lived beside the peasant’s beehives. He had lived a very strict ascetical life, and had departed to the Lord after a brief illness. Before his death, he had received the Holy Mysteries from the local priest. Arsenios organized a Skete on the Holy Mountain with a church dedicated to Saint Arsenios the Great (May 8). He wanted to place a few monks from his monastery there, monks who loved ascetical struggles and who would lay a firm foundation for this place of seclusion and prayer. Father Ioannikios was also assigned to the Skete as a deacon. This was very much to his liking, since he had an inclination for solitude. 1859, Archimandrite Arsenios passed away after a lengthy illness. Father Germanus (later Archimandrite) was chosen by the brethren to succeed him, and he completed the work of establishing the Skete. life of Father Ioannikios was peaceful and quiet, and he served in the church in his capacity as a deacon. He labored in fasting and prayer, not sparing himself, and so he grew weaker in body. He began to spit up blood; he lost weight, and became thin and pale. Finally, he was put to bed in the monastery’s infirmary where he remained for about six months. Several times he was so close to death that the doctor lost all hope for his recovery. than once during his illness he saw before him the icon of the Holy Napkin (Aug. 16) and the image of the Lord’s face was life-sized. A beautiful fragrance came forth from it, which brought him untold joy and made him forget his illness. Once, when he was especially ill, those around him awaited his death. He saw the holy icon again, and it came so close to him that it touched his face. He heard a soft voice say, “Get up! Be half-healthy, and benefit the souls of your neighbors.” that moment, he felt that the terrible pain in his chest and side had vanished; some of his strength began to return, and he started to get better, which bewildered the doctor who said long ago that he would die. Truly, he never became completely healthy, but only “half-healthy,“ thin, weak, and bent over. Frequently, he spat up blood, but he got out of bed and was able to walk around, praying and serving in order to benefit the souls of his neighbors. August 24, 1864, he was ordained as a priest. Though weak and sickly, Father Ioannikios labored along with other priests who were healthy, young, and strong. He often did more than they did, and soon he was appointed as the Father Confessor for the pilgrims to the monastery. He performed this duty without any respite or laziness. He frequently confessed the pilgrims who came to the Holy Mountain Hermitage for the better part of the day, especially during the summer. On Feast Days it was often the case that between 2000 and 5000 pilgrims received Holy Communion. Lord gave him a special gift to be a Father Confessor: he knew how to obtain people’s love and trust. He knew at once, from his experience, the spiritual illnesses of those who came to him, and he also knew how to apply the right spiritual medicine for them. There were times, however, when he sought the advice of the very experienced and knowledgeable Elder Kyprianos, who was also his Father Confessor. first, Father Ioannikios admitted that “many women, pilgrims and nuns, would bother me with their tales of the supposed visions and miracles they had seen. They did not say what needs to be said in Confession, but wasted time flaunting their alleged holiness before me. So, I asked Batushka Kyprianos how to deal with such penitents. “He advised me: ‘Order them to make prostrations for every vision or miracle that they disclose to you in a boastful way, and without need for it. Believe me; they will soon leave you in peace.’ “I began to follow his advice, and the women didn’t like it. They stopped coming to me for Confession, and went to other priests. They said I was rude. I was happy though, because they only caused difficulties without any benefit to anyone. Some would waste an hour telling of her visions, while others were waiting for Confession.” Ioannikios disliked hypocrisy and self-proclaimed holiness. He scolded to their face those who tried to conceal their sinfulness under the guise of false virtue and holiness. For those who repented sincerely, however, he avoided making harsh demands, and did not impose severe penances. He said that one might vex the soul of a sinner and thereby cause more harm than good. “It is not beneficial to deprive a penitent of Communion,” said Father Ioannikios. “Christianity is so weak now, especially among the learned, that even without depriving them, they seldom receive Communion. To deprive them would not be a punishment for them, but would only serve to make them weaker.” often substituted other means of penance, and even then with great care, according to each person’s strength and circumstances. addition to his duties as Father Confessor for the Monastery, Father Ioannikios was often sent to nearby villages to give Holy Communion, or to minister to those who were sick or dying. Here are some of the other things that Father Ioannikios related about his experience as a Father Confessor: “Once, a peasant came to me late at night and asked me to go with him at once to give Holy Communion to his brother who was dying. I said to him, ‘Can this wait until morning? It will be easier to make the trip then, and it is better to give Communion before a person has any food. ’ “The peasant insisted that we must go immediately; saying that his brother had told him that he would not live through the night. So we went! We travelled through forests and over fields, and we saw wolves whose eyes shone like candles in the dark. At long last, we arrived at a small secluded village and his brother’s home. I went in and saw that the house had been tidied up. The table was covered with a cloth, and on it were lighted candles. I did not see the sick man anywhere, however. “I was met by a thin and pale peasant, who was dressed decently in clean clothes. As it turned out, he was the one who wished to receive Holy Communion. I was amazed and said, ‘Since you are strong enough to be up, you could have waited to receive Communion in the morning, because only those who are dying may receive after eating food.’ “The man said that he was dying, and had very little time to live. He asked me to confess him right away and then give him Communion. He said, ‘I waited for you, Father. Glory be to God that I was able to wait this long. Please give me the Holy Mysteries now, for those who are sent for my soul are here, and are waiting until you do so.’ “After sending his family from the house, I started to confess him. I must admit that seldom have I heard such a Confession. His life was righteous, his feelings and his mind were so elevated and spiritual, his faith was so sincere, and his love for the Savior was so ardent that I was amazed how such an illiterate family man could acquire such virtues. He partook of the Holy Mysteries with great tenderness and heard the Prayers of Thanksgiving while sitting on a bench. He kissed the cross and my hand, and then peacefully gave his soul into God’s hands. “Later, after questioning his family and his grieving wife, I learned that he had been ill for just a few days. He was not confined to bed, but sat up most of the time. From the start of his illness he ate no food. He told his wife that his time was up and he would die. He asked for a priest to come and give him Communion. Seeing that he was sitting up, his family was in no hurry to do so. Only in the evening of the day before he reposed, they heeded his request and believed him when he said he wouldn’t live until morning. He led an abstinent life; he was kind and ready to help anyone with his last piece of bread. He was most fervent in prayer, and the Lord manifested His grace in him, which was revealed clearly by his righteous death.” “On another occasion, I was called to visit a sick woman. I entered the house and saw a woman, who was still young, standing before a mirror and putting a kerchief on her head. She was the sick person! I was quite upset and I reproached her sternly because she appeared to be healthy, but she wanted to receive the Holy Mysteries before she died. She listened to me meekly and said, ‘I asked you to come because I feel that my death is near. Do not think that you have been deceived because you found me by the mirror. I did not want to come to the holy chalice with my hair uncombed, so I did the best I could.’ “She asked me to confess her and give her Holy Communion. I began unwillingly, because I did not believe what she said, and she seemed to be completely healthy. She confessed and received Holy Communion with great reverence, as a true Christian ought to do. I didn’t even have time to put the holy chalice away and begin the Prayers of Thanksgiving. When I looked, she lay down and closed her eyes. I bent over her, but she had already departed to the Lord. She became sick after giving birth and had passed away, leaving an orphaned child.” the Holy Mountain Monastery lived a landowner, a family man, of advanced years. He had cancer, which covered his face in one large wound. He suffered very much, and had to be fed with a spoon. The local priest refused to give him Holy Communion because of the stench which came from the open wound. The family turned to Father Ioannikios for help because the man wanted very much to receive Holy Communion. He looked at the sick man and decided that he could place the Holy Communion right into his mouth with a long-handled spoon, since it had not been eaten away by the cancer. He made such a spoon, confessed the man, and gave him Holy Communion. This made the man very happy. that time on, the suffering man frequently sent for Father Ioannikios in order to receive the Holy Mysteries from him, for it was the one joy in his life. The effect on Father Ioannikios was not insignificant. Many of the monks at the monastery marveled at how he was able to bear the stench, or even the sight of this terrible wound. They even thought that he would become ill himself by visiting this man. Father Ioannikios, however, having complete hope in God, did not fear the stench or the possibility of becoming infected. He continued to bring the Holy Mysteries to the man until the very end. feeling of compassion for the sick and the suffering was especially strong in Father Ioannikios. Very many pilgrims came to Holy Mountain Monastery from everywhere in the summertime. People from all walks of life, from peasants to those who were educated; and many of these were afflicted or possessed, and were brought to the monastery by relatives in the hope of a cure from the wonderworking icon of Saint Nicholas. Seeing the suffering of these unfortunates, who often screamed loudly with tumultuous voices, or went into convulsions, especially in church during the Divine Liturgy. Knowing that prayers of exorcism are to be read in such cases, Saint Ioannikios was motivated by faith, and he began to pray in this manner over the possessed, anointing them with holy oil in the name of the Lord. of the monks did not approve of this, for they thought Father Ioannikios was too bold. However, Elder Kyprianos, the Father Confessor of the monastery, did not have enough nerve to pray over them himself, so he blessed the saint to do it with complete faith and humility of mind. Kyprianos said that Father Ioannikios, as a faster and a man of prayer, was fully capable of dealing with such afflicted persons, because according to the Lord, “This kind is never expelled except by prayer and fasting” (Matthew 17:21, Mark 9:29). In truth, the prayers of Father Ioannikios over these people, said with firm faith before the Almighty Lord, often brought visible cures. Far from the monastery word spread that the Father Confessor was a healer and that he was able to cure the possessed by his prayers. the summertime, he was often seen after the services in front of the wonderworking icon of Saint Nicholas, praying over the possessed, whose ferocious screaming could be heard at that time. Some cursed him with the most horrible words; others blasphemed terribly, and some even tried to beat him. He did suffer from beatings more than once. He endured all of this meekly, however, attacking the evil demons through fasting and prayer, with which he prepared himself beforehand. Usually, he succeeded, and the sufferers would calm down. They would become humble and meek, and would start praying to God and weep, or they threw up a malodorous liquid on the floor, after which they were completely healed. an enormous man, a Cossack soldier from the vicinity of the Kuban River, was brought to him with a wild expression on his face. His relatives, two strong men, had dragged him there with great difficulty. The possessed man roared with an inhuman voice like a bear, or a wolf, or a pig. All of these were heard from the man at the same time, and his eyes glared with unspeakable hatred. In front of the cathedral of the Holy Mountain Monastery, which is on top of a hill, there is a wide stone stairway leading to the small square where the cathedral is situated. The two men dragged the possessed man to the stairs, but were unable to make him climb the stairs by any means. One of these men went into the cathedral to speak to Father Ioannikios. Fearlessly, the saint came out of the cathedral in his epitracheilion, ready to pray over the man, who was lying on the ground. the man jumped up, seized Father Ioannikios, and threw him over his shoulder. He ran up the stairs and around the cathedral. Those who were present were terrified and did not know what to do. They ran after the man, and saw him on the ground by the cathedral’s western door. Father Ioannikios was all right and unharmed, and he sat on top of the man, holding him by his hair. His relatives ran up to bind the man’s hands and feet, but Father Ioannikios would not permit it. “Don’t touch him,” he said. “Leave him alone. He won’t run anymore. We’ve already had our battle, and you can see who won.” He pointed to the man, whose hair he held with a firm grip. Then he stood up and covered the man’s head with his epitracheilion, and began to read the prayers. The man lay quietly, breathing heavily, as though he were going to vomit. Finally, with a great effort, he threw up fetid, bloody foam so malodorous that those who stood nearby had to move away from him. this the man got up and began to make prostrations while facing the church and offering his heartfelt prayers. The next day he made his Confession to Father Ioannikios and partook of the Holy Mysteries, which he had avoided for the past five years. During Confession he explained that he had become possessed when he had dared to strike his mother. that moment, he experienced terrible suffering. He left the monastery, assured of his complete cure, and went home to Kuban. Later, he received instructions on how to conduct himself so that he would not become subjected to that same evil spirit again. Father Ioannikios said later that when the possessed man threw him over his shoulder and ran up the stairs, he suddenly felt a power within him which enabled him to overcome the man almost effortlessly, while calling upon the sweetest name of the Lord Jesus. was not only adults who were brought to Father Ioannikios, but even children who exhibited sure signs of possession. They spoke in foreign languages, foretold the future, and blasphemed so much that it was frightening. It was much easier to win them over than the adults, however. This was not simply because they were only children, but also because their innocent nature was much more receptive to God’s grace. There were cases where the possessed would relate in detail, and in a loud voice, whatever Father Ioannikios did or thought, or if he ate a little more than usual. They told him that all of his efforts to cast them out would be in vain. Therefore, he fasted even more, for he knew that prayer and fasting are the best weapons to use in healing those who are afflicted. only were the saint’s prayers effective against evil spirits, but also in healing many other illnesses of people who came to him with sincere faith. Once, a young man, the son of a merchant from a nearby town, visited him in his cell. He told him of his sorrow at being a drunkard, because this caused his parents intense grief. He fell down at the feet of Father Ioannikios, begging to be released from this destructive passion, by his prayers. Father Ioannikios put on his epitracheilion and read the prayer for the sick, and then he anointed him with holy oil. He ordered him to drink a little holy water every morning before eating or drinking anything else. a while, the young man visited Father Ioannikios again and said that from the time that he prayed over him and anointed him with the holy oil, he felt such revulsion for wine that he could no longer endure the smell of it. He gave fervent thanks to Father Ioannikios for this. The saint advised him to continue to drink the holy water, ascribing his cure to the grace of God. Later, the young man became interested in monasticism and entered a monastery in Kursk province. compassion for everyone, Saint Ioannikios was always ready to help a poor person in trouble and even went so far as to deny himself as much as possible. large throng of pilgrims usually visited the monastery on the Feast of the Transfer of the Relics of Saint Nicholas on May 9, and the church was very crowded during the services. Once, two well-dressed, still young women from Rostov on the Don River came for this Feast. One of them was pregnant and was so pressed by those in the church that she felt that her child was about to be born. The other woman got her out of the church with some difficulty, and her son was born in the monastery guesthouse. This created a disturbance and so the manager told Father Ioannikios what had happened, and asked him what to do. He wondered if he should ask the women to go to the nearby village. “Why,” Father Ioannikios cried, “are we like animals to act in such a way?” went to the guesthouse himself and asked the other woman to come out and tell him right away about everything in detail. Then he sent other women pilgrims to the monastery to go and help them. He also sent for the parish priest to come and baptize the baby, because a Hieromonk is not permitted to do so, except in cases of great necessity. He himself became the child’s godfather2 and participated in this unforeseen event which befell these visitors so far from their home, for which they thanked him very much. The boy’s father, a wealthy merchant of Rostov, became a great benefactor of the Holy Mountain Hermitage and sincerely respected Father Ioannikios, keeping him informed about the child’s growth and accomplishments. of the saint’s extraordinary character traits was his love for children. Often, among the pilgrims, there were families with children, who received special attention from the Elder. He also had a child-like simplicity and trust, and he knew how to convey this to the youngsters so that they loved him and listened to him. He said, “The innocence of such children always evokes tenderness in me. One child looks like an angel of God, the purity of his soul just radiates from his face, especially at Holy Communion.” unfortunate persons, feeble-minded adults, may seem like children in their undeveloped minds. These also received the special love and protection of the kindly Father Ioannikios. We have already see how much he loved Theophilos, the blessed Fool for Christ (+ January 30, 1868), and how he cared for him during his illness, visiting him and gratifying all his wishes. was not the only one he befriended, however. Father Ioannikios always knew how to get along with those whose mental faculties were somewhat diminished. They always loved him and listened to him, and would frequently work along with the monks. Hieromonk Kyprianos, the monastery’s Father Confessor reposed, Father Ioannikios, in the humility and simplicity of his soul, did not wish to take his place. Some of the monks, however, desired this. Even Father Kyprianos himself pointed him out as a Confessor who was more experienced than anyone else. The Superior, Archimandrite Germanus, chose him as his own Father Confessor following the death of Father Kyprianos. This elevated him in the eyes of the entire monastery, but he always acted in such a way that he would not arouse anyone’s jealousy or give them cause to complain. he was sent out into the world by the Superior on the monastery’s business. Even though he was exposed to worldly turmoil, he preserved his spiritual tranquility by unceasing prayer. He also brought much benefit to those worldly people in whose company he happened to find himself. In particular, he loved to visit with his spiritual children who were living in the world. He completed his business quickly and in an expeditious manner. He did not like to sit around for very long. He performed his duties, and then went home to the monastery. His ill health also made such traveling and movement necessary for him. If he remained in his cell too long, the bleeding would start again. If he was traveling, it stopped right away. So it happened that he would leave the monastery feeling very weak, but when he returned he felt much stronger. Whether he was in a railroad car, at the train station, at an inn, or in the home of a peasant, he always tried to benefit his neighbor. cell was very simple. There were a few icons, a number of Church Service Books, some clothing, a poor man’s tea service, and a cheap clock. That was all. He always had books all over his cell. Some were opened, others had page markers. It was apparent that the Elder spent all his spare time in reading. A lampada always burned in his cell before the holy icons. He always advised people to prepare for, and to partake of, the Holy Mysteries of Christ as often as possible. He would say, “Someone who often prepares himself for receiving Holy Communion will improve in his inward being unconsciously, and even that is a great accomplishment. Our union with Christ through partaking of His Mysteries makes even our poor and insufficient preparation better by His grace. It renews us and recreates us, transforming us from carnal creatures to spiritual beings. Every person who partakes of the Holy Mysteries frequently will soon discover this and feel it within himself. Do not tell me that you are not prepared, or are unworthy to partake often. You are not prepared because of laziness, and in this way you do what the Enemy likes. He cannot endure anyone who prepares himself and receives Communion often, because this person is frightening and inaccessible to him. You are not worthy! Who among us can claim to be worthy of receiving the Body and Blood of our Lord? All of us are unworthy of this gift of God’s mercy! If we deprive ourselves of this gift by saying that we are unworthy, then we sin grievously, because we are pushing God away from ourselves. If we acknowledge our unworthiness, if we repent, and if we thirst to partake of the Holy Mysteries, then we receive help from above, and this becomes the means by which we partake of the Holy Mysteries uncondemned.” he himself was cautious about manifestations from the spiritual world, Father Ioannikios always warned his Spiritual Children about believing in dreams or visions. simplicity was extraordinary, and often it was like that of a child. Since he was non-acquisitive, he always declined expensive gifts. If he was forced to accept, he would give all of it to the monastery, according to the strict cenobitic Rule. It was easy to make him happy with a small inexpensive gift. He preferred small sizes of books, such as the Psalter, the Holy Gospels, or the book of Canons. He had them in the smallest sizes one could obtain. His tea service was also quite small, almost like those made for children. Nothing made him happier than to be presented with a small drinking glass, or a tiny tea cup, or a small comb. events occurred to make his poor health even worse. Once, while passing through the monastery yard, he saw that the crank on the water well was not working properly, and that the novice who was sent to repair it was unable to do so. The Elder came, and without stopping to think about it, he started to help. He climbed to the top of the structure and fell down into the well, where he might have drowned if the pulley hadn’t kept his head above the water. He bruised his shoulder, arm, and side very seriously on the wooden sides of the well. The monks came running and pulled him out of the well nearly unconscious, and he was ill for a long time afterward. This fall made his health even worse and, as he said himself, it was the precursor of his approaching death. found himself in danger once again, on one of his trips by train. He was rushing, as quickly as ever, to get into the coach. He missed his step, however, and fell between the car and the station platform. He was saved by his slender build, which allowed the train to pass over him, brushing him slightly with the wheels. after this, he was sick for some time, and his side turned black and hard to the touch. As he lay beneath the train expecting to be killed, he prayed to the Mother of God asking her to deliver him from such a terrible death. Suddenly, he felt as if someone were pulling him toward the platform to a narrow space where he lay on his side and waited for the entire train to pass over him. “Yes, my time is near, perceptibly near,” he said. He began to ask his friends not to forget him after his death, and to remember his parents Nikḗtas and Martha as well. “If you love me,” he said, “do not forget my parents. In this way you will show your love for me.” February 1, 1882 he was visited by the Superior, Father Germanus after Vespers, who found the Elder very ill. They sent for a doctor, who diagnosed him with acute pneumonia, and stated that his condition was grave. His Confessor, Hieromonk Arkadios, brought him the Holy Mysteries every day, and visited him often. His neighbor in the next cell, Hieromonk Dometios, was with him almost all the time and looked after him with rare love and devotion. February 8, he received the Mystery of Holy Unction. Toward evening on February 10, he became much worse. Now his death was very near, indeed. His Confessor read the Prayer for the dying over him. Father Germanus came to visit and stayed until the end, which was not long in coming. At 7:00 P.M. he passed peacefully and quietly away. crowds in the monastery were very large. Memorial Services were sung over him, and everyone wanted to bid him farewell in his cell. It was very stuffy because of the crowds, but his body remained incorrupt. There was no odor of death, but he was so thin that his body on the table looked like bones covered with skin. February 11, his body was taken from his cell to the church of the Protecting Veil by Hieromonk Paisios, the Confessor for the monks. On February 12, in the same church, the Superior, Archimandrite Germanus, solemnly served the Liturgy with other priests, and the Funeral Service took place afterward. The coffin was taken to the underground church in the caves and was buried there. Ioannikios was glorified on July 12, 2008. 1 The monastery was rebuilt after it was destroyed by the French in 1812. 2 According to Canon 4 of the Fourth Ecumenical Synod, a monk may not intrude upon or meddle in ecclesiastical affairs. See The Pedalion p. 248. The Interpretation of this Canon says that “monks must not become godfathers to children being baptized (except in cases of urgent necessity...”) Pedalion page 249.

Mongol, Perm, 1855-1900, Meletios, Siberian Missionary Bishop, Translator, Muslim converter gRelics, Great Story
Russia, Ryazan, 1855-1900, Meletios, Bishop of Ryazan (Oka River 9), 35 yrs missionary in Eastern Siberia before Ryazan, Buryats, Tungus, and Yakuts, 1896 Bishop Ryazan, c missionary w, from Viatka D, b 1835, PKid, father died, destitute, but top student, but attracted to solitude, wanted acceptance as monk (tonsure) but appointed teacher, 1858 Kazan Academy, 1859 finally tonsured as Melitos, 1859 Deacon, 1862 tPosolsk M at Baikal by Synod directive, Baptism of many natives, building of churches, establishing villages (most of them were nomadic or semi-nomadic), 1862 Priesthood, 1873 friend Archbishop Benjamin t Irkutsk mission, 1874 tArchimandrite otNilov Hermitage itSayansk Mountains, important translation work at Kazan till 1875, 1888-1896 Bishop of Ikursk &Misionary territories East LBaikal, 1896 Bisho oRyazan, Writer, Converted Moslems Ryazan; Saint Meletios, Bishop of Ryazan, Commemorated on January 14; Meletios, one of the last preachers of the Holy Gospel to the people of Siberia with all the self-denial of a true missionary, reposed on January 14, 1900. spent nearly thirty-five years of ascetic labors in eastern Siberia, spreading the light of Christ among the native Buryats, Tungus, and Yakuts. 1896, he was consecrated as Bishop of Ryazan, where he continued his missionary work until the last days of his truly ascetical life. Meletios (Michael Koz’mich Yakimov in the world) was from the Viatka Diocese, and he was born on October 29, 1835, the son of a village priest. His father died when Michael was just a year old, leaving his wife to take care of the children in great poverty. the family’s destitution and Michael’s poor health, he successfully completed his primary and secondary schooling, and as one of the best students in the seminary, he was able to continue his education at the Academy. then, his soul was attracted to solitude. graduating from seminary, Michael spoke to the rector, Archimandrite Ambrose, the Igoumen of the Dormition Monastery, asking to be accepted into the monastery, and to be tonsured. request was not fully granted, however. He was received into the monastery, but was not tonsured. Here, he fulfilled the obediences of preaching and working in the library. Later, he was appointed as a teacher of Church History and Church singing in the primary school in Viatka. later, he was asked to supervise the students who lived in the monastery. He remained in the humble position of a young novice for a year. August of 1858 he entered the Kazan Academy, and on February 1, 1859 he was tonsured with the name Meletios in honor of Saint Meletios of Antioch (February 12). On March 16, he was ordained to the diaconate by Bishop Νikόdēmos. a Synodal ukaz, he was sent to the Posol’sk Monastery of the Savior at Lake Baikal in the Diocese of Irkutsk (southeastern Siberia). arrived at the monastery on June 23, 1862 and began his beneficial work among the Buryats at once. resulted in the Baptism of many natives, the building of churches, and establishing villages for the newly-baptized (most of them were nomadic or semi-nomadic). In December of that same year, Deacon Meletios was ordained to the holy priesthood. this time Father Meletios became the close friend of Vicar Bishop Benjamin of Selengin (later Archbishop of Irkutsk), and this friendship endured for the rest of their lives. Meletios’s work took him from place to place on the very borders of Mongolia. did not remain there long, however. On August 30, 1873 Archbishop Benjamin placed him in charge of the Irkutsk mission, on February 2, 1874 he was elevated to the rank of Archimandrite of the Nilov Hermitage in the Sayansk Mountains. that time, his missionary work expanded a great deal, and even more so when he went to Kazan to learn the methods for translating Christian books into the native languages. his stay outside the mission, he visited his family in Viatka Province, visiting his mother and his brother, who was a priest in the village of Verkhovskoy, Nolinsky district, and made a pilgrimage in Moscow and Kiev. lived in Kazan until May 1875. his relationship with Professor Nicholas I. Il’minsky (1822-1891) and his assistants had great significance for the Saint’s future missionary work. the work of translating Christian teachings into spoken Buryat, Father Meletios was helped by the Buryat Jacob Chistokhin, his cell attendant (later a missionary of the Tunkinsky Territory). first book in the Buryat language was published at Kazan: “Teaching the newly-baptized about the Holy Christian Faith” (Поучение к новокрещёным о святой христианской вере). was a very important step, which led to the success of the work of evangelizing the natives during the five years that Archimandrite Meletios was in charge of the mission, and 11,000 natives were baptized. labors increased after his consecration as Vicar Bishop of the Irkutsk Diocese (1888-1896), and he was appointed to oversee the missionary territory east of Lake Baikal. regional city of Chita (Чита) became the center from which the missionary bishop went all around Lake Baikal, in 1881 (which was the 200th anniversary of the founding of the Trans-Baikal mission by the missionaries Theodosios and Makarios). went around preaching the Word of God throughout Trans-Baikal, enlightening his flock and shaping the churchly and secular lives of the newly- baptized in order to integrate them into the permanent Russian population. Meletios founded the Church Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodios, and of Saint Innocent of Irkutsk in Chita, in order to reinforce the spread of Christianity in his flock. did everything possible to strengthen his spiritual children by starting church schools. result of these measures while he was the head of the Eastern Baikal Mission was the conversion of some 4000 natives to Christianity from shamanism, and Lamaites.1 July 5, 1889 he was appointed Bishop of Yakutsk and arrived there on September 16. Diocese of Yakutsk previously had a worthy missionary bishop named Dionysios, who later became Bishop of Ufa. He may certainly be called the Apostle to the Yakuts. the first year in his new Diocese, Saint Meletios employed the methods he had learned from experience in his new territory. year he would inspect different sections of his vast Diocese. Although there were no roads, he covered tens of thousands of miles in one trip. built churches, and found generous donors for this purpose. his journeys he consecrated many of these churches himself, and organized church schools for them. the end of 1889, there were 77 churches in his Diocese, and 118 chapels. 1895, there were nine stone churches, 214 wooden churches, chapels, and houses of prayer. Later, the number of churches and schools increased. looking for ways to support the schools, Bishop Meletios requested and obtained an annual allowance of 6000 rubles, paid to him by the Department of Revenue. 1892, he organized the Church Brotherhood of Christ the Savior. was another aspect to his missionary work at Yakutsk, he was the first person to reduce and help to eradicate leprosy among his flock. 1890 there was an article in the Yakutsk Diocesan Journal # 17, entitled “Leprosy in the Vilyusk Region.” The following year, Miss Marsden, who was an English nurse, came to the region, and worked very hard to help those who were sick. Meletios was so energetic in his efforts to help her that he received a letter of thanks from the Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury. to say, his flock was most grateful to him for this. Therefore, when he left to go to the Diocese of Riazan, his farewell was exceptionally warm. Seldom has a bishop received such a farewell. October 14, 1896 he was named Bishop of Ryazan and Zaraysk. On November 27, he left Yakutsk and arrived in Ryazan on February 17, 1897. was no wonder that his flock at Riazan awaited their new Archpastor with great enthusiasm and expectation, since they knew of his past life of asceticism and missionary activity, and they were not disappointed in their expectations. This kindly hierarch, who demanded much of himself, yet was condescending to the weakness of others, was an excellent preacher and a true missionary. He left behind a vast legacy of good deeds which caused him to be remembered by the people of Ryazan. Also in 1897, he was made an honorary member of the Kazan Theological Academy. missionary activities in Siberia had a profound influence on his labors in his new Diocese. In the Diocese of Ryazan there were many Old Ritualists, and even Moslems. Bishop Meletios revived the mission to the Mohammedans, he also wrote a great deal. He published many of his sermons, missionary notes, and reports about the Eastern Baikal and Irkutsk missions. He also contributed many historical articles to various Orthodox journals, all for the sake of his missionary work, and not for personal gain. All of his articles came from his apostolic spirit and his character, which were revealed in all the places where he labored for the glory of God. his thirty-five years of missionary work, he was known as the “Apostle to the Yakuts, and Enlightener of the Gentiles in Siberia and Asia.” Meletios reposed on January 14, 1900, and was buried in the Cathedral of the Ryazan Kremlin. Saint Meletios was included in the Synaxis of the Siberian Saints in 1983. Lord Himself decided to glorify the relics of His saint: almost a hundred years after his repose his holy relics were found on June 18, 1998 in the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael of the Ryazan Kremlin, on the eve of the celebration of the Synaxis of the Ryazan Saints and the Synaxis of the Siberian Saints, and the eve of the celebration of the 800th anniversary of the Ryazan Diocese. On September 18, 1998, his relics were transferred to Ryazan’s Trinity Monastery. the course of 35 years of work in this field, he was called “The Apostle of the Yakuts and the Enlightener of the Pagans in Siberia and Asia.“ These were natives from southeastern Siberia, in the area near Tibet, who acknowledged the spiritual authority of the Dalai Lama.

Mongol, Perm, 1905, All Blessed Icon Copy, sent to city oKazan, Russia
St. George's Cathedral, Istanbul; All Blessed Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on September 1; Monastery of the Transfiguration of the Savior) The original “All Blessed” (Pammakaristos) Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos is in Constantinople in the patriarchal cathedral. is a mosaic icon dating from the middle of the eleventh century. 1905, Patriarch Joachim III presented a copy of the icon to the city of Kazan in Russia.

Mongol, Perm, Kama River Folder

Perm, Great Perm Region (Kama River Basin including Chusovaya, Vishera, and Kolva Rivers)
Perm Krai, 29,000 Rivers in Great Perm Region (Perm Krai) ; Icon of the Mother of God of Seven Lakes, Commemorated on July 28; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; St Ignatius, Wonderworker and Bishop of Smolensk, Commemorated January 29 ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2;

Kama River

Kama River Source (Udmurtia)
Udmurtia;

Kama River 1

Kama River 2

Veslyana River

Chyornaya River

Malaya Sol River

Malaya, Perm (Lesser Perm, Malya Sol River, Kama River 2)
Malaya, Perm ; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26 ;

Kama River 3

Mongol, Perm, Kama River 4, Vishera and Kolva Rivers Folder

Ural Mountains, Perm, Mongol Lands
Ural Mountains; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated September 12 ; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; Righteous Simeon the Wonderworker of Verkhoturye;

Vishera River

Vishera River Source (North Ural)

Vishera River 1

Vishera River 2

Vishera River 3

Vishera River 5 (Perm, Kolva River Mouth)

Vishera River (Perm Krai) Mouth (Kama River 4)

Kolva River

Perm or Great Perm City (Kolva River Mouth, Vishera River 5)
Great Perm; Cherdyn; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8;

Perm, Land of the Perm-Komi-Zyrians (Kolva Vishera Rivers, Greater Perm)
Komi-Zyrians; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19;

Kolva River Source (North Ural)

Kolva River Mouth (Greater Perm Region, Vishera River 5)

Visherka River

Chusovskoye Lake, Source of the Visherka River
Chusovskoye Lake ;

Visherka River Mouth (Kolva River 2)

Vishersk (Visherka River, Perm)
Vishersk (Visherka River); Venerable Ephraim the Abbot of Perekop the Wonderworker of Novgorod, Commemorated on September 26; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Vishera, Novgorod, Commemorated on October 1;

Vishero, Perm (Kama River 4, Vishera River)
Vishero; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26;

Kama River 4 (Vishera River Mouth)

Chusovaya River Folder

Chusovaya River

Chusovaya River Source (Eastern Slopes of Ural Mountains)

Chusovaya River 1

Chusovaya River Mouth (Kama Reservoir, Kama River 4)

Kama River 5 (Perm, Sylva River, Iren River)

Sylva River

Sylva River Source (along the border)

Sylva River Mouth (Kama River 6, Perm)

Ordinsky District, Perm (Iren River Valley)
Ordinsky District; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Ordinsk, Perm (Iren River Valley)
Ordinsk; Ordinsky District; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Iren River

Iren River Source

Iren River Mouth (Sylva River)

Kama River 6 (Perm, Mulyanka River)

Perm, Ostyak People near Perm
Perm, Ostyak People near Perm ; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8;

Ostyak People near Perm
Perm, Ostyak People near Perm ; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8;

Perm, Voguli (Mansi) People near Perm
Perm, Voguli (Mansi) People near Perm; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8;

Voguli (Mansi) People near Perm
Perm, Voguli (Mansi) People near Perm; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8;

Perm (Mulyanka and Sylva Rivers, Kama River 6)
Perm (Kama River 6); Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Seven Lakes, Commemorated on July 28; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated September 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; a and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated September 18 ; First Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on September 25 ; Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye; St Tarasius of Glushetsa, Commemorated October 12 ; St Demetrius of Tsilibinsk, Commemorated on October 26 ; St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on December 5 ; St Maximus, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on December 6 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Hieromartyr Philip the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on January 9 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, January 29 ; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated January 29 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Dalmatia, Commemorated on February 15; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; St Arsenius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on March 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God œCzestochowaÂ, Commemorated on March 6; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Surety of sinners of Odrino, Orlov, Commemorated on March 7; Icon œNot Made by HandsÂ from Lydda, Commemorated on March 12; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16 ; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on April 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; St Stephen the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on April 26; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; œMyrrh-BearingÂ Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Monkmartyr Pachomius of Mt Athos, Commemorated on May 7; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on May 12; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Venerable Sergius of Shukhtom, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Surety of sinnersÂ, Commemorated on May 29; New Martyr Archbishop Andronicus of Perm, Commemorated on June 4; St Jonah the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on June 6 ; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; Second Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 23 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Seven Lakes, Commemorated on June 26; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8;

Mulyanka River

Mulyanka River 1 (Merkushinsk)

Merkushinsk, Perm (Mulyanka River 1)
Village of Merkushinsk (Mulyanka) not far from Verkhoturye on the outskirts of Perm on the Mulyanka River; Righteous Simeon the Wonderworker of Verkhoturye, Commemorated December 17 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mulyanka River Mouth (Kama River 6)

Motoviliha city district of Perm
Motoviliha; New Martyr Archbishop Andronicus of Perm, Commemorated on June 4;

Naberezhnye Chelny, Perm (Kama River 7)
Naberezhnye Chelny ; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ;

Kama River 8 (Vyatka River)

Mongol, Perm, Kama River 8, Vyatka River Folder

Vyatka River

Vyatka River Source (northern Udmurtia)

Vyatka River 1 (Kirov and Vyatka)

Slobodsky near Kirov and Vyatka in Perm now Russia

Vyatka, Perm (Kirov, Kama River 8, Vyatka River 1) Trans-Siberian RWY 5 Kirov
Vyatka (Kirov); Venerable Tryphon the Abbot of Vyatka, Commemorated on October 8 ; Blessed Procopius of Vyatka the Fool-For-Christ, Commemorated December 21 ;

Khlynov, Perm (Vyatka, Kama River 8, Vyatka River 1) Trans-Siberian RWY 5
Khlynov, Perm (Vyatka, Vyatka River 1) ; Blessed Procopius of Vyatka the Fool-For-Christ, Commemorated December 21 ;

Vyatka River 2 (Orlov)

Orlov, Perm (Vyatka River 2)
Orlov; Saint Ioannikios, Father Confessor of the Dormition Holy Mountain Hermitage, Commemorated on February 10; Icon of the Mother of God the Surety of sinners of Odrino, Orlov, Commemorated on March 7 ; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Surety of sinners, Commemorated on May 29;

Vyatka River 3

Vyatka River 4

Vyatka River Mouth (Kama River 8)

Kama River Mouth (Kazan, Volga River 10)

Mongol, Perm, Kazanka River Folder, Kazan

Kazanka River

Kazanka River Source (Bimeri)

Kazanka River 1

Kazanka River 2 (Overview)

Kazanka River 3

Kazanka River Mouth (Kazan, Volga River 10)

Kazan, Perm (Kazanka and Kama Rivers, Volga River 10)
Kazan ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia; Bulgars and Tartars of Kazan; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated July 8 ; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God ofSeven Lakes, Commemorated July 28 ; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30 ; Appearance of the Mother of God to St Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on August 24; “All Blessed” Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on September 1; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated September 8 ; Translation of the relics of Righteous Simeon of Verkhoturye, Commemorated on September 12; Greatmartyr and Prince Bidzina of Georgia, Commemorated September 18 ; First Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on September 25 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Gurias the First Archbishop of Kazan; St Jonah of Kazan, Commemorated October 4 ; Icon of the Mother of God of the Seven Lakes, Commemorated October 13 ; Commemoration of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance from the Poles, Commemorated on October 22 ; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27; St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on November 6 ; St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on December 5 ; St Maximus, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on December 6 ; Hieromartyr Philip the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on January 9 ; Martyr John of Kazan, Commemorated January 24 ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Icon "œNot Made by Hands" from Lydda, Commemorated on March 12; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16 ; Venerable Seraphim of Virits, Commemorated on March 21; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Venerable James the Abbot of Zheleznoborov, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God of St Maximus, Commemorated on April 18; Martyr Theognes at Cyzicus, Commemorated on April 29; ; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Paphnutius the Abbot of Borov, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on May 12; Venerable Laurence the Abbot of Komel (Vologda), Commemorated on May 16; Venerable Sergius of Shukhtom, Commemorated on May 19; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Russian and Confessor, whose relics are on the island of Euboia, Commemorated on May 27; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15; Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ; Translation of the relics of St Gurias the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 20; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20; Second Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan, Commemorated on June 23 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Seven Lakes, Commemorated on June 26; Venerable Serapion of Kozhe Lake, Commemorated on June 27; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ; Appearance of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8; Kazan-Yaroslavl Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8;

Seven Lakes Monastery of the Mother of God, Kazan, Perm,1615, All Rus Pestilance in 1650, 48k d in Kazan
The Seven Lakes Hermitage of the Mother of God, 420099 Republic of Tatarstan; Seven Lakes Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 28; Seven Lakes (Sedmiezernaya) Icon of the Mother of God was glorified by great miracles in the seventeenth century in the area around the city of Kazan. This holy icon was in the Seven Lakes hermitage near the city of Kazan. Originally, seven small lakes surrounded the monastery, but these later merged into one large body of water. wonderworking Icon of the Mother of God was brought from Great Ustiug near Kazan on October 13, 1615 by the monk Euthymius, founder of the Seven Lakes monastery. He placed this icon in the temple of the newly established monastery. the middle of the seventeenth century, a deadly plague raged throughout all Russia, and reached Kazan. There 48,000 men died within a short time, almost all the inhabitants of the city. certain pious monk had a vision in a dream: a radiant man apeared to him and commanded that the inhabitants of the city should establish a seven-day fast and go out to meet the icon of the Mother of God which was coming to them from the Seven Lakes hermitage for their deliverance. monk told the authorities about the vision. The Seven Lakes Icon was brought through the city gates in procession. After circling the entire stone city, it was placed in the church of the Annunciation. After an All Night Vigil and Liturgy the next morning, the icon was carried to visit homes in the wooden city. After seven days of prayer and processions, the deadly pestilence began to abate. the monks asked to have their icon returned, it was decided to celebrate an All Night Vigil, then to carry the icon in procession back to the hermitage. A heavy snow storm came up, however, which prevented them from leaving the church. This was repeated three times, so it was decided to let the holy icon remain in Kazan for a time. It was returned to the Seven Lakes monastery in 1655. ’s Feast commemorates a second deliverance of Kazan from pestilence in 1771. Orthodox inhabitants of Kazan and the surrounding area deeply revere this holy icon, and receive healing from sickness and help in misfortune from the Mother of God. Seven Lakes Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos is also commemorated on October 13 and June 26. Seven Lakes Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on October 13; Seven Lakes Icon of the Mother of God was brought from Ustiug near Kazan on October 13, 1615 by the monk Euthymius, founder of the Seven Lakes Mother of God monastery. He blessed the place of the future monastery with this icon. of the Seven Lakes Icon were established in memory of its transfer from Ustiug, in memory of the deliverance of Kazan from a plague epidemic in 1654 and 1655 (June 26), and again from pestilence in 1771 (July 28).

Kazan Military District (the Eastern Volga Region)
Kazan Military District; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1;

Kazan Transfiguration Monastery, 1565 approx.
Kazan Transfiguration Monastery, 1553; Saints Jonah and Nectarius of Kazan, Commemorated on October 4; Uncovering of the relics of Saint Gurias, first Archbishop of Kazan, and Saint Barsanuphius, Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on October 4; St. Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Kazan Theological Academy, 1718
Kazan Theological Academy; Hierarch Alexander, Bishop of Guria and Samegrelo, Commemorated on October 27; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16;

Kazan diocese
Kazan diocese; St Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated October 21 ;

St Nicholas Church, Privolzhskaya, 32, Kazan 420078 Russia
St Nicholas Church, Privolzhskaya, 32, Kazan 420078 Russia; Hieromartyr Hermogenes, Patriarch of Moscow, Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17;

Mongol, Perm, Volga River Folder

Volga River

Tsilibinsk, Perm (Tsilninsky District, Volga River 11, Ulyanovsk)
Tsilibinsk, Perm (Tsilninsky District) ; St Demetrius of Tsilibinsk, Commemorated on October 26 ;

Tetyakov, Perm (Volga River 11)
Tetyushi; In 1277, the allied forces of the Russian princes, in union with the Tatar forces, took part in a campaign in the Osetian land and in the taking of "its famed city Tetyakov."; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19 ;

Tartar Winter Camp (1232, Bolghar, Capital of Islamic Volga Bulgars)
In 1232 the Tatars made winter camp, having barely reached the capital of the Volga Bulgars. Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ;

Bolghar (1232, Tartar Winter Camp, Capital of Islamic Volga Bulgars)
In 1232 the Tatars made winter camp, having barely reached the capital of the Volga Bulgars. Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ;

Chelno-Vershinsky District, Scythia, just south of Perm (Volga River 11)
Chelno-Vershinsky District ; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ;

Mongol, Scythia Folder, and its rivers

Scythia
Scythia; Venerable Theodora of Constantinople, Commemorated on December 30; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated September 13 ; Martyr Inna, Disciples of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated January 20; St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia (Ural River, Aral Sea)
Scythia; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk, Commemorated on July 17; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated July 28 ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated August 7 ; Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated August 30 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated September 6 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated on September 13; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated on September 13 ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Greatmartyr Mercurius of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 10 ; Hieromartyr Ignatius the God-Bearer the Bishop of Antioch, Commemorated December 20 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30 ; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œElets-Chernigov"Â, Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Venerable Theodore of Sanaxar, Commemorated on February 19 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; St Sophronius the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on March 30; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7; Martyr Sava the Goth of Wallachia, Commemorated on April 15; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ; St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4 ; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia, Mongol Lands (from Ural River to Dneister River)
Scythia; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk, Commemorated on July 17; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated July 28 ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated August 7 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated August 30 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated September 6 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated on September 13; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated on September 13 ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Venerable Theodora of Constantinople, Commemorated on December 30; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30 ; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated September 13 ; Greatmartyr Mercurius of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 10 ; Hieromartyr Ignatius the God-Bearer the Bishop of Antioch, Commemorated December 20 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Elets, Commemorated January 11 ; Martyr Inna, Disciples of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated January 20 ; St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œElets-Chernigov"Â, Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Venerable Theodore of Sanaxar, Commemorated on February 19 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; St Sophronius the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on March 30; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7; Martyr Sava the Goth of Wallachia, Commemorated on April 15; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ; St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia, Little Russia (Eastern Ukraine)
Scythia, Little Russia (Eastern Ukraine) ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ;

Mongol, Scythia (mostly along the Dneister River)
Scythia; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk, Commemorated on July 17; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated July 28 ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated August 7 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Translation of the relics of St Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated on August 13; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated August 30 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated September 6 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated on September 13; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated on September 13 ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; Icon of the Mother of God "Jerusalem", Commemorated October 12 ; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Greatmartyr Mercurius of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on November 24 ; St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 10 ; Hieromartyr Ignatius the God-Bearer the Bishop of Antioch, Commemorated December 20 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30 ; Martyr Anastasius the Disciple of the Venerable Maximus the Confessor, Commemorated January 21 ; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œElets-Chernigov"Â, Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14 ; Venerable Theodore of Sanaxar, Commemorated on February 19 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; St Sophronius the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on March 30; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7; Martyr Sava the Goth of Wallachia, Commemorated on April 15; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14; Icon of the Mother of God of Chelnsk and Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 14 ; St Euphrosyne the Princess, (Eudoxia) of Moscow, Commemorated on May 17 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia Minor (Lesser Scythia, Dacia Pontica)
Lesser Scythia (Scythia Minor); Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated September 6 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated on September 13; Martyr Seleucus in Scythia, Commemorated on September 13 ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Martyr Inna, Disciple of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated on January 20 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Martyr Sava the Goth of Wallachia, Commemorated on April 15; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia, Land of the Polovetsians AKA Cumanians
Scythia, Land of the Polovetsians AKA Cumanians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River ; Cumanians; Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and the Balkans 1055-1230 (175 years) ; Khan Bonyak; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4;

Polovetsians AKA Cumanians, Mongol Scythia
Scythia, Land of the Polovetsians AKA Cumanians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River ; Cumanians; Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and the Balkans 1055-1230 (175 years) ; Khan Bonyak; Burial of St Andrew the Prince, Commemorated on July 4;

Sarmatians (Scythia and Persia)
Sarmatians ; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated on September 6 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1st to 7th century AD, Land of the Huns
Land of the Huns, Caspian Sea, Cacausus Mts, Scythia, and Hungary ; Venerable Genevieve of Paris, Commemorated on January 3 ; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24;

Mongol, Scythia, 420-469, Hunnic Empire under Attila (Rhine, Danube, Baltic and Ural)
Scythia, Hunnic Empire under Attila; Attila the Hun 434-458; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31;

Mongol, Scythia, Turks of Atil, 740-969, Khazars
Scythia, Turks of Atil, 750-969, Khazars; Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, Scythia, Khazar Jews, Mid to Late 9th Century (Volga River Mouth)
Khazar Jews ; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Mongol, Scythia, Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia)
Scythia, Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Khazars; Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19;

Mongols, Scythia, 860-1091, Pechenegs, Moldovia to Bosnia
Mongols, Pechenegs, 860-1091, Russia, Kiev, 968, Seige of Kiev by Pechenegs; Kiev Rus King, 945-972, Sviatoslav I of Kiev; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Mongol, Scythia, 900-1220, Cumania, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation
Scythia, 900-1220, Cumania, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation ; Land of the Polovetsians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River, Cumania ; Cumanians; Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and the Balkans 1055-1230 (175 years) ; Khan Bonyak; Venerable Nikon the Dry, of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on December 11 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1220s - 1502, Golden Horde, Mongol Empire
Scythian Golden Horde, 1220s - 1502, Mongol Empire; Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Icon of the Mother of God œof the œKursk-RootÃ‚Â, Commemorated on September 8; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 1223-1240, Mongol invasion of Rus, Conquest 1227
Scythia, 1223-1240, Mongol invasion of Rus, Conquest 1227; Icon of the Mother of God œKursk-RootÂÂ, Commemorated on November 27; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÂÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1380, Battle of Kulikovo Field
Battle of Kulikovo; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on August 30; Memorial Saturday of St Demetrius;

Mongol, Scythia, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Muslim White Horde
Scythia, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Destroying Rostov, New Novgorod, and Gorodets ; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of Radonezh the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius, Commemorated on November 17 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2;

Mongol, Scythia History Folder

Mongol, Scythia, 91 - 650, Land of the Huns Folder, 1st to 7th Century

Mongol, Scythia, 1st to 7th century, Land of the Huns
Land of the Huns, Caspian Sea, Cacausus Mts, Scythia, and Hungary ; Venerable Genevieve of Paris, Commemorated on January 3 ; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31; Martyr Orentius, one of the seven martyred brothers in Georgia, Commemorated on June 24;

Mongol, Scythia, 30-60, 1st Century, Apostle Andrew and Saints Inna, Pinna and Rimma
Mongol, Scythia, 1st Century, Apostle Andrew and Saint Inna; Martyrs Inna, Pinna, and Rimma, disciples of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated on January 20; Holy Martyrs Inna, Pinna and Rimma were Slavs from northern Scythia (modern Bulgaria), and they were disciples of the holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called. They preached the Gospel of Christ and they baptized many barbarians who converted to the true Faith. They were seized by the local chieftain, but they would not deny Christ, nor would they offer sacrifice to idols. was wintertime, and the rivers were so frozen that not only people, but also horses with carts could travel on the ice. The chieftain had the saints tied to logs on the ice, and gradually lowered them into the freezing water. When the ice reached their necks, they surrendered their blessed souls to the Lord. Martyr Inna the Disciple of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20; transfer of the relics of Saints Inna, Pinna, and Rimma to Alushta took place during the first-second centuries. These holy martyrs are also commemorated on January 20.

Mongol, Scythia, 50, Martyr Evangelicus, 1st Century Bishop of Tomis, Follower of Andrew
Romania, 50, Martyr Evangelicus, 1st Century Bishop of Tomis, Follower of Andrew Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, ConstanÈ›a in Romania, Commemorated on July 7;

Mongol, Scythia, 360-381, Vetranion of Tomis, Romania & Scythia Minor, stood up to Arian Valens, Famous Letter to Basil tG
Romania, 360-381, Vetranion of Tomis, Romania (Constantsa, near Lalomita River Mouth, Danube River 16), 360 Bishop of all Scythia Minor, fCappadocia, stood up to Arian Valens (on his way to fight Sythian Goths, ), exiled, returned by public outcry, Sent Sava tGoth relics back to Basil the Great with his Famous letter, the Epistle of the Church of God in Gothia to the Church of God in Cappadocia, and to all the local churches of the holy catholic Church, 3rd ECouncil 381 ; Tomis (Constantsa); Saint Vetranion of Tomis, Commemorated on January 25; Vetranion (or Bretanion) lived during the IV century, was the Bishop of Tomis, (now Constanța, Romania) in the Province of Scythia Minor.1 is known about his life except that he came from Cappadocia, and was elected to the See of Tomis about the year 360.2 confessed the Orthodox Faith, and suffered a great deal from the heretical Emperor Valens (364 – 378), an adherent of the Arian heresy, and who persecuted the Church. During his reign, many Orthodox Christians were put to death. Vetranion, who possessed every virtue, was Bishop of all the cities of Scythia. to Sozomen (a Church historian of the V century), the Emperor Valens was campaigning against the Goths of Scythia, he stopped at Tomis and ordered its citizens to become Arians and to reject the Nicene Creed. with divine zeal, the courageous hierarch rebuked Valens for distorting the Faith, and for his unjust persecution of the saints. the Saint repeated the following words of the Prophet-King David: “I spoke of thy testimonies before kings, and was not ashamed” (Psalm 118/119:46).3 a result, Saint Vetranion was sent into exile. Valens was forced by the public outcry against the Bishop's banishment to let him return to his flock. 373 or 374, Saint Basil the Great requested Junius Soranus, the ruler of Scythia Minor, to send him some relics of the Saints from that region. sent the relics of Saint Savva the Goth (April 15) to Saint Basil along with a letter: the Epistle of the Church of God in Gothia to the Church of God in Cappadocia, and to all the local churches of the holy catholic Church. sending of the relics and the writing of the letter have been attributed to Bishop Vetranion. letter, written in Greek, is the oldest known document written on what is now Romanian soil. Bishop Vetranion did represent Tomis at the Third Ecumenical Council in 381; but it could be that his name was confused with that of Bishop Gerontius (or Terentius) of Tomis.

Mongol, Scythia, 380-435, John Cassian LScythian, years studying Jerusalem&Egypt monasticism, then writings teaching west
Mongol, Scythia, 380-435, Saint John Cassian the Roman, well educated, Tomis Monastery, Germanus' relative, tJerusalem&Bethlehem 5yrs, tThebaid&Sketis f7rrs, CONFERENCES WITH THE FATHERS i24Chap, back Bethlehem 3yrs, back Egypt til 399, A Theopilus Nile M disturbances, tConstantnople to see Chrysostom, J C accepted John as disciple, o Deadon, in C 5yrs, 404 JC exiled & they went to Rome for Innocent case, priesthood, tGaul, Marselles G, 415 estab 2 Cenobic Monasteries, men&women, Castor of Aptia Julia requests THE INSTITUTES OF CENOBITIC LIFE 12 books, 431 final work ON THE INCARNATION OF THE LORD, AGAINST NESTORIUS, criticized Augustine's abstract reasoning, died 435, relics in Marselles; Romania, 380-435, Saint John Cassian the Roman; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; John Cassian the Roman was born around 360, probably in Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica). His pious Christian parents gave him an excellent classical education, and also instructed him in the Holy Scriptures and in the spiritual life. John entered a monastery in the diocese of Tomis, where his friend and relative Saint Germanus labored as an ascetic. 380, desiring to venerate the Holy Places, Saint John went to Jerusalem with his sister and his friend Saint Germanus. The two monks stayed at a Bethlehem monastery, not far from where the Savior was born. five years at the monastery, Saints John and Germanus traveled through the Thebaid and the desert monasteries of Sketis for seven years, drawing upon the spiritual experience of countless ascetics. Egyptian monks taught them many useful things about spiritual struggles, prayer, and humility. Like honeybees they journeyed from place to place, gathering the sweet nectar of spiritual wisdom. notes Saint John made formed the basis of his book called CONFERENCES WITH THE FATHERS in twenty-four chapters. to Bethlehem for a brief time, the spiritual brothers lived for three years in complete solitude. they went back to Egypt and lived there until 399. of the disturbances caused by Archbishop Theophilus of Alexandria to the monasteries along the Nile, they decided to go to Constantinople, after hearing of the virtue and holiness of Saint John Chrysostom. The great hierarch ordained Saint John Cassian as a deacon and accepted him as a disciple. John and Germanus remained with Saint John Chrysostom for five years, learning many profitable things from him. Chrysostom was exiled from Constantinople in 404, Saints John Cassian and Germanus went to Rome to plead his case before Innocent I. was ordained to the holy priesthood in Rome, or perhaps later in Gaul. Chrysostom’s death in 407, Saint John Cassian went to Massilia [Marseilles] in Gaul (now France). There he established two cenobitic monasteries in 415, one for men and another for women, based on the model of Eastern monasticism. the request of Bishop Castor of Aptia Julia (in southern Gaul), Cassian wrote THE INSTITUTES OF CENOBITIC LIFE (De Institutis Coenobiorum) in twelve books, describing the life of the Palestinian and Egyptian monks. between 417-419, the volume included four books describing the clothing of the monks of Palestine and Egypt, their schedule of prayer and services, and how new monks were received into the monasteries. last eight books were devoted to the eight deadly sins and how to overcome them. his writings, Saint John Cassian provided Christians of the West with examples of cenobitic monasteries, and acquainted them with the asceticism of the Orthodox East. speaks as a spiritual guide about the purpose of life, about attaining discernment, about renunciation of the world, about the passions of the flesh and spirit, about the hardships faced by the righteous, and about prayer. John Cassian also wrote CONFERENCES WITH THE FATHERS (Collationes Patrum) in twenty-four books in the form of conversations about the perfection of love, about purity, about God’s help, about understanding Scripture, about the gifts of God, about friendship, about the use of language, about the four levels of monasticism, about the solitary life and cenobitic life, about repentance, about fasting, about nightly meditations, and about spiritual mortification. This last has the explanatory title “I do what I do not want to do.” 1-10 of the CONFERENCES describe Saint John’s conversations with the Fathers of Sketis between 393-399. Books 11-17 relate conversations with the Fathers of Panephysis, and the last seven books are devoted to conversations with monks from the region of Diolkos. 431 Saint John Cassian wrote his final work, ON THE INCARNATION OF THE LORD, AGAINST NESTORIUS (De Incarnationem Domini Contra Nestorium). In seven books he opposed the heresy, citing many Eastern and Western teachers to support his arguments. his works, Saint John Cassian was grounded in the spiritual experience of the ascetics, and criticized the abstract reasoning of Saint Augustine (June 15). John said that “grace is defended less adequately by pompous words and loquacious contention, dialectic syllogisms and the eloquence of Cicero (i.e. Augustine), than by the example of the Egyptian ascetics.” the words of Saint John of the Ladder (March 30), “great Cassian reasons loftily and excellently.” His writings are also praised in the Rule of Saint Benedict. John Cassian lived in the West for many years, but his spiritual homeland was the Orthodox East. He fell asleep in the Lord in the year 435. His holy relics rest in an underground chapel in the Monastery of Saint Victor in Marseilles. His head and right hand are in the main church.

Mongol, Scythia, 434-453, Attila the Hun, scared the Goths, with Ostrogoths, Alans, Bulgars, Cavalry, Plains, Tribute
Scythia, Attila the Hun 434-453; (/ˈætɪlə, É™ËˆtÉªlÉ™/; fl. c. 406–453), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453. He was also the leader of a tribal empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans and Bulgars, among others, in Central and Eastern Europe. ( For example: In 451 Attila gathered his vassals—Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others–and began his march west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong. ) his reign, he was one of the most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. He crossed the Danube twice and plundered the Balkans, but was unable to take Constantinople. His unsuccessful campaign in Persia was followed in 441 by an invasion of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, the success of which emboldened Attila to invade the West.[3] He also attempted to conquer Roman Gaul (modern France), crossing the Rhine in 451 and marching as far as Aurelianum (Orléans) before being stopped in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. subsequently invaded Italy, devastating the northern provinces, but was unable to take Rome. He planned for further campaigns against the Romans, but died in 453. After Attila's death, his close adviser, Ardaric of the Gepids, led a Germanic revolt against Hunnic rule, after which the Hunnic Empire quickly collapsed. 1 Appearance and character 2 Etymology 3 Historiography and source 4 Early life and background 5 Campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire 6 Solitary kingship 7 In the west 8 Invasion of Italy and death 8.1 Death 9 Later folklore and iconography 10 Depictions of Attila 11 See also 12 Notes 13 External links and character ór Than's painting The Feast of Attila, based on a fragment of Priscus is no surviving first-hand account of Attila's appearance, but there is a possible second-hand source provided by Jordanes, who cites a description given by Priscus.[4][5] was a man born into the world to shake the nations, the scourge of all lands, who in some way terrified all mankind by the dreadful rumors noised abroad concerning him. He was haughty in his walk, rolling his eyes hither and thither, so that the power of his proud spirit appeared in the movement of his body. He was indeed a lover of war, yet restrained in action, mighty in counsel, gracious to suppliants and lenient to those who were once received into his protection. Short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and swarthy skin, showing evidence of his origin.[6]:182–183 scholars have suggested that this description is typically East Asian, because it has all the combined features that fit the physical type of people from Eastern Asia, and Attila's ancestors may have come from there.[5][7]:202 Other historians also believed that the same descriptions were also evident on some Scythian people.[8][9] and source of Attila in a museum in Hungary life and background article: Huns in battle with the Alans. An 1870s engraving after a drawing by Johann Nepomuk Geiger (1805–1880). Huns were a group of Eurasian nomads, appearing from east of the Volga, who migrated further into Western Europe c. 370[19] and built up an enormous empire there. Their main military techniques were mounted archery and javelin throwing. They were in the process of developing settlements before their arrival in Western Europe, yet the Huns were a society of pastoral warriors[18]:259 whose primary form of nourishment was meat and milk, products of their herds. origin and language of the Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries. According to some theories, their leaders at least may have spoken a Turkic language, perhaps closest to the modern Chuvash language.[14]:444 One scholar suggests a relationship to Yeniseian.[20] According to the Encyclopedia of European Peoples, "the Huns, especially those who migrated to the west, may have been a combination of central Asian Turkic, Mongolic, and Ugric stocks".[21] father Mundzuk was the brother of kings Octar and Ruga, who reigned jointly over the Hunnic empire in the early fifth century. This form of diarchy was recurrent with the Huns, but historians are unsure whether it was institutionalized, merely customary, or an occasional occurrence.[16]:80 His family was from a noble lineage, but it is uncertain whether they constituted a royal dynasty. Attila's birthdate is debated; journalist Éric Deschodt and writer Herman Schreiber have proposed a date of 395.[22][23] However, historian Iaroslav Lebedynsky and archaeologist Katalin Escher prefer an estimate between the 390s and the first decade of the fifth century.[16]:40 Several historians have proposed 406 as the date.[24]:92[25]:202 grew up in a rapidly changing world. His people were nomads who had only recently arrived in Europe.[26] They crossed the Volga river during the 370s and annexed the territory of the Alans, then attacked the Gothic kingdom between the Carpathian mountains and the Danube. They were a very mobile people, whose mounted archers had acquired a reputation for invincibility, and the Germanic tribes seemed unable to withstand them.[18]:133–151 Vast populations fleeing the Huns moved from Germania into the Roman Empire in the west and south, and along the banks of the Rhine and Danube. In 376, the Goths crossed the Danube, initially submitting to the Romans but soon rebelling against Emperor Valens, whom they killed in the Battle of Adrianople in 378.[18]:100 Large numbers of Vandals, Alans, Suebi, and Burgundians crossed the Rhine and invaded Roman Gaul on December 31, 406 to escape the Huns.[16]:233 The Roman Empire had been split in half since 395 and was ruled by two distinct governments, one based in Ravenna in the West, and the other in Constantinople in the East. The Roman Emperors, both East and West, were generally from the Theodosian family in Attila's lifetime (despite several power struggles).[27]:13 Huns dominated a vast territory with nebulous borders determined by the will of a constellation of ethnically varied peoples. Some were assimilated to Hunnic nationality, whereas many retained their own identities and rulers but acknowledged the suzerainty of the king of the Huns.[27]:11 The Huns were also the indirect source of many of the Romans' problems, driving various Germanic tribes into Roman territory, yet relations between the two empires were cordial: the Romans used the Huns as mercenaries against the Germans and even in their civil wars. Thus, the usurper Joannes was able to recruit thousands of Huns for his army against Valentinian III in 424. It was Aëtius, later Patrician of the West, who managed this operation. They exchanged ambassadors and hostages, the alliance lasting from 401 to 450 and permitting the Romans numerous military victories.[18]:111 The Huns considered the Romans to be paying them tribute, whereas the Romans preferred to view this as payment for services rendered. The Huns had become a great power by the time that Attila came of age during the reign of his uncle Ruga, to the point that Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, deplored the situation with these words: "They have become both masters and slaves of the Romans".[18]:128 against the Eastern Roman Empire Empire of the Huns and subject tribes at the time of Attila death of Rugila (also known as Rua or Ruga) in 434 left the sons of his brother Mundzuk, Attila and Bleda, in control of the united Hun tribes. At the time of the two brothers' accession, the Hun tribes were bargaining with Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II's envoys for the return of several renegades who had taken refuge within the Eastern Roman Empire, possibly Hunnic nobles who disagreed with the brothers' assumption of leadership. following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (PoÅ¾arevac), all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner,[28] and negotiated an advantageous treaty. The Romans agreed to return the fugitives, to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (c. 115 kg) of gold, to open their markets to Hunnish traders, and to pay a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the Roman Empire and returned to their home in the Great Hungarian Plain, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall, and to build up his border defenses along the Danube. Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next few years while they invaded the Sassanid Empire. They were defeated in Armenia by the Sassanids, abandoned their invasion, and turned their attentions back to Europe. In 440, they reappeared in force on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty of 435. the Danube, they laid waste to the cities of Illyricum and forts on the river, including (according to Priscus) Viminacium, a city of Moesia. Their advance began at Margus, where they demanded that the Romans turn over a bishop who had retained property that Attila regarded as his. While the Romans discussed the bishop's fate, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them. the Huns attacked city-states along the Danube, the Vandals (led by Geiseric) captured the Western Roman province of Africa and its capital of Carthage. Carthage was the richest province of the Western Empire and a main source of food for Rome. The Sassanid Shah Yazdegerd II invaded Armenia in 441. Romans stripped the Balkan area of forces, sending them to Sicily in order to mount an expedition against the Vandals in Africa. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyricum into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army sacked Margus and Viminacium, and then took Singidunum (Belgrade) and Sirmium. During 442, Theodosius recalled his troops from Sicily and ordered a large issue of new coins to finance operations against the Huns. He believed that he could defeat the Huns and refused the Hunnish kings' demands. responded with a campaign in 443.[29] For the first time (as far as the Romans knew) his forces were equipped with battering rams and rolling siege towers, with which they successfully assaulted the military centers of Ratiara and Naissus (NiÅ¡) and massacred the inhabitants. Priscus said "When we arrived at Naissus we found the city deserted, as though it had been sacked; only a few sick persons lay in the churches. We halted at a short distance from the river, in an open space, for all the ground adjacent to the bank was full of the bones of men slain in war."[30] along the NiÅ¡ava River, the Huns next took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Arcadiopolis (Lüleburgaz). They encountered and destroyed a Roman army outside Constantinople but were stopped by the double walls of the Eastern capital. They defeated a second army near Callipolis (Gelibolu). unable to make effective armed resistance, admitted defeat, sending the Magister militum per Orientem Anatolius to negotiate peace terms. The terms were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (c. 2000 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 700 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 solidi. demands were met for a time, and the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. Bleda died following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445). Attila then took the throne for himself, becoming the sole ruler of the Huns.[31] kingship 447, Attila again rode south into the Eastern Roman Empire through Moesia. The Roman army, under Gothic magister militum Arnegisclus, met him in the Battle of the Utus and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as Thermopylae. itself was saved by the Isaurian troops of magister militum per Orientem Zeno and protected by the intervention of prefect Constantinus, who organized the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes and, in some places, to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. Callinicus, in his Life of Saint Hypatius, wrote: barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in Thrace, became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers. the west general path of the Hun forces in the invasion of Gaul 450, Attila proclaimed his intent to attack the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse by making an alliance with Emperor Valentinian III. He had previously been on good terms with the Western Roman Empire and its influential general Flavius Aëtius. Aëtius had spent a brief exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops that Attila provided against the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of Geiseric, who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans. Valentinian's sister was Honoria, who had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help—and her engagement ring—in order to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman senator in the spring of 450. Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, but Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother Galla Placidia convinced him to exile Honoria, rather than killing her. He also wrote to Attila, strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. interfered in a succession struggle after the death of a Frankish ruler. Attila supported the elder son, while Aëtius supported the younger. (The location and identity of these kings is not known and subject to conjecture.) Attila gathered his vassals—Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others–and began his march west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong. April 7, he captured Metz. Other cities attacked can be determined by the hagiographic vitae written to commemorate their bishops: Nicasius was slaughtered before the altar of his church in Rheims; Servatus is alleged to have saved Tongeren with his prayers, as Saint Genevieve is said to have saved Paris.[32] Lupus, bishop of Troyes, is also credited with saving his city by meeting Attila in person.[3][33] ëtius moved to oppose Attila, gathering troops from among the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Celts. A mission by Avitus and Attila's continued westward advance convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric I (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached Orléans ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aëtius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near Catalaunum (modern Châlons-en-Champagne). Attila decided to fight the Romans on plains where he could use his cavalry.[34] two armies clashed in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the outcome of which is commonly considered to be a strategic victory for the Visigothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting, and Aëtius failed to press his advantage, according to Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy, because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat. From Aëtius' point of view, the best outcome was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray, and the Romans had the benefit of appearing victorious. of Italy and death The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila depicts Leo, escorted by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, meeting with the Hun emperor outside Rome. returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with Honoria, invading and ravaging Italy along the way. Communities became established in what would later become Venice as a result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities and razed Aquileia so completely that it was afterwards hard to recognize its original site.[35]:159 Aëtius lacked the strength to offer battle, but managed to harass and slow Attila's advance with only a shadow force. Attila finally halted at the River Po. By this point, disease and starvation may have taken hold in Attila's camp, thus hindering his war efforts and potentially contributing to the cessation of invasion.[36][citation needed] Valentinian III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as the Bishop of Rome Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the Emperor.[37] Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short description of the historic meeting, but gives all the credit to Leo for the successful negotiation. Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of Alaric gave him pause—as Alaric died shortly after sacking Rome in 410. had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and her crops were faring little better in 452. Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy this year did not improve the harvest.[35]:161 To advance on Rome would have required supplies which were not available in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila's supply situation. Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat to his homeland.[35]:160–161 an East Roman force had crossed the Danube under the command of another officer also named Aetius—who had participated in the Council of Chalcedon the previous year—and proceeded to defeat the Huns who had been left behind by Attila to safeguard their home territories. Attila, hence, faced heavy human and natural pressures to retire "from Italy without ever setting foot south of the Po".[35]:163 As Hydatius writes in his Chronica Minora: Huns, who had been plundering Italy and who had also stormed a number of cities, were victims of divine punishment, being visited with heaven-sent disasters: famine and some kind of disease. In addition, they were slaughtered by auxiliaries sent by the Emperor Marcian and led by Aetius, and at the same time, they were crushed in their [home] settlements ... Thus crushed, they made peace with the Romans and all returned to their homes.[38] Huns, led by Attila, invade Italy (Attila, the Scourge of God, by Ulpiano Checa, 1887) was the successor of Theodosius, and he had ceased paying tribute to the Huns in late 450 while Attila was occupied in the west. Multiple invasions by the Huns and others had left the Balkans with little to plunder.[citation needed] Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube, he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had stopped. However, he died in the early months of 453. conventional account from Priscus says that Attila was at a feast celebrating his latest marriage, this time to the beautiful young Ildico (the name suggests Gothic or Ostrogoth origins).[35]:164 In the midst of the revels, however, he suffered severe bleeding and died. He may have had a nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor. Or he may have succumbed to internal bleeding, possibly due to ruptured esophageal varices. Esophageal varices are dilated veins that form in the lower part of the esophagus, often caused by years of excessive alcohol consumption; they are fragile and can easily rupture, leading to death by hemorrhage.[39] account of his death was first recorded 80 years after the events by Roman chronicler Marcellinus Comes. It reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife".[40] One modern analyst suggests that he was assassinated,[41] but most reject these accounts as no more than hearsay, preferring instead the account given by Attila's contemporary Priscus, recounted in the 6th century by Jordanes: On the following day, when a great part of the morning was spent, the royal attendants suspected some ill and, after a great uproar, broke in the doors. There they found the death of Attila accomplished by an effusion of blood, without any wound, and the girl with downcast face weeping beneath her veil. Then, as is the custom of that race, they plucked out the hair of their heads and made their faces hideous with deep wounds, that the renowned warrior might be mourned, not by effeminate wailings and tears, but by the blood of men. Moreover a wondrous thing took place in connection with Attila's death. For in a dream some god stood at the side of Marcian, Emperor of the East, while he was disquieted about his fierce foe, and showed him the bow of Attila broken in that same night, as if to intimate that the race of Huns owed much to that weapon. This account the historian Priscus says he accepts upon truthful evidence. For so terrible was Attila thought to be to great empires that the gods announced his death to rulers as a special boon. body was placed in the midst of a plain and lay in state in a silken tent as a sight for men's admiration. The best horsemen of the entire tribe of the Huns rode around in circles, after the manner of circus games, in the place to which he had been brought and told of his deeds in a funeral dirge in the following manner: "The chief of the Huns, King Attila, born of his sire Mundiuch, lord of bravest tribes, sole possessor of the Scythian and German realms—powers unknown before—captured cities and terrified both empires of the Roman world and, appeased by their prayers, took annual tribute to save the rest from plunder. And when he had accomplished all this by the favor of fortune, he fell, not by wound of the foe, nor by treachery of friends, but in the midst of his nation at peace, happy in his joy and without sense of pain. Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?" they had mourned him with such lamentations, a strava, as they call it, was celebrated over his tomb with great reveling. They gave way in turn to the extremes of feeling and displayed funereal grief alternating with joy. Then in the secrecy of night they buried his body in the earth. They bound his coffins, the first with gold, the second with silver and the third with the strength of iron, showing by such means that these three things suited the mightiest of kings; iron because he subdued the nations, gold and silver because he received the honors of both empires. They also added the arms of foemen won in the fight, trappings of rare worth, sparkling with various gems, and ornaments of all sorts whereby princely state is maintained. And that so great riches might be kept from human curiosity, they slew those appointed to the work—a dreadful pay for their labor; and thus sudden death was the lot of those who buried him as well as of him who was buried.[6]:254–259 sons Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak, "in their rash eagerness to rule they all alike destroyed his empire".[6]:259 They "were clamoring that the nations should be divided among them equally and that warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate".[6]:259 Against the treatment as "slaves of the basest condition" a Germanic alliance led by the Gepid ruler Ardaric (who was noted for great loyalty to Attila[6]:199) revolted and fought with the Huns in Pannonia in the Battle of Nedao 454 AD.[6]:260–262 Attila's eldest son Ellac was killed in that battle.[6]:262 Attila's sons "regarding the Goths as deserters from their rule, came against them as though they were seeking fugitive slaves", attacked Ostrogothic co-ruler Valamir (who also fought alongside Ardaric and Attila at the Catalaunian Plains[6]:199), but were repelled, and some group of Huns moved to Scythia (probably those of Ernak).[6]:268–269 His brother Dengizich attempted a renewed invasion across the Danube in 468 AD, but was defeated at the Battle of Bassianae by the Ostrogoths.[6]:272–273 Dengizich was killed by Roman-Gothic general Anagast the following year, after which the Hunnic dominion ended.[10]:168 many children and relatives are known by name and some even by deeds, but soon valid genealogical sources all but dried up, and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants. This has not stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a valid line of descent for various medieval rulers. One of the most credible claims has been that of the Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans for mythological Avitohol and Irnik from the Dulo clan of the Bulgars.[42]:103[15]:59, 142[43] folklore and iconography information: Attila in popular culture of the meeting between Attila and Pope Leo from the Chronicon Pictum, c. 1360 himself is said to have claimed the titles "Descendant of the Great Nimrod", and "King of the Huns, the Goths, the Danes, and the Medes"—the last two peoples being mentioned to show the extent of his control over subject nations even on the peripheries of his domain.[44] embellished the report of Priscus, reporting that Attila had possessed the "Holy War Sword of the Scythians", which was given to him by Mars and made him a "prince of the entire world".[45][46] the end of the 12th century the royal court of Hungary proclaimed their descent from Attila. Lampert of Hersfeld's contemporary chronicles report that shortly before the year 1071, the Sword of Attila had been presented to Otto of Nordheim by the exiled queen of Hungary, Anastasia of Kiev.[47] This sword, a cavalry sabre now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, appears to be the work of Hungarian goldsmiths of the ninth or tenth century.[48] anonymous chronicler of the medieval period represented the meeting of Pope Leo and Atilla as attended also by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, "a miraculous tale calculated to meet the taste of the time"[49] This apotheosis was later portrayed artistically by the Renaissance artist Raphael and sculptor Algardi, whom eighteenth-century historian Edward Gibbon praised for establishing "one of the noblest legends of ecclesiastical tradition".[50] to a version of this narrative related in the Chronicon Pictum, a mediaeval Hungarian chronicle, the Pope promised Attila that if he left Rome in peace, one of his successors would receive a holy crown (which has been understood as referring to the Holy Crown of Hungary). histories and chronicles describe him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three Norse sagas: Atlakviða,[51] Volsunga saga,[52] and Atlamál.[51] The Polish Chronicle represents Attila's name as Aquila.[53] of Michelsberg and Otto of Freising pointed out that some songs as "vulgar fables" made Theoderic the Great, Attila and Ermanaric contemporaries, when any reader of Jordanes knew that this was not the case.[54] This refers to the so-called historical poems about Dietrich von Bern (Theoderic), in which Etzel (Attila) is Dietrich's refuge in exile from his wicked uncle Ermenrich (Ermanaric). Etzel is most prominent in the poems Dietrichs Flucht and the Rabenschlacht. Etzel also appears as Kriemhild's second noble husband in the Nibelungenlied, in which Kriemhild causes the destruction of both the Hunnish kingdom and that of her Burgundian relatives. 1812, Ludwig van Beethoven conceived the idea of writing an opera about Attila and approached August von Kotzebue to write the libretto. It was, however, never written.[55] In 1846, Giuseppe Verdi wrote the opera, loosely based on episodes in Attila's invasion of Italy. World War I, Allied propaganda referred to Germans as the "Huns", based on a 1900 speech by Emperor Wilhelm II praising Attila the Hun's military prowess, according to Jawaharlal Nehru's Glimpses of World History.[56] Der Spiegel commented on November 6, 1948, that the Sword of Attila was hanging menacingly over Austria.[57] writer Cecelia Holland wrote The Death of Attila (1973), a historical novel in which Attila appears as a powerful background figure whose life and death deeply impact the protagonists, a young Hunnic warrior and a Germanic one. name has many variants in several languages: Atli and Atle in Old Norse; Etzel in Middle High German (Nibelungenlied); Ætla in Old English; Attila, Atilla, and Etele in Hungarian (Attila is the most popular); Attila, Atilla, Atilay, or Atila in Turkish; and Adil and Edil in Kazakh or Adil ("same/similar") or Edil ("to use") in Mongolian. modern Hungary and in Turkey, "Attila" and its Turkish variation "Atilla" are commonly used as a male first name. In Hungary, several public places are named after Attila; for instance, in Budapest there are 10 Attila Streets, one of which is an important street behind the Buda Castle. When the Turkish Armed Forces invaded Cyprus in 1974, the operations were named after Attila ("The Attila Plan").[58] 1954 Universal International film Sign of the Pagan starred Jack Palance as Attila. Venerable Genevieve of Paris, Commemorated on January 3; Venerable Hypatius the Abbot of Rufinus in Chalcedon, Commemorated on March 31;

Mongol, Scythia, 454-469, Dengizich, Atilla's Son
Battle of Bassianae (Byzantine (Gothic, Roman) victory over the Huns) 469; The war ended in 469. Marcellinus Comes shortly recorded "The head of Dinzic, son of Attila, king of the Huns, was brought to Constantinople".[14] The Chronicon Paschale recounts "Dinzirichus, Attila's son, was killed by Anagastes, general in Thrace. His head was brought to Constantinople, carried in procession through the Middle Street, and fixed on a pole at the Wooden Circus. The whole city turned out to look at it".[14] Jordanes recounts events in c. 468: "Now after firm peace was established between Goths and Romans, the Goths found that what they received from the emperor was not sufficient for them. Furthermore, they were eager to display their wonted valor, and so began to plunder the neighboring peoples around them, first attacking the Sadagis[nb 1] who held the interior of Pannonia. When Dintzic, king of the Huns, a son of Attila, learned this, he gathered to him the few who still seemed to have remained under his sway, namely, the Ultzinzures[nb 2] the Angisciri[nb 3] the Bittugures[nb 4] and the Bardores[nb 5] Coming to Bassianae (see Battle of Bassianae), a city of Pannonia, he beleaguered it and began to plunder its territory. When the Goths learned this, they abandoned the expedition they had planned against the Sadagis and turned upon the Huns and drove them so ingloriously from their own land that those who remained have been in dread of the arms of the Goths from that time down to the present day."[22] Dengizich, Atilla's Son; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂœJerusalemÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on October 12;

Mongol, Scythia, 469, Battle of Bassianae (Byzantine (Gothic, Roman) victory over the Huns)
Battle of Bassianae (Byzantine (Gothic, Roman) victory over the Huns) 469; The war ended in 469. Marcellinus Comes shortly recorded "The head of Dinzic, son of Attila, king of the Huns, was brought to Constantinople".[14] The Chronicon Paschale recounts "Dinzirichus, Attila's son, was killed by Anagastes, general in Thrace. His head was brought to Constantinople, carried in procession through the Middle Street, and fixed on a pole at the Wooden Circus. The whole city turned out to look at it".[14] Jordanes recounts events in c. 468: "Now after firm peace was established between Goths and Romans, the Goths found that what they received from the emperor was not sufficient for them. Furthermore, they were eager to display their wonted valor, and so began to plunder the neighboring peoples around them, first attacking the Sadagis[nb 1] who held the interior of Pannonia. When Dintzic, king of the Huns, a son of Attila, learned this, he gathered to him the few who still seemed to have remained under his sway, namely, the Ultzinzures[nb 2] the Angisciri[nb 3] the Bittugures[nb 4] and the Bardores[nb 5] Coming to Bassianae (see Battle of Bassianae), a city of Pannonia, he beleaguered it and began to plunder its territory. When the Goths learned this, they abandoned the expedition they had planned against the Sadagis and turned upon the Huns and drove them so ingloriously from their own land that those who remained have been in dread of the arms of the Goths from that time down to the present day."[22] Dengizich, Atilla's Son; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂœJerusalemÃƒÂ¢Ã‚Â€Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on October 12;

Mongol, Scythia, 635-668, Bulgars Folder, 7th Century, Old Great Bulgaria

Mongol, Scythia, 7th Century, Land of the Bulgars (Pontic Steppe and Lower Danube)
Pontic Steppe; Bulgars; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15;

Mongol, Scythia, 650-1048, Khazars Folder

Mongol, Scythia, 650-1048, Khazars, Commanded Western Silk Road
Scythia, 650-1048, Khazars Scythia, Turks of Atil, 750-969, Khazars; Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Mongol, Scythia, 740-969, Turks of Atil, Khazars
Scythia, Turks of Atil, 750-969, Khazars; Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Mongol, Scythia, 800, 9th and 10th Century, Atil and the Land of the Khazars, (Volga Delta, Scythia)
Scythia, Atil and the Land of the Khazars, 9th and 10th Century, (Volga Delta, Scythia); Khazars; Righteous Michael the soldier of Potouka, Bulgaria, Commemorated on November 22; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Venerable Theodora of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, Commemorated on December 30; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19;

Mongol, Scythia, 841-861, Khagan, Zacharia, Khazar Jew then Christian after Cyril
Mongol, Scythia, 841-861, Khagan, Zacharia, Khazar Jew then Christian after Cyril; at the territory of the Khazars, the holy brothers spoke with them about the Christian Faith. Persuaded by the preaching of Saint Cyril, the Khazar prince together with all his people accepted Christianity. The grateful prince wanted to reward the preachers with rich presents, but they refused this and instead asked the prince to free and send home with them all the Greek captives. Saint Cyril returned to Constantinople together with 200 such captives set free. Khazar Jews ; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of Saint Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14;

Mongol, Scythia, 860-899, Khazar Jews (Volga River Mouth)
Khazar Jews ; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Mongol, Scythia, 860-1091, Land of the Pechenegs (Pontic Steppe) Turks
Pechenegs; Pontic Steppe; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15;

Mongol, Scythia, 965-969, Atil, Scythia. Capital of the Khazars
Atil, Scythia, 965-969. Capital of the Khazars; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Mongol, Scythia, 869-1091, Pecheneges Folder, Lesser Scythia to Bosnia

Mongols, Scythia, 860-1091, Pechenegs, Moldovia to Bosnia, also Turks
Mongols, Pechenegs, 860-1091, Russia, Kiev, 968, Seige of Kiev by Pechenegs; Kiev Rus King, 945-972, Sviatoslav I of Kiev; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Mongol, Scythia, 900-1220, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation Folder, Cumania

Mongol, Scythia, 900-1220, Polovtsian Confederation, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation
Polovtsian Confederation, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation Scythia, 900-1220, Cumania, Cuman-Kipchak Confederation ; Land of the Polovetsians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River, Cumania ; Cumanians; Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and the Balkans 1055-1230 (175 years) ; Khan Bonyak; Venerable Nikon the Dry, of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on December 11 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1055-1230, Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and Balkans (175 years)
Scythia, 1055-1230, Cuman (Polovetsian) Battles in Kievan Rus' and Balkans (175 years) ; Land of the Polovetsians, North of the Black Sea, along the Volga River, Cumania ; Cumanians; Khan Bonyak; Venerable Nikon the Dry, of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on December 11 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1095-1096, Cuman Chief Boniak Wars in Kiev, plundered Kiev K Caves, w Oleg, d Hungary
Kiev, 1095-1096, Cuman Chief Boniak Wars in Kiev; Venerable Nikon the Dry, of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on December 11 ; St Vsevolod (in holy baptism Gabriel) the Wonderworker of Pskov, Commemorated on February 11; Monkmartyr Eustratius of the Kiev Near Caves, Commemorated on March 28;

Mongol, Scythia, 1121, Atrak, the Cuman Qipchaks' ruler, Battle of Didgori, Christian
Qipchaks, Cuman-Kipchaks in Georgia; Blessed David IV the King of Georgia, Commemorated on January 26;

Mongol, Scythia, 1216, Battle of Lipitsa, for Vladimir, Mstislav and Konsantin beat Yuri and Yaroslav
Battle of Lipitsa (1216); Battle of Lipitsa (Russian: Ð›Ð¸ÌÐ¿Ð¸Ñ†ÐºÐ°Ñ Ð±Ð¸ÌÑ‚Ð²Ð°) was the decisive battle in the succession struggle over the Grand Princely throne of Vladimir-Suzdal following the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest. the battle, fought on April 22, 1216, the forces of Mstislav the Daring and Konstantin Vsevolodovich defeated those of Konstantin's younger brothers Yuri Vsevolodovich and Yaroslav. Konstantin took the throne of Vladimir and reigned as grand prince until his death two years later. large-scale battle typifies fratricidal strife that sapped the strength of the successor states to Kievan Rus before the Mongol invasion. detailed account first appeared in the older redaction of the Novgorodian First Chronicle and later in the Novgorodian Fourth Chronicle the Sofia First Chronicle and elsewhere.[1]

Mongol, Scythia, 1219, Vladimir-Suzdal forces against Islamic Volga Bulgars
Scythia, 1219, Vladimir-Suzdal forces against Islamic Volga Bulgars ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4 ; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 1220-1582, Golden Horde Mongol Empire Folder

Mongol, Scythia, 1220-1299, 13th Century Folder, Golden Horde, Invasions of Bulgaria, China and Russia

Mongol, Scythia, 1220s - 1502, Scythian Golden Horde, Mongol Empire
Scythian Golden Horde, 1220s - 1502, Mongol Empire; Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Icon of the Mother of God œof the SignÂ, the œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on September 8; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 1223-1255, Mongol Khan Batu, Founder Golden Horde, Nevsky's loyalty
Scythia, 1223-1255, Mongol Khan Batu, Founder Golden Horde; Khan (c. 1205–1255),[note 1] also known as Sain Khan (Mongolian: Good Khan) and Tsar Batu,[2] was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Golden Horde, a division of the Mongol Empire. was a son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. His ulus was the chief state of the Golden Horde, which ruled Rus', Volga Bulgaria, Cumania, and the Caucasus for around 250 years, after also destroying the armies of Poland and Hungary. or Bat literally means "firm" in the Mongolian language. After the deaths of Genghis Khan's sons, he became the most respected prince, called agha ("elder brother"), in the Mongol Empire. 1 Personality and appearance 2 Early years 3 Conquest of Kievan Rus' 4 Invasion of Central Europe 5 Viceroy and struggle with Güyük 6 Möngke and Batu 7 Family and legacy 8 Ancestry 9 Gallery 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Books 14 External links and appearance[edit] to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Batu was "kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time."[3] of Rubruck described him as about the height of his lord John de Beaumont and his entire face was covered with reddish spots.[4] years[edit] his son Jochi's death, Genghis Khan assigned Jochi's appanages to his sons. the Great Khan installed Batu as Khan of the Golden Horde (also known as the Ulus of Jochi or Kipchak Khanate). eldest son, Orda Khan, also agreed that Batu should succeed their father. Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge attended the coronation ceremony as an official representative of Genghis.[5] Genghis Khan died in 1227, he left 4,000 Mongol men to Jochi's family. Jochi's lands were divided between Batu and his older brother Orda. White Horde ruled the lands roughly between the Volga river and Lake Balkhash, while Batu's Horde ruled the lands west of the Volga. 1229, Ogedei dispatched three tumens under Kukhdei and Sundei to conquer the tribes on the lower Ural River. to Abulghazi, Batu joined Ogedei's military campaign against the Jin dynasty in North China while his younger brother was fighting the Bashkirs, the Cumans, the Bulghars and the Alans in the west. heavy resistance of their enemies, the Mongols conquered major cities of the Jurchens (Manchuria, northeast China) and made the Bashkirs their ally. the 1230s, Ogedei distributed lands in Shanxi, China to Batu and the family of Jochi, but they appointed their officials under the supervision of the Imperial governor likewise in Khorasan, Persia.[6] of Kievan Rus'[edit] articles: Kievan Rus', Mongol invasion of Rus', and Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria showvte invasions and conquests the kurultai in Mongolia after the end of the Mongol-Jin War, the Great Khan Ogedei ordered Batu to conquer western nations. 1235 Batu, who earlier had directed the conquest of the Crimean Peninsula, was assigned an army of possibly 130,000 to oversee an invasion of Europe. relatives and cousins Guyuk, Büri, Möngke, Khulgen, Khadan, Baidar and notable Mongol generals Subutai (Subeedei), Borolday, and Mengguser joined him by the order of his uncle Ogedei. The army, actually commanded by Subutai, crossed the Volga and invaded Volga Bulgaria in 1236. It took them a year to extinguish the resistance of the Volga Bulgarians, Kypchaks, and Alani. of the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal by Mongol armies. From the medieval Russian annals November 1237 Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal and demanded his allegiance. Yuri refused to surrender the Mongols besieged Ryazan. After six days of bloody battle, the city was totally annihilated and never restored to its former glory. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the horde, but they were soundly defeated. burnt Kolomna and Moscow, the horde laid siege to the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal on 4 February 1238. Three days later the city was taken and burnt to the ground. The royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince hastily retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, he mustered a new army, which was totally exterminated by the Mongols on the Sit River on 4 March. Batu Khan divided his army into smaller units, which ransacked fourteen Rus' cities: Rostov, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Gorodets, Galich, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuriev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Volokolamsk, Tver, and Torzhok. most difficult to take was the small town of Kozelsk, whose boy-prince Titus and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks. As the story goes, at the news of Mongol approach, the city of Kitezh was submerged in a lake with all its inhabitants, where it may be seen to this day. Khadan and Buri stormed the city in three days after they joined Batu. only major cities to escape destruction were Smolensk, which submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute, and Novgorod with Pskov, which could not be reached by the Mongols on account of considerable distance and the intervening marshlands. of the Golden Horde sack Suzdal. Batu drank a cup of wine before the others at the victory banquet, Buri complained of the unfairness of Batu receiving such a vast and fertile steppe, and the Mongol army, along with Guyuk and others, ridiculed Batu as an "old woman with beard". They then left the banquet. Batu sent an envoy to his uncle Ogedei to complain of his cousins' rude behavior. Ogedei got angry on hearing the news and recalled Buri and Guyuk. to some sources, Buri, who was sent to his grandfather Chagatai, never returned to join the Mongol conquest of Europe; Guyuk returned to the Russian steppe after his father Ogedei harshly criticized him. the summer of 1238, Batu Khan devastated the Crimea and pacified Mordovia and the Kipchak-controlled steppe. the winter of 1239, he sacked Chernigov and Pereyaslav. several days of siege, the Mongols stormed Kiev in December 1240. fierce resistance by Danylo of Halych, Batu Khan managed to take the two principal capitals of his land, Halych and Volodymyr-Volynsky. Ruthenian principalities became vassals of the Mongol Empire. of Central Europe[edit] article: Mongol invasion of Europe Cuman refugees took shelter in the Kingdom of Hungary. Batu sent at least five messengers to Bela IV, the king of Hungary, but they were all killed. For the last time Batu demanded that Bela have the Cumans returned and warned: "It is much easier for the Cumans to escape than it is for you...you dwell in houses and have fixed towns and fortresses, so how will you escape me"?[7] Batu Khan then decided to "reach the ultimate sea", where the Mongols could proceed no further. Some modern historians speculate that Batu intended primarily to assure his flanks were safe for the future from possible interference from the Europeans, and partially as a precursor to further conquest. Most believe he intended the conquest of all Europe, as soon as his flanks were safe and his forces ready. IV flees from Mohi, detail from Chronicon Pictum devastated the various Rus principalities, Subutai and Batu sent spies into Poland, Hungary, and as far as Austria in preparation for an attack into the heartland of Europe. a clear picture of the European kingdoms, they brilliantly prepared an attack. Batu Khan was the overall leader, but Subutai was the actual commander in the field and as such was present in both the northern and southern campaigns against The Mongols invaded central Europe in three groups. One group invaded and devastated Poland, defeating a combined force under Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order at Legnica. second crossed the Carpathian Mountains, a third followed the Danube. armies swept the plains of Hungary over the summer, and in the spring of 1242 they regained impetus and extended their control into Austria and Dalmatia, as well as invading Morava. the northern force under Ogedei's son Khadan and Baidar, the son of Chagatai, won the Battle of Legnica, and another army of Guyuk or Buri triumphed in Transylvania, Subutai was waiting for another victory over the Magyars, the Croats, and the Templars on the Hungarian plain. 1241, a Tatar (Mongol) army led by Bujek crossed the mountains of the Kara Ulagh ("Black Vlachs"); Bujek defeated the Vlachs and one of their leader named Mslav.[8] the siege of Pest, Batu's army withdrew to the Sajo River and inflicted a tremendous defeat on King Bela IV and his allies at the Battle of Mohi on 11 April. Baidar, and Orda went to Hungary, devastating Moravia en route. The Mongols appointed a darughachi in Hungary and minted coins in the name of the Khagan.[9] country of Bela was assigned to Orda by Batu as an appanage; Batu sent Khadan in pursuit of Bela, who fled to Croatia.[citation needed] Chinese drawing of young Batu Khan (14th century). Mongol battalions checked the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Babenberg Austria.[10] his campaign in Central Europe, Batu demanded that Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, dethrone himself, and said: "I am coming to usurp your throne instead of you". The latter only replied that he would make a good falconer, for he understood birds very The Emperor and Pope Gregory IX called for a crusade against the Mongol Empire, but Europe was plagued by internal strife. achieved lasting fame with his victories in Europe, as he had in Eastern Persia. late 1241, Batu and Subutai were finalizing plans to invade Austria, Italy, and Germany when the news came of the death of Ogedei Khan, who died in December 1241. wanted to continue the war[citation needed], but Subutai reminded him of the law of Yassa (Ð˜Ñ… Ð—Ð°ÑÐ°Ð³)[citation needed]. Mongols withdrew in late spring of 1242, as the Princes of the blood, and Subutai, were recalled to Karakorum where the kurultai was held. Second Bulgarian Empire was forced to acknowledge Batu's supremacy. was a potential Great Khan, but when he failed to gain the title he turned to consolidate his conquests in Asia and the Urals. and struggle with Guyuk[edit] from Hungary, Batu made his camps along the banks of the Volga. When the Great Khatun Töregene invited him to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire, Batu announced his inability to attend any immediate kurultai, thus delaying the succession for several years. Guyuk was elected Khagan in 1246, with Batu's brothers representing the Jochid lineage. As one of the oldest members of Chingisid Borjigin, Batu became a viceroy over all the western parts of the empire, controlling routine affairs among the Russian princes, nominating Jochid retainers as governors of Iran, and receiving in audience grandees from the Caucasus. At no point, however, did he openly challenge the authority of the Great Khan. the absence of Batu, the Mongols who were left behind put to death Mstislav, the prince of Rylsk, in Kievan Rus'. his return Batu summoned the Grand prince Yaroslav II of Vladimir to meet him. Yaroslav was well received by Batu, who confirmed him as suzerain over the other Russian princes, and gave him authority of Kiev. princes of Suzdal followed Yaroslav's example. Batu sent Yaroslav to the imperial court of Karakorum to assist at the inauguration of Guyuk Khan in 1246. Plano Carpini, who got approval from Batu to go further, noted that the Great Khan's aunt was executed. At the same time Yaroslav was poisoned in Mongolia. Michael of Chernigov was passed between fires in accordance with ancient Turco-Mongol tradition. Batu Khan stabbed him to death for his refusal to do obeisance to Genghis Khan's shrine in the pagan ritual. had commissaries in the various towns where the dependent Russian princes and other princes held their courts. princes from Russian states such as Vladimir Constantine, Boris, Gleb, Vasili, Constatantine, Vladimir Constantinovich, Vasilko and Sviatoslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir, went to the court of Batu in person. Michael of Chernigov, who had murdered the Mongol envoy in Kiev, arrived, the Mongol overseers were engaged in taking a census of the inhabitants for the poll tax. Michael was ordered to repair to Batu. When summoned before Batu, he was made to pass between two fires and ordered to prostrate himself before the tablets of Genghis Khan. replied that he did not object to do obeisance to Batu himself but to adore images of a dead man was repugnant. As he persisted in his refusal, Batu ordered his death. of Halych summoned to Batu and diplomatically made obeisance to the Mongols. Batu, addressing him, said "You have for a long time refused to come, but have effaced your ill conduct by your obedience" and saluted him with a draught of airag. exchanged hostages whereby 100 families of Keraites were re-settled in Carpathian-Galicia. the defeat of the Sultanate of Rum, Baiju freed David VII Ulu from Turkish imprisonment and sent him to Batu and Guyuk. Baiju's aggressive policy, Queen Rusudan of Georgia sent her son David VI Narin to Batu's court to get official recognition as heir apparent. supported David VI and granted him the rights above the Georgian and Armenian nobles and the Mongol tammachis. Guyuk made David Ulu the senior king of Georgia and ordered Batu's protege David Narin to be subordinate to David Ulu. between Batu and Guyuk increased, however, and Guyuk replaced the officials in Iran and the Caucasus with his own men, including Eljigidei. gave a good reception to Alexander Nevsky and Andrey II. Andrey was assigned the throne of Vladimir-Suzdal while Alexander was given southern Russia. Guyuk began moving west, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Tolui, warned Batu that he was actually the Great Khan's target. Guyuk summoned Batu to appear before him, Batu moved slowly. Before meeting Batu, Guyuk died suddenly. According to William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicle, one of Batu's brothers murdered or poisoned the Great Khan Guyuk and Batu then killed the imperial envoy, though this account is not completely confirmed by other major sources. öngke and Batu[edit] loyal vassal Alexander Nevsky in the Horde opportunity had arrived for deposing the House of Ogedei from the overlordship of the Mongols, and Batu was determined to avail himself of it. But Batu seemed to allow Oghul Qaimish to serve as regent. He also suggested unruly princes listen to her words. When Batu was ill, Mongke went to the Ulus of Jochi to greet him as his mother Sorghagtani advised. Batu was much delighted on seeing him. last, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. Members of the Ogedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend the kurultai beyond the Mongolian heartland. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu Khan who had no interest in promoting himself as the new Grand Khan. Rejecting it, he instead nominated Mongke, who led a Mongol army in Russia, the Northern Caucasus, and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction (Genghis 4th son, Yuan Dynasty) rose up and supported his choice. Given its limited attendance and location, this kurultai was of questionable validity. sent Mongke under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. supporters of Mongke invited Oghul Qaimish and other main Ogedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time, demanding descendants of Ogedei must be khan. In response, Batu accused them of killing his aunt Altalaun and defying Ogedei's nominee, Shiremun. the assembled throng proclaimed Mongke Great Khan of the Mongol Empire in 1251, he punished the Ogedeid and Chagataid families for the organized plot against him. sent Buri to Batu who had him executed by Buri's opponent general. Eljigidei was also ordered to be executed. Grand prince Andrey II allied with the rebellious-minded princes of western Rus, giving umbrage to the Mongols. sent a punitive expedition under Nevrui. On their approach, Andrey fled to Pskov and thence to Sweden. The Mongols spread over Vladimir and harshly punished the people there. Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov on hearing the news about the Mongols. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq, Alexander was installed as the Grand Prince of Vladimir (i.e., the supreme Russian ruler) by Batu in 1252. 1256 Andrey travelled to Sarai to ask pardon for his former infidelity and was shown mercy. the reign of Mongke, Batu's prestige as kingmaker and viceroy of the great khans in the west reached its height. Even so, Batu allowed Mongke's census takers to operate freely in his realm. to a Muslim chronicle and the History of Yuan, Batu had free access to the imperial treasury.[12] Of all the grandsons of Genghis Khan, he and Mongke seemed most capable and the most dedicated to following the spirit of Mongolian law.[13] dispatched a large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu's expedition in the Middle East. However, Berke's persuasion might have forced him to delay to strengthen Hulagu's force, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there, for few years. Batu, Mongke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey. He left state affairs to his son Sartaq before Batu died in 1255. Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30; Icon of the Mother of God œof the SignÂ, the œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on September 8; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Scythia, 1236, Invasion of Batu Khan (Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria 1223-1236)
Invasion of Batu Khan 1236 (Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria 1223-1236); Invasion of Batu Khan; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Icon of the Mother of God œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on November 27; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Mongol, Scythia, 1238, Fall of Vladimir to the Tartar Army, Batu Khan, Battle of Sit (Sita) River
Russia, Vladimir, 1238, Fall of Vladimir to the Tartar Army, Battle of Sit River; Venerable Euphrosyne of Suzdal, Commemorated on September 18; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1241-1255, Horde of Batu (1241-1255)
Golden Horde, Horde of Batu; Icon of the Mother of God œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on November 27; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated November 22; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30;

Mongol, Scythia, 1240-mid 1240's, Golden Horde, Old City (Sarai)
Golden Horde ; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated November 22 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Scythia, 1250-1556, Golden Horde, New City (Sarai)
Golden Horde ; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated November 22 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23 ; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated February 12; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God of St Theodore, Commemorated on March 14; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Scythia, 1251-1259, Golden Horde Khan, Mongke Khan, Christian, converted by Nevsky
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1251-1259, Mongke Khan; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Scythia, 1255-1256, Mongol Khan Sartaq, Christian, Nevsky's close friend, C by Nevsky
Scythia, 1255-1256, Mongol Khan Sartaq, Christian; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Scythia, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old, Christian
Scythia, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Scythia, 1257-1266, Batu's brother Berke Khan, Blue Horde and White Horde, moslem but allied w Nevsky
Scythia, 1257-1266, Berke Khan ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Scythia, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan, Yuan Dynasty, China, Mongolia, Korea, Buddist, M Polo
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan ; (/ËˆkuËblaÉª/; Mongolian: Ð¥ÑƒÐ±Ð¸Ð»Ð°Ð¹, romanized: Hubilai; Chinese: å¿½å¿…çƒˆ; pinyin: Hūbìliè; 23 September  1215 – 18 February 1294), also known as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan, was the fifth khagan-emperor[note 1] of the Mongol Empire (Ikh Mongol Uls), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although after the division of the empire this was a nominal position). He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294. was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[2] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[3][4][5] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, from Siberia to what is now Afghanistan.[6] 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, and some adjacent areas; he also amassed influence in the Middle East and Europe as a Khagan. He assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to unite all of China proper. imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei. White, the color of the royal costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of the Yuan dynasty.[7] 1 Early years 2 Victory in North China 3 Enthronement and civil war 4 Reign 4.1 Great Khan of the Mongols 4.2 Emperor of the Yuan dynasty 4.2.1 Scientific developments and relations with minorities 4.2.2 Continuation of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices 5 Warfare and foreign relations 5.1 Tibet and Xinjiang 5.2 Kublai's annexation of Goryeo 5.3 Further naval expansion 5.4 Invasions of Japan 5.5 Invasions of Vietnam 5.6 Southeast Asia and South Seas 5.7 Europe 5.8 Africa 6 Capital City 6.1 Xanadu 7 Nayan's rebellion 8 Later years 9 Family 9.1 Wives and sons 9.2 Daughters 10 Poetry 11 Legacy 12 In popular culture 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 Further reading 17 External links years[edit] Khan was the fourth son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River.[8] Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Khagan (Mongol emperor) Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei, was enthroned as Khagan in 1229.[citation needed] the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.[citation needed] most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold).[9] Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist), and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing.[10] Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic.[11] in North China[edit] of young Kublai by Anige, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China. received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of Henan, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving Xi'an. acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty. 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his Chinese associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials.[12] 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he asked the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.[13] Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali King Duan Xingzhi (æ®µèˆˆæ™º) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.[14] Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan.[15] was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the Kingdom of Qocho (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished.[16] Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.[citation needed] Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory.[17] Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts.[18][19][20][21] Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of the Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).[citation needed] “The Emperor Kublai Khan in a tower carried by four elephants on the day of the battle“ French Engraving, 18th century. 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan, near the Yangtze. While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him.[citation needed] The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states.[22] Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao. and civil war[edit] article: Toluid Civil War received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plains.[23] he reached Mongolia, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum, which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu, opposed this. Kublai's Chinese staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in North China and Manchuria supported his candidacy.[24] returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the Borjigin lines except that of Jochi. This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become khan.[citation needed] Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next Great Khan at the Grand Kurultai in the year 1260. Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a Jami al-Twarikh (or Chingiznama). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31 [1] led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals.[25] To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou, but Jia broke his promise and arrested them.[26] Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu, crowned khan of Chagatai's territory. the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan, son of Ögedei Khan. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to Han Chinese warlords.[citation needed] Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.[27] When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai, Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, at first accepted Kublai's invitation.[28][29] However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters. Khan of the Mongols[edit] invasions and conquests mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258), and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire.[30] Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.[31] Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde.[32][33] The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime.[24][34] also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana, the empress of the Chagatai Khanate, who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death. Kaidu of the House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel.[35] This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.[citation needed] Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus.[36] 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrender his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy.[37] Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back.[37] called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander.[38] Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China.[39] The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there.[40] renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?"[41][42] Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan.[43][44] Defections from Kublai's Dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces. of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Han Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280. Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song, were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye.[citation needed] succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign.[43] Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China.[45] However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258), Sakhalin (1264), Burma (1277), Champa (1282), and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–8), and the invasion of Java (1293) failed. the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form a grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.[citation needed] son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids.[43] Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq. of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the Mongolian script, dated 1289. French National Archives. In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam (dhabihah) or Judaism (kashrut), which offended Mongolian custom.[46] Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the execution of Ahmad Fanakati, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor.[citation needed] niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke, Köchü, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes.[47] The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai.[48] Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.[49][50][51][52] of the Yuan dynasty[edit] also: Timeline of the Yuan dynasty Yuan Dynasty of China, c. 1294 Khan considered China his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.[53] From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng, and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.[54] also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor, giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks. 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.[55][56] In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their[whose?] corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.[citation needed] the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu (Chinese: å¤§éƒ½; Wade–Giles: Ta-tu; lit. 'Grand Capital', known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu (Chinese: ä¸Šéƒ½; lit. 'Upper Capital', also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor). unify China,[57] Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into the sea and ending the Song dynasty.[58] opera flourished during Yuan China. of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor.[59] This included China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.[60][61] The Central Region (Chinese: è…¹è£) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268.[62] the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean.[62] In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.[63] Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on.[64][65] In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins.[66] In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall.[67] It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.[citation needed] Sangha was a Tibetan.[68] A rich merchant from the Madurai Sultanate, Abu Ali, was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of Chaesongnyeon during the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo according to the Dongguk Tonggam, Goryeosa and Liu Mengyan's ZhÅng'ÄnjÃ.[69][70] encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjià, (Mysterious Order).[71] Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Europeans visited the empire, notably Marco Polo in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.[citation needed] the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79] The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.[80] developments and relations with minorities[edit] "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang. Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.[81] Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who became administrator of Yunnan. He was a well learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China. Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of the Yuan capitol). Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi.[82] Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar. cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced the knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants.[citation needed] physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna's works were also published in China during that period.[83] mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry, Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China.[84] brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented the Muslim trebuchet (or Huihui Pao), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang.[85] of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices[edit] Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish (kashrut) or Muslim (dhabihah) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision was also strictly forbidden.[86][87][88] and foreign relations[edit] also: Kublai Khan's campaigns, Mongol military tactics and organization, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty Yuan dynasty hand cannon Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian units.[89][90][91] Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.[92] Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.[citation needed] and Xinjiang[edit] 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya monasteries. The Chagatayid khan, Duwa, helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin.[93] Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu, killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.[citation needed] annexation of Goryeo[edit] also: Korea under Yuan rule and Mongol invasions of Korea dragons chasing a flaming pearl was a symbol associated with Goryeo Sumiyabaatar/ Ð‘. Ð¡ÑƒÐ¼ÑŒÑÐ°Ð±Ð°Ð°Ñ‚Ð°Ñ€, "Ð¥ÑƒÐ±Ð¸Ð»Ð°Ð¹ Ð˜Ñ… Ð¥Ð°Ð°Ð½Ñ‹ Ò¯ÐµÐ¸Ð¹Ð½ ÐœÐ¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð» – Ð¡Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾ÑÑ‹Ð½ Ñ…Ð°Ñ€Ð¸Ð»Ñ†Ð°Ð°", "Relationship between Mongolia and Korea during Kubilai Khan rule", 439p, 2015, ISBN 978-99973-302-5-3 Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo (the state on the Korean Peninsula) and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan.[94][95][96][97][98] Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.[citation needed] naval expansion[edit] Gangnido reflects the Chinese geographical knowledge during the Mongol Empire about countries in the West.[99] Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Song Dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.[100] of Japan[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Japan Japanese samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. MÅko ShÅ«rai Ekotoba (è’™å¤è¥²æ¥çµµè©ž), circa 1293. Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongols, Semu, Koreans, Hui and Chinese people.[81][101] Because the Wokou extended support to the crumbling Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated invasions of Japan. Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.[102] second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Chinese, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to 240 feet (73 m) long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by 180 kilometres (110 miles). The Mongols easily took over Tsushima Island about halfway across the strait and then Iki Island closer to Kyushu. The Korean fleet reached Hakata Bay on June 23, 1281 and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen. Mongolian landing forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Akasaka and the Battle of Torikai-Gata. Takezaki Suenaga's samurai attacked the Mongolian army and fought them, as reinforcements led by Shiraishi Michiyasu arrived and defeated the Mongolians, who suffered around 3500 dead.[103] samurai warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the KÅan Campaign (å¼˜å®‰ã®å½¹) or the "Second Battle of Hakata Bay", the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships by the Samurai. The Japanese army was heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with two-meter high walls, and was easily able to repulse the Mongolian forces that were launched against it.[citation needed] samurai boarding Yuan ships in 1281. archaeologist Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of Takashima District, Shiga. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of Nagasaki.[104] David Nicolle wrote in The Mongol Warlords, "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.[105] soldiers, second version ships, second version of a 14th-century prized Yuan dynasty junk of Vietnam[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Vietnam Khan invaded Äáº¡i Viá»‡t (now Vietnam) three times, each repelled by the ruling Tráº§n dynasty. The ancestors of the Tráº§n clan originated from the province of Fujian and migrated to Äáº¡i Viá»‡t under Tráº§n Kinh é™³äº¬ (Chén JÄ«ng),[106] where their mixed-blooded descendants later established the Tráº§n dynasty and came to rule Äáº¡i Viá»‡t; despite many intermarriages between the Tráº§n and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Tráº§n Lý[107][108] and Tráº§n Thá»«a,[109] some of the mixed-blood descendants of the clan could still speak Chinese, as evidenced when a Yuan dynasty envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Tráº§n prince Tráº§n Quá»‘c Tuáº¥n (later Supreme Commander Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o) in 1282.[110][111][112][113][114] first incursion was in 1257, but the Tráº§n dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty between the Mongols and Äáº¡i Viá»‡t in the twelfth lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Tráº§n dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a darughachi.[115][116] However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Tráº§n king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of Champa, but the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t court refused. Kublai sent another envoy to the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t to demand that the Tráº§n king surrender his land and his kingship. The Tráº§n king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.[citation needed] his first failure, Kublai wanted to install Nhân Tông's brother Tráº§n Ãch Táº¯c – who had defected to the Mongols – as king of Annam (Äáº¡i Viá»‡t?), but hardship in the Yuan's supply base in Hunan and Kaidu's invasion forced Kublai to abandon his plans.[citation needed] second Mongol invasion of Äáº¡i Viá»‡t began late in 1284, when the Mongol Yuan forces under the command of Toghan, the prince of Kublai Khan, crossed the border and quickly occupied ThÄƒng Long (now Hanoi) in January 1285, after the victorious battle of Omar in Váº¡n Kiáº¿p (north east of Hanoi). At the same time Sogetu, second in command of the Yuan army, moved from Champa northward and rapidly marched to Nghe An in the north central region of Vietnam, where the army of the Tráº§n dynasty under general Tráº§n Kien was defeated and surrendered to him. However, the Tráº§n king and the commander-in-chief Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o changed their tactics from defence to attack and struck against the Mongols. In April, General Tráº§n Quang Kháº£i defeated Sogetu in ChÆ°Æ¡ng DÆ°Æ¡ng and the Tráº§n king won a battle in Tây Káº¿t, where Sogetu died. Soon after, general Tráº§n Nháºt Duáºt also won a battle in Hàm Tá» (now HÆ°ng Yên) and Toghan was defeated by General Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o. Thus Kublai failed in his first attempt to invade Äáº¡i Viá»‡t. Toghan hid himself inside a bronze pipe to avoid being killed by the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t archers; this act brought humiliation upon the Mongol Empire and Toghan himself.[citation needed] third Mongol invasion began in 1287. It was better organized than the previous effort; a large fleet and plentiful stocks of food were used. The Mongol Yuan forces, under the command of Toghan, moved to Váº¡n Kiáº¿p from the north west and met the infantry and cavalry of Kublai's Kipchak commander Omar (coming by another way along the Red River) and quickly won the battle. The naval fleet rapidly attained victory in Vân Äá»“n near Háº¡ Long Bay. However, the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t General Tráº§n Khánh DÆ° managed to intercept and captured the heavy, fully stocked cargo ships, filled with food and supplies for Toghan's army. As a result, the Mongolian army in ThÄƒng Long suffered an acute shortage of food. With no news about the supply fleet, Toghan ordered his army to retreat to Váº¡n Kiáº¿p. The Äáº¡i Viá»‡t army began their general offensive and recaptured a number of locations occupied by the Mongols. Groups of Äáº¡i Viá»‡t infantry were ordered to attack the Mongols in Váº¡n Kiáº¿p. Toghan had to split his army into two and retreated in 1288.[citation needed] early April 1288 the naval fleet, led by Omar and escorted by infantry, fled home along the Báº¡ch Äáº±ng river. As bridges and roads were destroyed and attacks were launched by Äáº¡i Viá»‡t troops, the Mongols reached Báº¡ch Äáº±ng without an infantry escort. Äáº¡i Viá»‡t's small flotilla engaged in battle and pretended to retreat. The Mongols eagerly pursued the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t troops only to fall into their pre-arranged battlefield. Thousands of small Äáº¡i Viá»‡t boats quickly appeared from both banks, launched a fierce attack that broke the Mongols' combat formation. The Mongols, meeting such a sudden and strong attack, in panic tried to withdraw to the sea. The Mongols' boats were halted, and many were damaged and sank. At that time, a number of fire rafts quickly rushed toward the Mongols, who were frightened and jumped down to reach the banks where they were dealt a heavy blow by an army led by the Tráº§n king and Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o.[citation needed] Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Äáº¡i Viá»‡t's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Láº¡ng SÆ¡n. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to Yangzhou for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Tráº§n king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Tráº§n king, which continued to the end of the Yuan dynasty.[116][117] Asia and South Seas[edit] articles: First Mongol invasion of Burma and Mongol invasion of Java expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the Irrawaddy Delta, whereupon they captured Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom and established their government.[118] Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal suzerainty, but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s.[119] Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.[citation needed] Khan maintained close relations with Siam, in particular with prince Mangrai of Chiangmai and king Ram Khamheng of Sukhothai.[120] In fact, Kublai encouraged them to attack the Khmers after the Thais were being pushed southwards from Nanchao.[120][121][122] This happened after king Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire refused to pay tribute to the Mongols.[120][123][124] Jayavarman VIII was so insistent on not having to pay tribute to Kublai that he had Mongol envoys imprisoned.[120][124][122] These attacks from the Siamese eventually weakened the Khmer Empire. The Mongols then decided to venture south into Cambodia in 1283 by land from Champa.[125] They were able to conquer Cambodia by 1284.[126] Cambodia effectively became a vassal state by 1285 when Jayavarman VIII was finally forced to pay tribute to Kublai.[125][127][128] the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against Singhasari on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Chiang Mai had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.[118] articles: Marco Polo and Rabban Bar Sauma information: Europeans in Medieval China gives financial support to the Polo family. Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians – merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders – made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Chinese, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Rus, Persia, and Mesopotamia.[citation needed] Bar Sauma, ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and Ilkhan Arghun, travelled from Dadu to Rome, Tuscany, Genoa, Paris, and Bordeaux to meet with European rulers in 1287–88. the 13th century, the Sultanate of Mogadishu through its trade with medieval China had acquired enough of a reputation in Asia to attract the attention of Kublai Khan.[129] According to Marco Polo, the Mongol Emperor sent an envoy to Mogadishu to spy out the Sultanate but the delegation was captured and imprisoned. Kublai Khan then sent another envoy to treat for the release of the earlier Mongol delegation sent to Africa.[130] City[edit] White Stupa of Dadu (or Khanbaliq; now Beijing) Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in Xanadu on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's, Guo Shoujing, accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and armillary spheres that represented the celestial globe. Turkestani architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Chinese Dadu).[131] Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a Newar named Araniko, built the White Stupa that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.[132] advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a 30 km (19 mi) channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to Gansu to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.[citation needed] rebellion[edit] the conquest of the Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large appanages in Manchuria.[133] Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over Chang'an and Shanxi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria.[134] The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.[135] Yuan dynasty jade belt plaque featuring carved designs of the Azure Dragon, highly regarded as a symbol of Yuan dynasty China's maritime strength. by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, Nayan, a fourth-generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either Temüge or Belgutei, instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.[136]) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia.[137] Manchuria's native Jurchens and Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of Qasar, joined Nayan's rebellion,[138] and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.[139] rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of Chungnyeol of Goryeo assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.[139] Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of Liaoning but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the Khangai Mountains and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.[38] but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family.[140] Kublai harshly punished the darughachi appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.[141] This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.[citation needed] years[edit] section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ilkhanate Persia, Ghazan converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his suzerain. Khan dispatched his grandson Gammala to Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to ensure his claim to Ikh Khorig, where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the Central Siberian Plateau.[citation needed] his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son Zhenjin, who became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng and actively administered the dynasty according to Confucian fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the Golden Horde, expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).[citation needed] became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son Temür, who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.[citation needed] Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Scythia, 1261, Through A Nevsky and Metrop Cyril III, at Sarai t capital, an Orthodox diocese was established
Sarai (city); St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1262-1299, Golden Horde General, Nogai Kha, Moslem, pro orthodox
Scythian Golden Horde General, 1262-1299, Nogai Kha, Moslem; St Stephen Miliutin of Serbia, Commemorated on October 30; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, Scythia, 1266-1290, Theodore the Black, Prince of Smolensk, bored, went to Sarai, prominence in Golden Horde
Kiev, 1250-1298, Saint Theodore the Balck; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19; Finding of the relics of Saint Theodore, Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslavl, and his children, Commemorated on March 5;

Mongol, Scythia, 1266-1280, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Mengu-Timur, pro Orthodox
Scythian Golder Horde Tartar Khan, 1266-1280, Mengu-Timur ; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; North Ossetia-“Alania; Khan Mengu-Temir, 1266-1280; Saint Theodore, Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, and his sons Saints David and Constantine, Commemorated on September 19; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, Scythia, 1291-1312, Golden Horde Tartar Khan, Toqta, pro Orthodox
Scythian Golden Horde Tartar Khan, 1291-1312, Toqta; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, Scythia, 1300-1399, 14th Century Folder, Golden, White, Blue, Grey Hordes, Kulikovo

Mongol, Scythia, 1312-1341, Oz Beg, made Golden Horde Moslem for control, tolerant of C for control, rule zenith
Scythian Golder Horde Tartar Khan, 1312-1341, Oz Beg Khan, Khan Uzbek; Giyas al-Din Mohammed Oz Beg, better known as Uzbeg, Uzbek or Ozbeg (1292–1341), was the longest-reigning khan of the Golden Horde (1313–1341), under whose rule the state reached its zenith.[1] was succeeded by his son Tini Beg. He was the son of Toghrilcha and grandson of Mengu-Timur, who had been khan of the Golden Horde from 1267–1280. Beg Khan moved his residence to Mukhsha (today a village of Narovchat in Penza Oblast). and conversion to Islam by the horde[edit] of the Golden Horde, during the reign of Oz Beg Khan. Beg's father Togrilcha was one of the Genghisid princes that overthrew Tode-Mengu (r. 1280–1287). Later, he was executed by Tokhta (1291–1312). Tokhta took Togrilcha's wife and sent his son Oz Beg to exile in a distant region of the Golden Horde: either Khorazm or the country of Circassians. to Islam by Ibn Abdul Hamid, a Sunni Sufi Bukharan sayyid and sheikh of the Yasavi order, Oz Beg assumed the throne upon the death of his uncle Tokhta in January 1313 with the help of the former Khans' vizier Temur Qutlugh and of Bulaghan (or Bayalun) khatun. At first, many Mongol nobles were against him and organized a plot to kill the new khan. Oz Beg discovered the plot and crushed the rebels.[2] His adoption of Islam as a state religion led to a conspiracy of Shamanist and Buddhist princes, whom he subdued severely. Oz Beg determinedly spread Islam among the Golden Horde and allowed missionary activities to expand in the surrounding regions. Oz Beg found out that his competitor was backed by the envoys of the Great Khan Ayurbarwada Buyantu and this fact helped deteriorate his relationship with the Yuan Dynasty.[3] The last of his rebellious relatives was shamanist Ilbasan of the eastern half of the Golden Horde, who was murdered in 1320. Oz Beg installed the Muslim Mubarak Khwaja as a replacement to the throne of the White Horde, but he discouraged their independence. In the long run, Islam enabled the Khan to eliminate inter-factional struggles in the Horde and to stabilize state institutions. Russian scholar Lev Gumilev wrote that in this manner was Oz Beg able to turn the khanate into a sultanate.[4] Oz Beg urged the Mongol elite to convert to Islam, but at the same time, he preserved the lives of Christians and pagans such as Russians, Circassians, Alans, Finno-Ugric people, and Crimean Greeks as long as they continued to pay the jizyah in subjection to Islamic rule. Oz Beg onwards, the khans of the Golden Horde were all Muslim.[5] of Oz Beg Khan built in Crimea in 1314. Beg was very tolerant of Christians as exemplified by a letter of thanks he received from Pope John XXII in which the Christian leader thanked Oz Beg for his kind treatment of Christians.[6] Oz Beg had sent a letter to the Metropolitan Peter which stated: the will and power, the greatness and most high! Let no man insult the metropolitan church of which Peter is head, or his service or his churchman; let no man seize their property, goods or people, let no man meddle in the affairs of the church...Their laws, their churches and monasteries and chapels shall be respected; whoever condemns or blames this religion, shall not be allowed to excuse himself under any pretext, but shall be punished with death.[6] Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21;

Mongol, Scythia, 1342-1357, Jani Beg, G Horde, interfered with Rus and Lith politics, black plague attack of Crimea
Mongol, Scythia, 1342-1357, Golder Horde Tartar Khan,Jani Beg; Beg, also known as Djanibek Khan, was a Khan of the Golden Horde from 1342 to 1357, succeeding his father Oz Beg Khan's sons Din Muhammad, Wali Muhammad, Baki Muhammad and Imam Quly Khan, son of Din Muhammad. putting two of his brothers to death, Jani Beg crowned himself in Saray-Jük. He is known to have actively interfered in the affairs of Rus principalities and of Lithuania. The Grand Princes of Moscow, Simeon Gordiy and Ivan II, were under constant political and military pressure from Jani Beg. Beg commanded a massive Crimean Tatar force that attacked the Crimean port city of Kaffa in 1343. The siege was lifted by an Italian relief force in February. In 1345 Jani Beg again besieged Kaffa; however, his assault was again unsuccessful due to an outbreak of the Black Plague among his troops. Beg's army catapulted infected corpses into Kaffa in an attempt to use the Black Death to weaken the defenders. Infected Genoese sailors subsequently sailed from Kaffa to Genoa, Messina, and Constantinople, introducing the Black Death into Europe.[1] 1356 Jani Beg conducted a military campaign in Azerbaijan and conquered the city of Tabriz, installing his own governor. He also asserted Jochid dominance over the Chagatai Khanate, attempting to unite the three khanates of the Mongol Empire. After accepting surrender from Shaikh Uvais, Jani Beg boasted that three uluses (districts/nations) of the Mongol Empire were under his control. Soon after this, he faced an uprising in Tabriz resulting in the rise to power of the Jalayirid Dynasty, an offshoot of Ilkhanate, and ultimately in the death of the Khan. Chudov Monastery, founded at about the time of Jani Beg's fall by Metropolitan Aleksii and Sergei of Radonezh, was built on land that according to legend was granted to Aleksii by the Khan as thanks for the miraculous curing of his mother, Taidula, by the former. reign of Jani Beg was marked by the first signs of the feudal strife which would eventually contribute to the demise of the Golden Horde. Jani Beg's assassination in 1357 opened a quarter-century of political turmoil within the Golden Horde. Twenty-five khans succeeded each other between 1357 and 1378. Beg had three sons who successively inherited the throne.[2] Berdi Beg (r. 1357–1359) Qulpa (r. 1359–1360) Nawruz Beg (r. 1360–1361) also had a daughter, Shakar Beg, who married Aq Sufi Qongirat, the prince of the Sufi dynasty of Khwarezm. Their daughter Khanzada Begum later married into the Timurid dynasty.[3] See also: Family tree of Genghis Khan Genghis Khan Jochi Batu Khan Toqoqan Mengu-Timur Toghrilcha Uzbeg Khan Jani Beg St. Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12;

Mongol, Scythia, 1355-1380, Mamai, Golden Horde Warlord, regent, Lost Kulikovo, Crimea, western White Horde
Mongol, Scythia, 1355-1380, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Mamai; (1335–1380), of Kiyat descent, was a powerful military commander of the Golden Horde. Contrary to popular misconception, he was not a khan (king), but a warlord and a kingmaker for several khans, and the de facto regent of the Horde in the 1370s. His defeat in Battle of Kulikovo marked the beginning of the decline of the Horde, as well as his own. of Crimea[edit] became governor, sometime in the second half of the 1350s, of a territory that later would become the Crimean Khanate. During the rule of Berdi Beg (1357–59) Mamai was appointed as beqlar beg (beylerbey), a position simultaneously combining the duties of general of the army, minister of foreign affairs, and the head of the supreme court. after the assassination of Berdi Beg[edit] the assassination of Berdi Beg by Qulpa in 1359, Mamai associated himself with one of the coalitions formed to depose Qulpa. that period of time the Golden Horde was in relative chaos; numerous regional governors were striving to become the Khan. Qulpa eventually was killed by Nawruz Beg who was himself assassinated less than six months later. Mamai, who was not a direct descendant of Genghis Khan, played a key role in promoting and supporting rival khans of the White Horde (western part of Golden Horde). 1361 he supported Gabdullah, son of Uzbeg Khan, who became Khan in Crimea. Upon the death of Gabdullah in 1370, Mamai supported Bulak under regency of Tulun Beg Khanum, who only briefly enjoyed power before being replaced by his main opponent Urus in 1372. to subdue the Principalities of Rus[edit] being badly defeated by Russians under Dmitri Donskoi first in 1378 at the Battle of the Vozha River and then at the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), Mamai began to assemble a large force to punish Dmitri. But he was defeated by Tokhtamysh on the banks of the Kalka River and was either executed by Tokhtamysh or assassinated by the Genoese after fleeing to Caffa.[1] The death of Mamai paved the way for the next khan to reunify the Golden Horde. memory of Mamai has endured for centuries. Contemporary Russian language has an expression "как Мамай прошёл" (kak Mamaj prošjol), which translates roughly to "it's as if Mamai came through here", used to describe an utter mess. burial of Mamai was found by the native Crimean and famous Russian painter Ivan Aivazovsky. Mamai was buried in a village of Şeyh Mamay (today Aivazovske, Kirovske Raion). descendants[edit] Mamatsios or Mamatzios, Mamatsou, Mamatsu (Mamai-son) Macedonie was a supposed son of Mamai. One of his sons, Manzur Kiyat, purportedly escaped to Lithuania, and, serving Grand Prince Vytautas the Great, received the title of Prince of Hlinsk with multiple estates around the modern city of Poltava (Ukraine). These legendary events could have taken place in the 15th century, although the first documented mention of the Glinski princes is made in 1437. Glinski was the most illustrious member of the family: he studied at the German university, took part as a knight in the Italian Wars, was the most powerful man in Lithuania in the 16th century, but later rebelled and ran away with his brothers to Muscovy and helped the Russians to retake the city of Smolensk. niece Elena Glinskaya was married to Vasily III, Grand Prince of Moscow, and Ivan the Terrible was her son. Battle of Kulikovo Field, 1380; Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated on July 28;

Mongol, Scythia, 1355-1380, Mamai, Mongol Blue Horde Khan, lost at Kulikovo
Scythia, 1355-1380, Mongol Blue Horde Khan Mami; Intercession of the œDon Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19;

Mongol, Scythia, 1360's, White,Blue, and Gray Hordes of the Golden Horde
White,Blue, Gray and Golden Hordes ; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1376-1406, Tokhtamysh, B,W, and G Horde unifier, defeated Mamai 1380, lost to Timur, lost to Gen Edigei
Mongol, Scythia, 1376-1406, Tokhtamysh, Mongol Blue, White and Golden Horde Khan; [n 1] (c. 1342-“1406) was a prominent Khan of the Blue Horde who briefly unified the White Horde and Blue Horde subdivisions of the Golden Horde into a single state. He has been cited as the last great ruler of the Golden Horde territories.[1][2] campaigns descended from Genghis Khan's grandson, Tuqa-Timur. He appears in history in 1376, trying to overthrow his uncle Urus Khan, ruler of the White Horde, and fleeing to the great Timur. Tokhtamysh outlived Urus and both his sons, and forcefully ascended to the throne of the White Horde in 1378, with Timur's backing. dreamt of emulating his ancestors and made plans to reunite the Golden Horde. 1380, he invaded the Blue Horde by fording across the Volga, and defeated Mamai during the Second Battle of the Kalka River. The ruler of the Blue Horde, Mamai, was killed shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo, marking Tokhtamysh's victory and the reunification of the Golden Horde. full extent of Tokhtamysh's authority. and the armies of the Golden Horde rally in front of Moscow, 1382. against Moscow Donskoy had raised a large army to defeat and suppress the Mongola “Tatar hordes, and, after defeating Mamai during the Battle of Kulikovo, could not raise another army against Tokhtamysh Khan. reunited the Blue and White Hordes into the Golden Horde, in 1382, Tokhtamysh led a successful campaign against Russia as a punishment for the Kulikovo defeat - setting back, though not ending, the Russian aspiration to free themselves of Tatar rule. In just six years, Tokhtamysh had reunified the lands of the Golden Horde from Crimea to Lake Balkhash. three days of siege, Tokhtamysh was faced with a stalemate, until Donskoy's brothers-in-law prince of Nizhnii Novgorod Dmitry of Suzdal tricked citizens into surrendering the city.[3] The destruction of Moscow led to Dimitry's surrender to the authority of Tokhtamysh at the end of 1382. Tokhtamysh also took Donskoy's son Vasily I of Moscow hostage.[4] started to act as a sovereign ruler, which must have worried his former suzerain Timur, who as a result invaded Tokhtamysh twice; in 1391 and in 1395, eventually supplanting him and imposing Temur Qutlugh as a khan of Golden Horde. Tokhtamysh took refuge in Lithuania, at the court of grand duke Vytautas.[5] 1397 both rulers signed a treaty in which Tokhtamysh confirmed Vytautas as a rightful ruler of Ruthenian lands that were once part of the Golden Horde, and now belonged to Lithuania, in exchange of military assistance. It is possible that the treaty required Vytautas to pay tribute from these lands once the khan regained his throne. Vytautas probably was planning to establish himself as overlord in Tatar lands.[6] This joint expedition, supported by Polish volunteers under Spytek of Melsztyn, was defeated on 12 August 1399 in the Battle of the Vorskla River by forces led by Temiir Kutlugh and Nogay emir Ediga. The defeat was disastrous, ending Vytautas's ambitious policy in the Pontic steppe and forcing Tokhtamysh to seek refuge again, this time in Siberia.[7] About twenty princes, among them Andrei of Polatk and Dmitry of Briansk were killed, along with many prominent lords, like Spytko.[8] died in Siberia in 1406. Siege of Moscow in 1382 gather during the Siege of Moscow of the Golden Horde attack Moscow. prepare for the Siege of Moscow against Tamerlane article: Tokhtamysh–Timur war and his troops gather to launch a war against the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh. he could defeat the Ilkhanate Chobanids and capture the disputed territories of the Caucasus since the days of Berke Khan, in 1385 Tokhtamysh, with an army of 50,000 (or five tumens), invaded Persia and took Tabriz. Returning north they took 200,000 slaves from the Caucasus, including tens of thousands of Armenians from the districts of Parskahayk, Syunik, and Artsakh.[9] proved to be a fatal error for Tokhtamysh, who moved north from the Caucasus, thus allowing his Ilkhanate rivals to side with Timur, who annexed Persia to his own expanding kingdom. Furious, Tokhtamysh turned back and made war on his former ally. Tokhtamysh conceded defeat and withdrew to the steppe. However, in 1387 he suddenly invaded Transoxiana, the heart of Timur's realm. Unfortunately for Tokhtamysh, heavy snow forced him back to the steppe. 1395, the scenario reached its climax as Timur attacked the Golden Horde and defeated Tokhtamysh at the Terek. Timur sacked cities of the Golden Horde such as Azov (Tana), Astrakhan[10] and Tokhtamysh's capital, Sarai Berke. Timur captured artisans and craftsmen of the Golden Horde, and placed a puppet ruler, Koirichak, on the throne of the White Horde and appointed Temur Qutlugh khan of the Horde. escaped to the Ukrainian steppes and asked for help from the Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania. In the great Battle of the Vorskla River (1399) the combined forces of Tokhtamysh and Vytautas were defeated by two of Timur's generals, khan Temur Qutlugh and emir (murza, visir) Edigei. The defeated Tokhtamysh was killed near present-day Tyumen by Edigei's men in 1406. was the last khan who minted coins with Mongolian script.

Mongol, Scythia, 1378-1419, Edgei, d master Tohkt in 78i, a w Timur 97, d T and Lith in 99, 06 k T, r V Bulg, 08 r Rus
Scythia, 1378-1419, Edgei, White Horde Mongol Khan, Tatar horde of Edigei; (or Edigey) (1352–1419) was a Turkic Muslim emir of the White Horde who founded a new political entity, which came to be known as the Nogai Horde. was from the Crimean Manghud tribe, the son of Baltychak, a Turkic noble who was defeated and killed by Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde in 1378. He gained fame as a highly successful general of Tokhtamysh before turning the arms against his master. By 1396, he was a sovereign ruler of a large area stretching between the Volga and Ural (known locally as Yayyk) rivers, which would later be called the Nogai Horde. 1397 Edigu allied himself with Timur-Qutlugh and was appointed General and commander-in-chief of the Golden Horde armies. In 1399 he inflicted a crushing defeat on Tokhtamysh and Vytautas of Lithuania at the Vorskla River. Thereupon he managed to unite under his rule all Jochi's lands, albeit for the last time in history. 1406 he located his old enemy Tokhtamysh in Siberia. Edigu's agents killed Tokhtamysh. The following year he raided Volga Bulgaria. In 1408, he staged a destructive Tatar invasion of Russia, which hadn't paid the tribute due to the horde for several decades. Edigu burnt Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets, Rostov, and many other towns but failed to take Moscow, though he had still burnt it. years later Edigu was dethroned in the Golden Horde and had to seek refuge in Khwarezm. Though he had previously had relations with the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh, including marrying his daughter to the latter's son Muhammad Juki,[1] Shah Rukh later had Edigu expelled back to Sarai. There he was assassinated by one of Tokhtamysh's sons in 1419. Edigu's dynasty in the Nogai Horde continued for about two centuries, until his last descendants moved to Moscow, where they took baptism and became known as Princes Urusov and Yusupov. Venerable Nikon the Abbot of Radonezh the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius, Commemorated on November 17; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1380, Great Prince Dimitri of the Don - Battle of Kulikov on the Don
Great Prince Dimitri of the Don - Battle of Kulikov on the Don; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Zvenigorod the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on December 3 ; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7;

Mongol, Scythia, 1380, Kulikovo Battle 1380 (Don River 1, Muravsky Trail 7)
Kulikovo Battle; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Demetrius Ioannovich of the Don; Alexander Peresvet; Repose of the Venerable Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh, Commemorated on September 25 ; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1380, Battle of Kulikovo Pole, 1380 (Don River 1, Muravsky Trail 7)
Battle of Kulikovo Pole, 1380 (Don River 1) ; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Don Icon of the Mother of God was painted by Theophanes the Greek. On the day of the Kulikovo Battle (September 8, 1380, the Feast of the Nativity of the Most Holy Theotokos), the Icon was with the Russian army, giving it help, but after the victory it was passed on by the Don Cossacks as a gift to their commander, Great Prince Demetrius of the Don (1363-1389), who then transferred it to Moscow. Icon at first was at the Kremlin’s Dormition Cathedral, and later at the Annuniciation Cathedral (the Icon is now in the Tretiakov State Gallery). In commemoration of the victory on the banks of the River Don it was called the Don Icon. the year 1591, the Crimean Khan Nuradin and his brother Murat-Girei invaded Russia with a numerous army. Advancing on Moscow, they positioned themselves on the Vorobiev hills. A church procession was made around Moscow with the Don Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos in order to guard the city from the enemy. the day of battle it was in the military chapel in the ranks of the soldiers, and set the Tatars to flight. In 1592, in thanksgiving to the Most Holy Theotokos for Her mercy manifest through the Don Icon, the Don monastery was founded at the very place where the icon had stood amid the soldiers. The wonderworking icon was placed in this monastery, and its feastday was established as August 19. established custom, once every four years His Holiness the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia performs the rite of the preparation of Holy Chrism in the small cathedral in honor of the Don Icon of the Mother of God. Repose of the Venerable Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh, Commemorated on September 25 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on July 5 ;

Mongol, Scythia, 1395, Tammerlane retreats after Dream, Vladimir Icon Mother of God (Don River 1, Kulikovo Pole)

Mongol, Scythia, 1395, Luke's Vladimir Icon, Grace of Jesus and MOG shall be with this Icon

Mongol, Scythia, 1395, Feast of the Dormition, Vladimir Icon sent to Moscow, same hour of meeting at Kuchkov, T's dream

Mongol, Scythia, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Muslim White Horde, Nogali
Scythia, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Destroying Rostov, New Novgorod, and Gorodets ; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of Radonezh the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius, Commemorated on November 17 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2;

Mongol, Scythia, 1400, 15th and 16th Century, invasion of Russia then Fall to Russia and Ottomans

Mongol, Scythia, 1411-1412, Jalal al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh, fled to Lithuania, w Vytautas, k by his b
Mongol, Crimea, 1411-1412, Jalal al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh; al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh (1380-1412) was the Khan of the Golden Horde in 1411–1412. He was the son of Tokhtamysh, Khan of the Golden Horde until 1395.[1] is also famous for his written history of the Mongol Empire. He is also known as the Green Sultan. tried to regain his Khanate with Lithuanian aid, but was defeated in 1399. He continued his campaign until he died c. 1405. Jalal al-Din then fled to Lithuania. He too sought assistance from the Lithuanian Grand Prince Vytautas the Great. In 1410, he fought under Vytautas in the victory at Grunwald against the Teutonic Order.[2] next year, while Edigu (the real power in the Khanate) was in Khwarezm, Jalal al-Din returned to the Golden Horde. With Lithuanian support, he overthrew Khan Temur (son of Temur Qutlugh), and retook the throne of Sarai. Sometime after 1411 he minted coins bearing his name. According to a Russian chronicle, Jalal reigned for about a year, until he was murdered by his brother Karim Berdi.

Mongol, Scythia, 1417-1419, Yeremferden, Tokhtamysh, Jabbar Berdi, with Vytautas
Mongol, Crimea, 1417-1419, Yeremferden ibn Tokhtamysh; (died 1419), also known as Jabbar Berdi, was a khan of the Golden Horde from 1417 to 1419. was one of the sons of Tokhtamysh who struggled for power after their father's death. His reign was marked by relative peace save for occasional struggles with Vytautas against Edigu and what would become the Nogai Horde. his death, control over the Horde was split between Dawlat Berdi, his son, and Ulugh Muhammad, his nephew.

Mongol, Scythia, 1437-1445, Ulugh Muhammad, Crimea & Kazan Khan, Vytautas s, Ottoman s, Vasilly II, Golden Horde
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1437-1445, Ulugh Muhammad; Muhammad (1405-1445) was a medieval Tatar statesman, Gengisid, Khan of the Golden Horde (before 1436), ruler of Crimea (1437), and the founder of the Khanate of Kazan, which he ruled from 1438-1445. He was the son of the oglan Ichkile Hassan and the cousin of Tokhtamysh. He received the nickname "Ulugh", meaning older or large, in contrast to another Muhammed who was called "Kichi", meaning younger or small. Muhammad was Khan of the Golden Horde in 1419-1423, 1426, 1428. In 1428-1432 he waged a stubborn struggle for possession of the Ulug Ulus with the representatives of a minor branch of the Tukaytimurids (one of the branches of the Gengisids). being defeated, Ulugh Muhammad escaped to Volga Bulgaria vilayet in 1423. With the support Vytautas, Ulugh Muhammad was able to regain the throne of the Golden Horde in 1426. He succeeded in spreading the power of the Horde to Crimea and established friendly relations with the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. Muhammad sent an embassy to Egypt in 1428-1429. In 1431 the son and grandson of the ruler of Moscow, Dmitriy Donskoy came to the court to Ulugh Muhammad in order to reach a decision about princely succession. Ulugh Muhammad ruled in favour of the grandson, Vasiliy II . St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29;

Mongol, Scythia, 1445-1466, Kazan Tartar Khan, Maxmud of Kazan
Mongol, Scythia, 1445-1466, Kazan Tartar Khan, Maxmud of Kazan; Repose of Saint Jonah, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31;

Mongol, Scythia, 1451, Miraculous deliverance of Moscow by Robe of Theotokos
Russia, Moscow, 1451, Miraculous deliverance of Moscow by Robe of Theotokos; The holy Robe of the Mother of God, which previously saved Constantinople, later saved Moscow from hostilities. Tatars of the Horde of the princeling Mazovshi approached the walls of Moscow in the summer of 1451. Saint Jonah, Metropolitan of Moscow, with constant prayer and church services, encouraged the defenders of the capital. On the night of July 2, the Chronicle relates, great confusion occurred within the Tatar camp. The enemy abandoned their plundered goods and speedily departed in disarray. Moscow Prince, 1440-1505, Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, the Great; St Leucius of Volokolamsk, Commemorated on August 17 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19 ; Venerable Prince Andrew, in Monasticism Joasaph, of Kubensk, Vologda, Commemorated on September 10 ; Venerable Cassian of Uglich, Commemorated on October 2; Venerable Dionysius the Recluse of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on October 3; Venerable Dositheus the Abbot of Verkneostrov, Pskov, Commemorated on October 8; Icon of the Mother of God of Yakhrom, Commemorated on October 14; Venerable Joseph the Igumen and Wonderworker of Volokolamsk, Commemorated on October 18; St Theophilus of the Kiev Caves and Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated on October 26; St Philip of Rabanga, Commemorated on November 15; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Zvenigorod the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on December 3; St Pachomius of Keno Lake, Commemorated on January 7; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8; St Paisius of Uglich, Commemorated on January 8; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8 ; Venerable Michael the Fool-for-Christ of the Klops Monastery, Novgorod, Commemorated on January 11; St Anthony of Krasny Kholm, Commemorated on January 17 ; Venerable Athanasius the Abbot of Syandemsk, Vologda, Commemorated on January 18; Venerable Macarius the Roman of Novgorod, Commemorated on January 19 ; Venerable Euthymius of Syanzhemsk, Vologda, Commemorated on January 20; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29; St Tryphon, Bishop of Rostov, Commemorated on February 1; Right-Believing Prince Roman of Uglich, Commemorated on February 3; St Bassian of Uglich, Commemorated on February 12; Venerable Cosmas of Yakhrom, Commemorated on February 18; Right-believing Prince Daniel of Moscow, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk, and Yaroslav, and His Children, Commemorated on March 5; St Euthymius the Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated on March 11; Venerable Macarius the Abbot and Wonderworker of Kalyazin, Commemorated on March 17 ; St Innocent of Komel the Disciple of St Nilus of Sora, Vologda, Commemorated on March 19 ; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Zosimas the Abbot of Vorbozomsk, Commemorated on April 4; Venerable Daniel the Abbot of Pereyaslavl-Zalesski, Commemorated on April 7; Icon of the Mother of God of Vilnius, Commemorated on April 14; Venerable Zosimas the Abbot of Solovki, Commemorated on April 17; Venerable Alexander the Abbot of Oshevensk, Commemorated on April 20; Venerable Sylvester the Abbot of Obnora, Commemorated on April 25; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14; Venerable Serapion of Pskov, Commemorated on May 15; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Venerable Tikhon of Kaluga Or Medin, Commemorated on June 16;

Mongol, Scythia, 1465-1481, Golden Horde Mongol Khan, Ahmed Khan
Scythian Golden Horde Mongol Khan, 1465-1481, Ahmed Khan ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23;

Mongol, Scythia, 1480-1582 , The Fall, First to Ottomans, then to Russia
Mongol, Scythia, 1480-1582 , The Fall, First to Ottomans, then to Russia;

Mongol, Scythia, 1490 & 1831-48, Divnogorsk or Rescuer Icon, 1490 D Monastery Voronezh, 1831-48 Cholera, MOG appeared
Mongol, Scythia, 1490 & 1831-48, Divnogorsk or Rescuer Icon, 1490 D Monastery Voronezh, 1831 Cholera raging, MOG appeared, to Korotoyak, C ceased, again in 1847-48 ; Divnogorsk, Wondering Heights, Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna; Divnogorsk Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated on February 5; Divnogorsk-Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God received the first part of its title from where it was enshrined when it was glorified: the Dormition monastery of Divnogorsk, in the former Ostrogozhsk district in Voronezh governance. title of “Sicilian” comes from its place of origin, since by tradition this icon at Diva (i.e. “Wondrous Heights”) was brought from Sicily by the pious monastic Elders Xenophon and Joasaph. suggest that these saints were Orthodox Greeks by birth, and that they had arrived there not earlier than the end of the fifteenth century. and Joasaph founded a monastery at a scenic spot above the River Don, near the confluence of the River Tikha Sosna [Quiet Pine River]. The place was called Wondrous Heights by those struck by the form of the chalk columns throughout the hills. is said that Xenophon and Joasaph lived in a cave (where later the church of Saint John the Forerunner was built), and that they carved out the first church in a chalk column, into which also they put the Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God which they had brought with them. Here is where they found their eternal repose. the Divnogorsk-Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God, the Theotokos is depicted sitting in the clouds. In Her right hand is a white lily blossom, and with Her left arm She supports the Divine Infant, Who sits upright upon Her knees. The Savior holds a lily blossom in His left hand, and blesses with His right hand. Around the face of the Mother of God are eight angels. The two beneath are shown on bended knee and with hands upraised in prayer. Over the head of the Theotokos is the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove. special glorification of the icon began in the year 1831, when cholera was raging. At Korotoyak, 7-8 versts from the monastery, the Most Holy Virgin appeared (as She is depicted in the Divnogorsk Icon) to a certain elderly woman, Ekaterina Kolomenska, in a dream. She commanded that Her icon be brought and a Molieben be served before it. The wonderworking icon was brought to Korotoyak, and after a Molieben before the holy icon, the cholera ceased. the intercession of the Mother of God, the city of Ostrogozhsk also was saved from cholera. The people of Korotoyak and Ostrogozhsk were also saved from cholera in 1847 and 1848 through the miraculous intercession of the Mother of God, which occurred after a church procession around these towns with the holy icon. to Tradition, the feastday of the wonderworking icon on February 5 was established already at its original habitation by Xenophon and Joasaph.

Mongol, Scythia, 1582- present, Part of Russia

Mongol, Scythia, 1600, 17th Century Folder, Child Schemamonk Bogolep

Mongol, Scythia, 1643-1703, Metrophanes o Voronezh, 117 churches, 2 m, stricter rule, funded fleet, made Peter remove p statues
Mongol, Scythia, 1643-1703, Metrophanes of Voronezh, Scythia (Voronezh River Mouth, Don River 8), monastic in 1663 after wife died, archmandrite 1675, 1681 dioceses created and his Voronezh bishoprick & cathedral, 20 yrs bishop, 182-239 churches, 2 new monasteries, stricter rule old m, friend Tambov's Pitrim, funded fleet, refused go pagan statues court, Peter 1 removed them; Voronezh; First finding of the St Metrophanes (in schema Macarius) the Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated on November 23; Metrophanes, Bishop of Voronezh, in the world Michael, was born November 8, 1623. the saint’s book of commemorations begins with persons of priestly rank, it is assumed that he was born into a priestly family. know from Saint Metrophanes’ will that he “was born of pious parents and was raised by them in the incorrupt piety of the Eastern Church, in the Orthodox Faith.” he was forty, the saint lived in the world. He was married, had a son John, and served as a parish priest. place of Father Michael’s pastoral activity was the village of Sidorovo, situated at the River Molokhta, a tributary of the Teza flowing to the Klyazma, not far from the city of Shui (now Vladimir district). his wife died, Father Michael received monastic tonsure with the name Metrophanes in the Zolotnikovskaya Dormition Monastery in 1663. the Synodikon of the monastery the entry for Saint Metrophanes begins with the words: “Origin of the black clergy Metrophanes of Sidorovo.” three years of monastic life the hieromonk Metrophanes was chosen igumen of the Saint Cosmas of Yakrom (February 18) monastery. guided the monastery for ten years, showing himself zealous as its head. By his efforts a church was built here in honor of the Icon of the Savior Not-Made-by-Hands (August 16). Joachim (1674-1690), learning about the deep piety of Saint Metrophanes, raised him in 1675 to the rank of archimandrite of the Makariev-Unzha monastery. the supervision of the saint, a stone church was built there in honor of the Annunciation of the Most Holy Theotokos, together with a trapeza and bell-tower. the Moscow Council of 1681-1682 among the number of measures taken for the struggle against the old ritualist schism, and with the goal of improving Christian enlightenment among the Orthodox populace, was resolved to increase the number of dioceses, and to open up new cathedrals at Voronezh, Tambov, Kholmogor and Great Ustiug. Metrophanes was summoned to the capital and on April 2, 1682 was consecrated Bishop of Voronezh by Patriarch Joachim and sixteen archpastors. beginning of Saint Metrophanes’ tenure as bishop coincided with a dispute over the imperial succession, and a Church schism. his arrival at Voronezh the saint first of all sent an encyclical to the pastors of his diocese, in which he urged his pastors to moral improvement. “Venerable priests of God Most High,” he wrote, “leaders of the flock of Christ! You ought to possess clear eyes of the mind, illumined by the light of reason, in order to lead others on the correct path. In the words of the Lord, you must be the light yourselves: ‘you are the light of the world’ (Mt. 5:14). When Christ the Savior entrusted His flock to the Apostle Peter, He said to him three times: ‘feed my sheep.’ This is because pastors care for their flock in three ways: by the words of teaching, by prayer and the power of the Holy Mysteries, and by their way of life. You must also act by all three methods: teach the people, set an example of a righteous life, and pray for them. Strengthen them by the Holy Mysteries; above all enlighten the unbelievers by holy Baptism, and try to lead sinners to repentance. Take care of the sick, so that they do not depart from this life without receiving Holy Communion and Holy Unction.” Metrophanes began his archpastoral activity with the building of a new cathedral church in honor of the Annunciation of the Most Holy Theotokos, replacing an old wooden temple. 1692 the cathedral with chapels in honor of Saint Michael and Saint Nicholas was consecrated. In the twenty years that Saint Metrophanes was bishop, the number of churches increased from 182 to 239, and two monasteries were founded: the Korotoyaksk Ascension and the Bitiugsk Trinity monasteries. And in the existing monasteries, he concerned himself with eradicating the unseemly behavior and disorder, emphasizing a strict life according to the monastic rule. first Bishop of Voronezh eagerly concerned himself with the needs of his flock. consoled both the poor and the wealthy, was a defender of widows and orphans, and an advocate of the wronged. home served as a hostel for strangers a hospice for the sick. saint prayed not only for the living, but also for dead Christians, and particularly soldiers fallen for the Fatherland, inscribing their names in the cathedral’s memorial list. Remembering them at Proskomedia [priest’s preparation of the gifts before Liturgy], Saint Metrophanes said: “If this is a righteous soul, then there is a greater portion of worthiness. If he is a sinner, however, then there is a connection with God’s mercy.” was a great friendship between Saint Metrophanes and Saint Pitirim, Bishop of Tambov (July 28). They not only kept up a correspondence, but also met for spiritual talks. founding of the Tregulyaev monastery of Saint John the Forerunner was connected with the friendship of the bishops. September 15, 1688 Saint Metrophanes visited Saint Pitirim. Three of them (the priest Basil was with them) took a stroll together to the Tambov archpastor’s place of solitary prayer, and there they chose the place for the future monastery. Metrophanes, an intensely patriotic man, by his own moral authority, kind-heartedness and prayers, contributed to the reforms of Peter I, the necessity and purpose of which he well understood. the building of a fleet at Voronezh for a campaign against Azov, Saint Metrophanes urged the nation to fully support Peter I. This was particularly important, since many regarded the construction of a fleet as useless. saint did not limit himself only to advice to the Tsar, but rendered also material support to the state treasury, which needed money for the construction of the fleet, and he provided all the means, aware that they would go for the benefit of the nation. saint’s patriotic feelings were combined in his soul with unflinching faith and strict Orthodox conviction, on account of which he did not fear incurring the Tsar’s wrath. The saint refused to go to court to see Peter I, since there were statues of pagan gods there, although disgrace threatened the saint for disobeying the imperial will, he remained uncompromising. Peter gave orders to remove the statues and from that time was filled with greater respect for the bishop. Metrophanes died in 1703 in extreme old age, taking the schema with the name Macarius before his death. funeral took place on December 4, conducted according to the saint’s monastic, not priestly rank. became the established practice for the burial of a bishop. Peter I himself carried the coffin from the cathedral to the tomb. Taking leave, he said: “I no longer have a holy Elder such as he. Memory eternal to him.” of the remarkable memorials of the life and activity of Saint Metrophanes is his Spiritual Testament. it he says: “By divine destiny I have arrived at old age and now I have exhausted my natural strength. Therefore I declare this my final writing ... When my sinful soul is released from its union with the flesh, I entrust it to God Who created it, that it might find favor as the work of His hands. My sinful bones I grant to the mother of all (the earth), in expectation of the resurrection of the dead.” Further on, addressing pastors and the flocks, the saint says: “The simple sinner gives answer to God for his soul alone, but priests can come to torment for many, in neglecting the sheep, from which they gather milk and wool... For everyone the rule of wise men is: do work, preserve a balance, and you will be rich. Drink temperately, eat little, and you will be healthy. Do good, shun evil, and you will be saved.” commemoration of Saint Metrophanes was established in 1832. On August 7, we celebrate the translation of his holy relics.

Mongol, Scythia, 1662-1667, Child Schemamonk Bogolep, unusual traits, ilnesses, permit tonsure, promising spiritual presence
Mongol, Scythia, 1662-1667, Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Astrakhan, Scythia (Volga River Mouth, North Caspian Sea), unusual traits, no milk Wed and Fri, cry church bells, to church or cried all day ate nothing, ilnesses, monks angelic garb, permit monastic tonsure, completely healthy, but new fever killed him, many appearances to people promicising spiritual presence w believers; Astrakhan (Volga River Mouth); Schemamonk, totally given up worldly life for Christ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Child Schemamonk Bogolep was the son of a Moscow nobleman Iakov Lukich Ushakov and his wife Katherine. was born in 1660 at Moscow. At Baptism they gave him the name Boris, in honor of the holy Passion-Bearer Boris (July 24). was appointed voevoda (military-commander) in the city of Chernyi Yar (Black Ravine), situated 250 versts from Astrakhan. was known for his integrity. infancy Boris displayed unusual traits. On Wednesdays and Fridays he would not drink milk from his mother’s breasts. When the bells pealed at the church, he began to cry, and became quiet only when they brought him into the church. When they did not take the infant to church, he cried all day and ate nothing. 1662 a deadly pestilence spread about in Russia. The child fell ill, and the pestilence afflicted him in the legs. He became lame, but continued to walk to church. parents prayed for the health of their son and they tried everything in their power to heal him. But no sooner had the one illness gone, than upon his face there appeared another, called scales. during his illness the child saw a wandering monk who visited at their home. angelic garb so impressed the child, that he began to implore his parents to sew him such clothing and permit him to receive monastic tonsure. holy child proclaimed: “You will see for yourselves, when you tonsure and grant me the angelic garb, I shall be well.” parents consented. The child was invested in the schema with the name Bogolep (the Russian version of the Greek name Theoleptos, meaning “similar to God”). the next day the child schemamonk was completely healthy, his face was clear and there remained no trace of the illness. on the third day there was a new illness, he developed a fever, and it struck down the child. He died on August 1, 1667 and was buried at the left wall of the wooden Black Ravine church in honor of the Resurrection of Christ. church was built after a great fire in Black Ravine, on July 24, 1652 the Feast of Saint Boris). A chapel was built over the grave of the child. Life of the holy Schemamonk Bogolep was compiled under a vow by the Black Ravine merchant Savva Tatarinov during the years 1731-1732. Life of the holy Schemamonk Bogolep was compiled under a vow by the Black Ravine merchant Savva Tatarinov during the years 1731-1732. of the saint, with the Troparion and Kontakion to him, were widely dispersed throughout the Astrakhan region. 1750 on the place of the wooden church a stone church was built with a side-altar in honor of the holy Martyr John the Warrior. The grave of the holy schemamonk was enclosed in this side altar. bank of the river, where the church of the Resurrection of Christ stood, was constantly eroding. the mid-nineteenth century the structure of the church was threatened, and they removed all the holy things from it. For a long time the people of Black Ravine did not remove the chief holy object: the grave of the holy schemamonk. in 1851 when the water had already approached 4 ft. 8 inches, the people petitioned the Most Holy Synod with a request to transfer the holy relics of the Schemamonk Bogolep, and they received permission for this. small child’s coffin was laid bare, but just when the city head took it into his hands, it slid out of his hands and disappeared into the waters of the Volga. disappearance of the relics just at the opening of the grave was accepted as the Will of God, since the holy child had repeatedly appeared to many either in sleep, or awake while walking along the river bank, or coming down the hill. He consoled them, promising that he would be present spiritually with believers. simple life of the holy Schemamonk Bogolep, full of the mysteries of God, illustrates the words of the Savior concerning children: “Let the children come unto Me and forbid them not, for of such is the Kingdom of God. Truly I say to you, whosoever shall not receive the Kingdom of God as a little child, shall not enter therein. And He took them up in His arms, put His hands upon them, and blessed them” (Mark 10: 14-16). pray to Saint Bogolep for children, and also for protection against lightning.

Mongol, Scythia, 1800, 19th Century Folder, St Metrophanes, incorrupt relics

Mongol, Scythia, 1804-1840, Meletius oKharkov, interest in Iinstitutions of spiritual learning &clergy education &Siberia
Mongol, Scythia, 1804-1840, Meletius, Archbishop Kharkov, Scythia (High Point, Source of 3 Rivers, Seversky Donets River1), from Poltava, 1808 top student in Ekaterinoslav Seminary, to Nevsky Spiritual Academy, 1814 Greek Professor, 1817 Sec Academy Building Committee and transferred to Kiev Religious Seminary, inspector, Greek & C History P, 1819 Kiev Spiritual Academy first inspector, 1820 tonsured Monk Meletios, deacon, Hiermnk, 1821 rector Mogilevsk Seminary & head Khutynsk Orshansk M & Archimandrite. 1823 rector Pskov Seminary, 1824 rector Kiev S Academy, 1826 Bishop oChigrinsk, vicar Kiev Diocese, & head Zlatoverkh Mikhailov Monastery. True ascetic, 1828 Perm Cathedral, strict, Ordinand's Catechism, 1831 Archbishop oIrkutsk, all over Siberia, tTungus, tBuryats, tKamchadali, tKurile&Aleutian Islands, 1835 health transfer to Kharkov, 1840 repose; Kharkov governance; Saint Meletius, Archbishop of Khar'kov and Akhtyrsk, Commemorated on February 12; Meletios, Archbishop of Khar'kov and Akhtyrsk (in the world Michael Ivanovich Leontovich), was born on November 6, 1784 in the village of Stara Stanzhara in the Poltava district. 1808 Michael Leontovich successfully completed the Ekaterinoslav religious Seminary. Since he was the best student, Archbishop Platon of Ekterinoslav sent him to Peterburg, to the Saint Alexander Nevsky Spiritual Academy.1 Graduating in 1814 with a Master's Degree, he was appointed as adjunct professor of Greek. March 11, 1817 they appointed Michael Leontovich as Secretary of the Academy Building Committee. July 30, 1817 he was transferred to the Kiev religious Seminary, serving in the position of Inspector, as well as Professor of Church History and Greek. When the Kiev Spiritual Academy opened on September 28, 1819, Michael became its first Inspector. February 11, 1820, on the eve of the Feast of Saint Meletios of Antioch, he was tonsured as a monk with the name Meletios, in the kathoikon of the Kiev-Bratsk Monastery, tonsure was done by Metropolitan Eugene (Bolkhovitnikov). of Kiev. On February 22, 1820 the Monk Meletios was ordained to the diaconate by Metropolitan Eugene, and then as a Hieromonk on February 25. August 9, 1821 Hieromonk Meletios was appointed as Rector of the Mogilevsk religious Seminary and head of the Khutynsk Orshansk Monastery, and raised to the dignity of Archimandrite. August 1823 he was appointed as Rector of the Pskov religious Seminary. January 24,1824 Archimandrite Meletios was appointed as Rector of the Kiev Spiritual Academy. October 1826 the Holy Synod decided to name Archimandrite Meletios as Bishop of Chigirinsk, a vicar of the Kiev Diocese, and head of the Zlatoverkh Mikhailov Monastery. October 19, 1826 he was elected as bishop, and on October 21, 1826 his consecration took place at Kiev's Holy Wisdom cathedral. paternal love, the Saint concerned himself with young foster-children, raising them in a spirit of devotion to the Church of Christ. paid particular attention to the needy, widows, and orphans. often visited those in prison and provided them the consolation of Divine Services in the prison churches. was also concerned about the spiritual nourishment of the brethren of the Mikhailov Monastery. his edifying discourses and personal example, he inspired the monks with the spirit of true asceticism. Meletios said: "Humility is a protective sword, by which we pass over earth and Hades, to reach Heaven." April 1828 Saint Meletios was transferred to the cathedral in Perm. with himself, the Saint was also strict with others. To prepare candidates for accepting of the dignity of the priesthood, Saint Meletios himself wrote the so‑called "Ordinand's Catechism". 1831 Vladika was transferred to the See of Irkutsk, and elevated to the rank of Archbishop. Meletios devoted much attention to the enlightenment of the lesser nations of Russia with the light of the Gospel. founded churches in the north of Kamchatka, in the northeast parts of the Irkutsk Diocese and along the Aldan River, on the tract from Yakutsk to Okhotsk. often reviewed his wide-spread Diocese, going to the shores of the Okhotsk and Arctic Seas, to the boundaries of North America, where Father John Veniaminov, the reknowned Apostle of Siberia (later known as Saint Innocent), the Apostle to America was.2 through Siberia and along the shores of the Pacific Ocean, Saint Meletios frequently interacted with the native peoples who professed Lamaism. Gently, he urged them to abandon their errors, and explained the Gospel truths to these pagan peoples: Tungus, the Buryats, the Kamchadali, and also the inhabitants of the Kurile and Aleutian Islands. of his tireless labors, Vladika's health began to deteriorate, and they transferred him to the Slobodsk-Ukraine See (later the See of Khar'kov and Akhtyrsk) in 1835. Meletios showed great interest in the institutions of spiritual learning, concerning himself with the life and education of the clergy. Archbishop raised questions about reopening the monasteries and spiritual schools which Empress Catherine II had closed. He also devoted much labor to the struggle with the schismatics. July 2, 1839 Saint Meletios led the service in the city of Akhtyrsk for the tenth anniversary of the appearance of the wonderworking Akhtyrsk Icon of the Mother of God. Saint's blessed repose occurred on the night of February 29, 1840. After receiving Holy Communion, he made the Sign of the Cross, and then he turned to everyone to say, "Forgive me." With those words, he departed to the Lord. March 4, 1840 Saint Meletios was buried by Bishop Iliodore of Kursk, in a crypt beneath the Church of the Cross at the Protection Monastery. after his death, believers had great faith in the powerful intercession of Saint Meletios with God, and they received healing in sicknesses, comfort in sorrows, and deliverance from difficult circumstances. Believers in Khar'kov placed their trust in Saint Meletios during the terrible days of World War II. With miraculous advice, the Saint foretold the impending deliverance of the city from the enemy. 1948, with the blessing of His Holiness Patriarch Alexei, the coffin with the relics of Saint Meletios was transferred to the cathedral of the Annunciation. February 21, 1978, the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church "approved and blessed a Church Service and an Akathist to Saint Meletios, Archbishop of Khar'kov and Akhtyrsk," for use in all churches of the Moscow Patriarchate. The Service and Akathist to the holy Archpastor was composed by Archbishop Νikόdēmos of Khar'kov (later Metropolitan of Leningrad). shrine containing the Saint's relics, from which believers receive grace-filled help, the healing of ailments of the soul and body is located in the left (northern) aisle of the cathedral. Meletios is commemorated on February 12 (his Name Day) and on February 29 (the day of his repose).3

Mongol, Scythia, 1831-48, Divnogorsk or Rescuer Icon, 1490 D Monastery Voronezh, 1831-48 Cholera, MOG appeared
Mongol, Scythia, 1490 & 1831-48, Divnogorsk or Rescuer Icon, 1490 D Monastery Voronezh, 1831 Cholera raging, MOG appeared, to Korotoyak, C ceased, again in 1847-48 ; Divnogorsk, Wondering Heights, Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna; Divnogorsk Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated on February 5; Divnogorsk-Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God received the first part of its title from where it was enshrined when it was glorified: the Dormition monastery of Divnogorsk, in the former Ostrogozhsk district in Voronezh governance. title of “Sicilian” comes from its place of origin, since by tradition this icon at Diva (i.e. “Wondrous Heights”) was brought from Sicily by the pious monastic Elders Xenophon and Joasaph. suggest that these saints were Orthodox Greeks by birth, and that they had arrived there not earlier than the end of the fifteenth century. and Joasaph founded a monastery at a scenic spot above the River Don, near the confluence of the River Tikha Sosna [Quiet Pine River]. The place was called Wondrous Heights by those struck by the form of the chalk columns throughout the hills. is said that Xenophon and Joasaph lived in a cave (where later the church of Saint John the Forerunner was built), and that they carved out the first church in a chalk column, into which also they put the Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God which they had brought with them. Here is where they found their eternal repose. the Divnogorsk-Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God, the Theotokos is depicted sitting in the clouds. In Her right hand is a white lily blossom, and with Her left arm She supports the Divine Infant, Who sits upright upon Her knees. The Savior holds a lily blossom in His left hand, and blesses with His right hand. Around the face of the Mother of God are eight angels. The two beneath are shown on bended knee and with hands upraised in prayer. Over the head of the Theotokos is the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove. special glorification of the icon began in the year 1831, when cholera was raging. At Korotoyak, 7-8 versts from the monastery, the Most Holy Virgin appeared (as She is depicted in the Divnogorsk Icon) to a certain elderly woman, Ekaterina Kolomenska, in a dream. She commanded that Her icon be brought and a Molieben be served before it. The wonderworking icon was brought to Korotoyak, and after a Molieben before the holy icon, the cholera ceased. the intercession of the Mother of God, the city of Ostrogozhsk also was saved from cholera. The people of Korotoyak and Ostrogozhsk were also saved from cholera in 1847 and 1848 through the miraculous intercession of the Mother of God, which occurred after a church procession around these towns with the holy icon. to Tradition, the feastday of the wonderworking icon on February 5 was established already at its original habitation by Xenophon and Joasaph.

Mongol, Scythia, 1832, Saint Metrophanes, Voronezh Cathedral, incorrupt relics, monastic schema
Voronezh Annunciation Cathedral; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated on August 7 Uncovering of the Relics of Saint Metrophanes, Bishop of Voronezh (1832): The memory of the deep piety and pastoral virtues of Saint Metrophanes (Macarius, in the schema) was revered at Voronezh from the time of his death (November 23, 1703). His successors, the Voronezh hierarchs, considered it their sacred duty to make annual remembrance of the first hierarch of their flock, together with his parents, the priest Basil and Maria. people of Voronezh and its environs came to the Annunciation cathedral, where memorial services were offered at his tomb. Contributing to the intense remembrance of Saint Metrophanes was also his dying request that prayers be said for him. For this purpose the saint, even during his lifetime, had built a chapel at the cathedral in honor of the holy Archangel Michael (his patron saint), and in it a special priest served the Liturgy. Although succeeding generations did not know the saint, they also revered his memory. veracity of the sainthood of the first hierarch of the Voronezh diocese was also confirmed by his incorrupt relics, attested during their repeated transfers from one temple to another. In the year 1718, Metropolitan Pachomius of Voronezh, about to begin the construction of a new cathedral, gave orders to demolish the old Annunciation cathedral. The body of Saint Metrophanes was temporarily transferred into the church of the Unburnt Bush. In 1735, the body of Saint Metrophanes was transferred into the new cathedral, during which time the incorrupt state of his relics was again observed. At the place of the burial of the saint, panikhidas were customarily served for him. 1820 it was noticed that the number of those venerating Saint Metrophanes and thronging to Voronezh, had extraordinarily increased. Grace-filled signs also increased. Archbishop Anthony II of Voronezh made repeated reports to the Holy Synod about the miracles, and he petitioned for a resolution for the glorification of the saint. The Holy Synod then prescribed that records be kept of miracles at the grave of Saint Metrophanes. In the year 1831, after seeing the incorrupt body of the saint, Archbishop Anthony together with commission members of the Holy Synod, Archbishop Eugenius of Yaroslavl and Archimandrite Hermogenes of the Moscow Savior-Androniev monastery, became convinced in the miraculous intercession of Saint Metrophanes before the Throne of God. The Holy Synod then issued its resolution adding Saint Metrophanes to the ranks of the Saints. Since then, the Russian Church celebrates the memory of the saint twice during the year: November 23, the day of his repose, and August 7, the day of his glorification. Anthony II (1827-1846) established in the Voronezh also the following feastdays in honor of Saint Metrophanes: June 4, the Feast of his namesake Saint Metrophanes, Patriarch of Constantinople; April 2, the saint’s day of consecration as bishop in 1682; and December 11, the day of the transfer of the relics of Saint Metrophanes in 1831. Metrophanes left behind a Spiritual Testament. Its original is preserved in the State Historical Museum. Upon the testament is the unique authoritative signature of the saint: “This spiritual dictate is attested to by me... Bishop Metrophanes of Voronezh.” the lower cover (inside) is an inscription from the eighteenth century: “This is the book of testament or last will of the Voronezh schemamonk Macarius, written in the God-saved city of Voronezh, in the house of His Grace the bishop and schemamonk Macarius, who reposed in the month of November on the 23rd day in the year 1703, and was buried on the 4th day of December.” the day preceding the Uncovering of the Relics of Saint Metrophanes, Archbishop Anthony of Voronezh went to church, so as to lay out the new vestments prepared for the relics. Suddenly, he felt so weak that he was barely able to go about his cell. Troubled by this, he sat and pondered and then he heard a quiet voice: “ Do not transgress my legacy.” he did not understand right away, and instead thinking about his own plans, he gathered up his strength and opened the closet where the vestments were, and there he caught sight of the monastic schema, brought shortly before this by an unknown monk who had entrusted it to him and said that it soon would be needed. this monastic schema, the hierarch then realized that the words, “Do not transgress my legacy,” was actually the will of Saint Metrophanes, that they not place upon his relics bishop’s vestments, but rather to clothe them in the schema. By this and by his extreme humility, he indicated the deep spiritual connection with his patronal saint (in schema), Saint Macarius of Unzhensk.

Mongol, Scythia, 1843-1882, Ioannikios, Kharkhov, 1845 Holy Mt Monastery for life, Hesychast, much more
Mongol, Perm, 1843-1882, Hiermonk Ioannikios, Orlov, Perm (Vyatka River 2), large family, kept from church, Church vision story, Church built on his spot, at 16 Monasticism vision dream, come with us, it is God' will, ran away tM, but father brought him back, father died, mother released him, 1845 to Holy Mt M for life, very long story; Orlov; Saint Ioannikios, Father Confessor of the Dormition Holy Mountain Hermitage, Commemorated on February 10; Ioanikkios (in the world Trophimos N. Averkiev) was born in 1823 and was named Trophimos in Holy Baptism. parents were Government-owned peasants in Orlov Province, and they had a large family. was one of the younger children. The boy was quite bright and also very pious. He loved to be in church, and if his mother went to church for the Feast Days he always begged to go along. however, was not easy. The village where they lived was not near the church. had to cross a stream on the way, and the bridge was so old and rotten that once Trophimos fell in and caused his mother to be delayed. she did not always take him with her. Most of the time, she left him at home. When he stayed at home, Trophimos wept bitterly because she would not bring him to church. He felt drawn there by some “overpowering force,” as he expressed himself later in life. Sunday his father and mother went to church for the Divine Liturgy and took his older brothers, but they left him at home. After crying for some time, Trophimos went out into the yard, before which there was a field covered with grass. he noticed a beautiful stone church on a hillock. He was surprised to see it and wondered how it got there, so he started walking toward it in order to take a closer look at it. For a while he walked around the church, admiring its beauty. tried to enter, but the door was locked. When his hand touched the door knob, it vanished, and there he was, standing in the middle of an empty field! This astonished him even more, and he could not understand anything for a while. When his parents came home, he hastened to tell them what had happened. first, they paid no attention to him, but later, when his father mentioned this at a meeting of all the peasants in the village, an old man stated that he had also had seen a church on that very spot at dawn. peasants asked to see Trophimos and to hear the story from his own lips. When Trophimos was brought to the meeting, he told them in detail where he had seen the church in the field, and described what sort of church it was. showed them the exact spot, and the men marked the spot with four stakes. They decided to collect money and to build a stone church there. Indeed, a church was needed because the parish church was far away. In addition, there was the stream to be crossed. In the spring, when the stream was full, it became difficult and dangerous to cross. the peasants were wealthy, the required funds were soon collected, and they began to build a church in honor of the Kazan Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos (July 8, Oct. 22). a few years the church was completed and consecrated, and on the outside it closely resembled the church that Trophimos had seen in a vision. the boy was sixteen years old, he wanted to enter a monastery, so he begged his parents to give their blessing for him to go to Tolshev’s Savior-Transfiguration Monastery. parents were very unhappy about this, especially his father. The young man became very sad and did not know what to do. night he had a dream wherein he saw a group of monks in a church in their mantiyas and klobuks. All of them went to the middle of the church and sang a divine hymn. Taking Trophimos by the hand they said, “Come with us, and do not be afraid of grieving your parents. It is God’s will that you be with us.” from his dream, he decided to run off to the monastery in secret. He got ready, placing a piece of bread in a shepherd’s sack. Dressed in an old peasant’s coat, and without shoes, he left for the Tolshev Monastery. road was not easy for him, but he arrived at the gates of the Monastery in the afternoon, and he saw a few monks standing there. Seeing the barefoot boy, they asked him why he had come. Trophimos replied that he had come in order to be a monk. monk, an Elder with a grey beard, volunteered to take him to the Superior’s cells. This was Hieromonk Jacob from Sarov Hermitage, where he had been known and loved by Batushka Seraphim. Jacob led an ascetical life, and was respected by the brethren. Trophimos now sat in the waiting room, fearfully awaiting the Superior’s decision concerning him. Superior, a short, grey-headed old man, was surprised at the young man’s appearance because he was dressed in rags. He thought that Trophimos was a beggar seeking alms. When Father Jacob started to tell him that the young man wanted to be a monk, the Superior said that he was much too young, and he would never be able to endure the labors and the sorrows of the monastic life. So he advised him to go back home. When this did not work, and the young man remained unshaken, the Superior pretended to be angry and ordered a bundle of rods to be brought over, saying; “Now I will teach you not to wander needlessly and leave home in order to avoid work. Take off your shirt and I will punish you so that you will remember our monastery.” young man immediately removed his shirt and lay on the ground before the Superior to receive his punishment. Seeing his readiness and weakness, the Superior and Father Jacob looked at each other and changed their tone. Superior told Trophimos to get up and to tell him in detail where he was from, and why he had come. Had he perhaps committed some crime and thought to hide in the monastery? After telling him everything in detail, Trophimos fell down on the floor, tearfully begging the Superior not to chase him away and to make him a monk. Superior ordered Father Jacob to take him to his cell and teach him the monastic Rule for novices. Jacob fed him and got him some clothes, making him his cell attendant. cell was the very cell which the wonderworker Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk (August 13) had occupied when he lived at Tolshev Monastery in retirement. Here the holy bishop’s belongings were preserved. chair stood in the corner, covered up. Elder Jacob never dared to sit in the chair himself, but Trophimos, who did not know the value of the chair, once tried to sit in it when the Elder was out of the cell, but he was pushed away by some force he did not understand. Father Jacob returned Trophimos told him what had occurred. Father Jacob explained the chair’s significance to him and strictly forbade him to sit in it. his humility, obedience, and meekness, Trophimos soon won Father Jacob’s paternal love. Trophimos loved the order and customs of the monastery and had no time to become bored. He could only thank God and be happy that he lived in such a holy place. particular he loved being in church when the monks all came to the center in their mantiyas and klobuks. always wondered how he had been able to see all this in such detail in his dream. was especially attracted to the mantiya, and when Father Jacob was not in the cell he would put it on and walk around the cell with measured footsteps. greatest wish was to receive the mantiya and to be able to wear it to church. One day Father Jacob caught him in the cell wearing his mantiya. He forbade him to do this, explaining the spiritual meaning of the mantiya. He told him to pray to God, asking Him for His mercy, so that perhaps he might receive a mantiya in due time. was not destined to remain at Tolshev Hermitage, since his father did not wish it. He came to the monastery and bound his son’s legs so he could not get away. brought him home that way and punished him severely for running away. The poor young man had to submit to his parents’ wishes for the time being, waiting for the time to come when he might fulfill his heartfelt desire. had lived at Tolshev Monastery only three months, but in that short time it left its mark on the future course of his life. father’s death released Trophimos from his burdensome situation. Now the family’s finances were controlled by his mother and older brothers. mother no longer tried to hold him there against his will, but blessed him to be a monk. even gave him an icon of the Great Martyr George (April 23). He kept this icon as a great treasure and revered Saint George until the end of his life. After obtaining his identification papers, Trophimos went to Kiev to venerate the holy places. there, he went to the Holy Mountain Hermitage in Kharkhov Province with the intention of remaining there for the rest of his life. He arrived on October 10, 1845 and went to see Igumen (later Archimandrite) Arsenios. The latter asked him detailed questions concerning the events of his past life. Then he accepted him into the monastery and assigned him to the kitchen for his obedience. first, Trophimos lived in the attic with his knapsack for two weeks, until the cold forced him to move elsewhere. Hieromonk Theodosios, the Father Confessor of the monks, who had come from Glinsk Hermitage with Father Arsenios, took him into his cell as his cell attendant. Trophimos lived behind a thin wall in the narrow entryway. the beginning, Father Theodosios treated him sternly, testing his character and intentions. He would leave money lying around in the cell, or he would leave some tea or sugar, as though he had forgotten to put them away, or perhaps he would leave some honey on the table and go out. After seeing that nothing was ever touched, he stopped doing this and began to trust Trophimos. Hieromonk Theodosios, who had received his spiritual formation under the guidance of the well-known Igumen of Glina Hermitage, Saint Philaretos (March 31, 1841) of holy life, was himself a strict ascetic. He often went into the woods with his prayer rope, walking about with his mind focused on the Jesus Prayer. When he returned from the forest his face was always radiant. So much so that at first his novice Trophimos feared this radiance, and he was afraid to approach him or talk to him. Trophimos was illiterate, Father Theodosios saw to it that he learned to read. instructor was Father Philotheos, who worked in the monastery office. He was not yet old, but he led a life of strict asceticism. learned to read and write under his guidance. At the same time, he continued his careful study of the monastic Rule, taught by his Elder. the evening Prayer Rule, Father Theodosios would dismiss the monk who came to him for Confession. Trophimos a prayer rope, he made him repeat the Jesus Prayer slowly and in a loud voice. At first it was frightening for him to repeat the prayer under the watchful eye of his Elder, and his voice would tremble. The Elder noticed this and ordered him to be In this fear, Father Theodosios saw in this the work of the Enemy, who especially hated the Jesus Prayer. it happened, his fear soon disappeared and was replaced by a tender, compunctionate feeling, which produced abundant tears in him. Sometimes, because of these tears, he could scarcely say the words of the prayer. was a time of strict judgment for Trophimos under the Elder’s watchfulness. He would forget all the sins he had committed during the day, but all the details would come back to his mind during prayer. This brought about sincere repentance in him. After prayer, he would confess to his Elder and receive absolution. After this, Trophimos would feel an unusual lightness and joy in his soul. He went through all the trials of his novitiate before the eyes of his experienced Elder without concealing any of his transgressions from him. Almost unnoticed, he raised himself up. Psalter, the Holy Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles became his favorite books. He always read a certain amount from each of them every day. He tried to do this without fail, often cutting short his night’s rest if he had no time to read during the day. Seeing his zeal, simplicity, and loyalty, his Elder sometimes told him some of the things that happened to him. Once, for example, he came back from the woods with his riasson and prayer rope badly torn. As he sewed up the sleeves of the riasson, Trophimos was amazed and wondered how the Elder could have torn them so much. Elder said, “I was battling with the devils in the forest. They jumped me, a whole bunch of them, and they wanted to tear the prayer ropes from my hands, screaming that I must not say the Jesus Prayer. God helped me, however. I held on to the prayer ropes, even though they were torn in many places, but the riasson really got it from them.” Father Theodosios strictly forbade him to mention this to any of the monks. Theodosios did not have a bed, but slept on the floor. Noticing that there were bedbugs on the floor where the Elder slept, Trophimos brought a kettle of hot water, and wanted to pour it on them. The Elder would not allow this saying, “Their bites remind me of the never-resting worm which is ready for the sinners who have angered God. In this way they bring me to repentance. Do not deprive me of these insects so that I will not feel sorry later.” lived for about two and a half years in his obedience as cell attendant to Father Theodosios. In 1850, he was listed officially as a novice of the Holy Mountain Hermitage. On March 24, he was tonsured as a riassophore monk by Father Arsenios and was named Timon. At that time he was appointed as overseer of the caves. October 21, 1850 Hieromonk Theodosios, the Monastery’s Father Confessor, reposed. His death was a severe blow to his loyal spiritual son Timon, who shed bitter tears at the loss of his father, instructor, and benefactor. Father Arsenios gave him a wooden cross which belonged to Father Theodosios. He accepted it as a treasure in memory of his Elder. Later, Timon gave the cross to the Skete church, where it is a reminder of the labors and prayers of the great ascetic, Father Theodosios. the repose of Father Theodosios, he received a certain comfort when he was appointed to serve the recluse Hieromonk John in his cave. Timon was quite attached to the recluse. He did everything he could for him, watching over him, and fulfilling all of his requests, even the smallest. Later, when others replaced Timon, the recluse often remembered how Timon always pleased him and was always sincerely predisposed toward him. April 2, 1854, Timon was tonsured into the mantiya and renamed Ioannikios. After this he was appointed as the sacristan (ризничий). This was not an easy obedience, for it required a lot of work. After a while he was appointed to the caves, and once again he served Hieromonk John, who lived there. he was ordained to the diaconate, he became even more diligent toward the church services, while continuing his labors of fasting and prayer in his cell. He acquired a fair number of spiritual books and read them with fervor, increasing his knowledge, and using them as guides in his life. In his spare time he liked to go into the woods and converse with God in seclusion. He practiced the Jesus Prayer with attentiveness (π ρο σοχή), and it became more and more a part of his soul. During one of his walks he ventured deep into the forest, and was taken by its seclusion and beauty as he sat down beside the roots of a large spruce tree. As soon as he touched the moss with his hand, he felt heat coming from it, as if from a stove. He was amazed by this, so he began to inspect the place carefully, and discovered that the moss had been placed there skillfully to conceal the entrance of a cave. Inside he saw a a small stove, and a table, upon which was a Psalter. A lampada was burning before an icon, but the occupant of the cave was not at home, giving Father Ioannikios a chance to examine the cave. Except for some old dried bread, some dried fruit, and a pitcher of water, there was nothing in the cave that indicated the hermit’s life of strict fasting. For some time he had been hearing rumors in the Holy Mountain Hermitage about solitaries who lived nearby in the forest, unknown to the world. It was said that they were living there even before the monastery was rebuilt.1 Archimandrite Arsenios, the Superior, was very uneasy about this because he feared that the secular authorities might regard these unknown persons as vagabonds without identification papers, and this could cause trouble for the newly reopened monastery. Father Arsenios discovered two of these hermits, and so he sent them away from the monastery in a peaceful manner. These two happened to be aged Elders, and soon afterward they completed the course of their lives in nearby villages. their departure Father Arsenios felt somewhat more at ease and stopped searching for the others. The brethren of the monastery continued to wonder if there were more hermits were living in the forest, because they saw thin, blackened people at the church services who were dressed like peasants. They avoided all contact with the monks and left quickly after the service, heading in the direction of the nearest farm. Ioannikios realized that the cave he found must belong to one of these hermits, so he decided to wait for him to return. Soon a tall, very thin man of middle age arrived dressed in a white peasant’s shirt and carrying an armload of firewood from another part of the forest. The hermit was rather disturbed to find a guest waiting for him. He sighed deeply and said, “Apparently, it is God’s will that I leave here. I know you. You are the servant of God, Father Ioannikios. Perhaps you will not tell the Archimandrite about me, but I do not wish to place you in such a position. So tomorrow I shall leave here and go elsewhere.” he invited Father Ioannikios to sit down and offered to let him taste some of his cooked dried pears. The hermit told him that his name was Leontios, and he was a soldier who had deserted. He had been living in that vicinity for about twenty years. Here he found an Elder, who was also a hermit, and who taught him to fast, to pray and to sing Psalms. When the Elder was dying he left him this cave. Father Ioannikios loved the hermit and, in his simplicity, he tried to persuade him to stay in the monastery with them. Not understanding, he offered to go to Father Arsenios with him, saying that he would probably be accepted into the monastery. the hermit shook his head and said, “I am a runaway soldier and have no identification whatsoever. Your Superior will not take me in without papers, so it is useless to ask him to do what is impossible. I thank you, Father, for your love, for which the Lord will reward you in Heaven. But now demonstrate your love and do not say anything to anyone in the monastery until tomorrow about finding my cave and seeing me here until I can move to a place farther away from the monastery. Also bow down before the Father Confessor Epiphanios and say to him that by God’s will Leontios left here and went farther away from those who would pursue him.” leaving the hermit, Father Ioannikios did as he requested, and said nothing to anyone about seeing him. About two days later, he went into the woods again, to the cave, thinking that he might find the hermit still there. However, the entrance to the cave was filled in with dirt, and there was no sign that anyone had lived there. When Father Ioannikios described to Father Epiphanios how he had found the hermit, the Confessor felt sorry for him. He said that he had known him for a long time, and that he was his Spiritual Father. He called him a true servant of God, and an ascetic of lofty spiritual life. years later, a peasant came to Father Ioannikios from a nearby village, bringing him several pounds of beeswax. He said, “Leontios orders you to live a long life, and wishes you to know of his repose. The wax is given to you to make candles to be used in the services offered for the repose of his soul.” The hermit had lived beside the peasant’s beehives. He had lived a very strict ascetical life, and had departed to the Lord after a brief illness. Before his death, he had received the Holy Mysteries from the local priest. Arsenios organized a Skete on the Holy Mountain with a church dedicated to Saint Arsenios the Great (May 8). He wanted to place a few monks from his monastery there, monks who loved ascetical struggles and who would lay a firm foundation for this place of seclusion and prayer. Father Ioannikios was also assigned to the Skete as a deacon. This was very much to his liking, since he had an inclination for solitude. 1859, Archimandrite Arsenios passed away after a lengthy illness. Father Germanus (later Archimandrite) was chosen by the brethren to succeed him, and he completed the work of establishing the Skete. life of Father Ioannikios was peaceful and quiet, and he served in the church in his capacity as a deacon. He labored in fasting and prayer, not sparing himself, and so he grew weaker in body. He began to spit up blood; he lost weight, and became thin and pale. Finally, he was put to bed in the monastery’s infirmary where he remained for about six months. Several times he was so close to death that the doctor lost all hope for his recovery. than once during his illness he saw before him the icon of the Holy Napkin (Aug. 16) and the image of the Lord’s face was life-sized. A beautiful fragrance came forth from it, which brought him untold joy and made him forget his illness. Once, when he was especially ill, those around him awaited his death. He saw the holy icon again, and it came so close to him that it touched his face. He heard a soft voice say, “Get up! Be half-healthy, and benefit the souls of your neighbors.” that moment, he felt that the terrible pain in his chest and side had vanished; some of his strength began to return, and he started to get better, which bewildered the doctor who said long ago that he would die. Truly, he never became completely healthy, but only “half-healthy,“ thin, weak, and bent over. Frequently, he spat up blood, but he got out of bed and was able to walk around, praying and serving in order to benefit the souls of his neighbors. August 24, 1864, he was ordained as a priest. Though weak and sickly, Father Ioannikios labored along with other priests who were healthy, young, and strong. He often did more than they did, and soon he was appointed as the Father Confessor for the pilgrims to the monastery. He performed this duty without any respite or laziness. He frequently confessed the pilgrims who came to the Holy Mountain Hermitage for the better part of the day, especially during the summer. On Feast Days it was often the case that between 2000 and 5000 pilgrims received Holy Communion. Lord gave him a special gift to be a Father Confessor: he knew how to obtain people’s love and trust. He knew at once, from his experience, the spiritual illnesses of those who came to him, and he also knew how to apply the right spiritual medicine for them. There were times, however, when he sought the advice of the very experienced and knowledgeable Elder Kyprianos, who was also his Father Confessor. first, Father Ioannikios admitted that “many women, pilgrims and nuns, would bother me with their tales of the supposed visions and miracles they had seen. They did not say what needs to be said in Confession, but wasted time flaunting their alleged holiness before me. So, I asked Batushka Kyprianos how to deal with such penitents. “He advised me: ‘Order them to make prostrations for every vision or miracle that they disclose to you in a boastful way, and without need for it. Believe me; they will soon leave you in peace.’ “I began to follow his advice, and the women didn’t like it. They stopped coming to me for Confession, and went to other priests. They said I was rude. I was happy though, because they only caused difficulties without any benefit to anyone. Some would waste an hour telling of her visions, while others were waiting for Confession.” Ioannikios disliked hypocrisy and self-proclaimed holiness. He scolded to their face those who tried to conceal their sinfulness under the guise of false virtue and holiness. For those who repented sincerely, however, he avoided making harsh demands, and did not impose severe penances. He said that one might vex the soul of a sinner and thereby cause more harm than good. “It is not beneficial to deprive a penitent of Communion,” said Father Ioannikios. “Christianity is so weak now, especially among the learned, that even without depriving them, they seldom receive Communion. To deprive them would not be a punishment for them, but would only serve to make them weaker.” often substituted other means of penance, and even then with great care, according to each person’s strength and circumstances. addition to his duties as Father Confessor for the Monastery, Father Ioannikios was often sent to nearby villages to give Holy Communion, or to minister to those who were sick or dying. Here are some of the other things that Father Ioannikios related about his experience as a Father Confessor: “Once, a peasant came to me late at night and asked me to go with him at once to give Holy Communion to his brother who was dying. I said to him, ‘Can this wait until morning? It will be easier to make the trip then, and it is better to give Communion before a person has any food. ’ “The peasant insisted that we must go immediately; saying that his brother had told him that he would not live through the night. So we went! We travelled through forests and over fields, and we saw wolves whose eyes shone like candles in the dark. At long last, we arrived at a small secluded village and his brother’s home. I went in and saw that the house had been tidied up. The table was covered with a cloth, and on it were lighted candles. I did not see the sick man anywhere, however. “I was met by a thin and pale peasant, who was dressed decently in clean clothes. As it turned out, he was the one who wished to receive Holy Communion. I was amazed and said, ‘Since you are strong enough to be up, you could have waited to receive Communion in the morning, because only those who are dying may receive after eating food.’ “The man said that he was dying, and had very little time to live. He asked me to confess him right away and then give him Communion. He said, ‘I waited for you, Father. Glory be to God that I was able to wait this long. Please give me the Holy Mysteries now, for those who are sent for my soul are here, and are waiting until you do so.’ “After sending his family from the house, I started to confess him. I must admit that seldom have I heard such a Confession. His life was righteous, his feelings and his mind were so elevated and spiritual, his faith was so sincere, and his love for the Savior was so ardent that I was amazed how such an illiterate family man could acquire such virtues. He partook of the Holy Mysteries with great tenderness and heard the Prayers of Thanksgiving while sitting on a bench. He kissed the cross and my hand, and then peacefully gave his soul into God’s hands. “Later, after questioning his family and his grieving wife, I learned that he had been ill for just a few days. He was not confined to bed, but sat up most of the time. From the start of his illness he ate no food. He told his wife that his time was up and he would die. He asked for a priest to come and give him Communion. Seeing that he was sitting up, his family was in no hurry to do so. Only in the evening of the day before he reposed, they heeded his request and believed him when he said he wouldn’t live until morning. He led an abstinent life; he was kind and ready to help anyone with his last piece of bread. He was most fervent in prayer, and the Lord manifested His grace in him, which was revealed clearly by his righteous death.” “On another occasion, I was called to visit a sick woman. I entered the house and saw a woman, who was still young, standing before a mirror and putting a kerchief on her head. She was the sick person! I was quite upset and I reproached her sternly because she appeared to be healthy, but she wanted to receive the Holy Mysteries before she died. She listened to me meekly and said, ‘I asked you to come because I feel that my death is near. Do not think that you have been deceived because you found me by the mirror. I did not want to come to the holy chalice with my hair uncombed, so I did the best I could.’ “She asked me to confess her and give her Holy Communion. I began unwillingly, because I did not believe what she said, and she seemed to be completely healthy. She confessed and received Holy Communion with great reverence, as a true Christian ought to do. I didn’t even have time to put the holy chalice away and begin the Prayers of Thanksgiving. When I looked, she lay down and closed her eyes. I bent over her, but she had already departed to the Lord. She became sick after giving birth and had passed away, leaving an orphaned child.” the Holy Mountain Monastery lived a landowner, a family man, of advanced years. He had cancer, which covered his face in one large wound. He suffered very much, and had to be fed with a spoon. The local priest refused to give him Holy Communion because of the stench which came from the open wound. The family turned to Father Ioannikios for help because the man wanted very much to receive Holy Communion. He looked at the sick man and decided that he could place the Holy Communion right into his mouth with a long-handled spoon, since it had not been eaten away by the cancer. He made such a spoon, confessed the man, and gave him Holy Communion. This made the man very happy. that time on, the suffering man frequently sent for Father Ioannikios in order to receive the Holy Mysteries from him, for it was the one joy in his life. The effect on Father Ioannikios was not insignificant. Many of the monks at the monastery marveled at how he was able to bear the stench, or even the sight of this terrible wound. They even thought that he would become ill himself by visiting this man. Father Ioannikios, however, having complete hope in God, did not fear the stench or the possibility of becoming infected. He continued to bring the Holy Mysteries to the man until the very end. feeling of compassion for the sick and the suffering was especially strong in Father Ioannikios. Very many pilgrims came to Holy Mountain Monastery from everywhere in the summertime. People from all walks of life, from peasants to those who were educated; and many of these were afflicted or possessed, and were brought to the monastery by relatives in the hope of a cure from the wonderworking icon of Saint Nicholas. Seeing the suffering of these unfortunates, who often screamed loudly with tumultuous voices, or went into convulsions, especially in church during the Divine Liturgy. Knowing that prayers of exorcism are to be read in such cases, Saint Ioannikios was motivated by faith, and he began to pray in this manner over the possessed, anointing them with holy oil in the name of the Lord. of the monks did not approve of this, for they thought Father Ioannikios was too bold. However, Elder Kyprianos, the Father Confessor of the monastery, did not have enough nerve to pray over them himself, so he blessed the saint to do it with complete faith and humility of mind. Kyprianos said that Father Ioannikios, as a faster and a man of prayer, was fully capable of dealing with such afflicted persons, because according to the Lord, “This kind is never expelled except by prayer and fasting” (Matthew 17:21, Mark 9:29). In truth, the prayers of Father Ioannikios over these people, said with firm faith before the Almighty Lord, often brought visible cures. Far from the monastery word spread that the Father Confessor was a healer and that he was able to cure the possessed by his prayers. the summertime, he was often seen after the services in front of the wonderworking icon of Saint Nicholas, praying over the possessed, whose ferocious screaming could be heard at that time. Some cursed him with the most horrible words; others blasphemed terribly, and some even tried to beat him. He did suffer from beatings more than once. He endured all of this meekly, however, attacking the evil demons through fasting and prayer, with which he prepared himself beforehand. Usually, he succeeded, and the sufferers would calm down. They would become humble and meek, and would start praying to God and weep, or they threw up a malodorous liquid on the floor, after which they were completely healed. an enormous man, a Cossack soldier from the vicinity of the Kuban River, was brought to him with a wild expression on his face. His relatives, two strong men, had dragged him there with great difficulty. The possessed man roared with an inhuman voice like a bear, or a wolf, or a pig. All of these were heard from the man at the same time, and his eyes glared with unspeakable hatred. In front of the cathedral of the Holy Mountain Monastery, which is on top of a hill, there is a wide stone stairway leading to the small square where the cathedral is situated. The two men dragged the possessed man to the stairs, but were unable to make him climb the stairs by any means. One of these men went into the cathedral to speak to Father Ioannikios. Fearlessly, the saint came out of the cathedral in his epitracheilion, ready to pray over the man, who was lying on the ground. the man jumped up, seized Father Ioannikios, and threw him over his shoulder. He ran up the stairs and around the cathedral. Those who were present were terrified and did not know what to do. They ran after the man, and saw him on the ground by the cathedral’s western door. Father Ioannikios was all right and unharmed, and he sat on top of the man, holding him by his hair. His relatives ran up to bind the man’s hands and feet, but Father Ioannikios would not permit it. “Don’t touch him,” he said. “Leave him alone. He won’t run anymore. We’ve already had our battle, and you can see who won.” He pointed to the man, whose hair he held with a firm grip. Then he stood up and covered the man’s head with his epitracheilion, and began to read the prayers. The man lay quietly, breathing heavily, as though he were going to vomit. Finally, with a great effort, he threw up fetid, bloody foam so malodorous that those who stood nearby had to move away from him. this the man got up and began to make prostrations while facing the church and offering his heartfelt prayers. The next day he made his Confession to Father Ioannikios and partook of the Holy Mysteries, which he had avoided for the past five years. During Confession he explained that he had become possessed when he had dared to strike his mother. that moment, he experienced terrible suffering. He left the monastery, assured of his complete cure, and went home to Kuban. Later, he received instructions on how to conduct himself so that he would not become subjected to that same evil spirit again. Father Ioannikios said later that when the possessed man threw him over his shoulder and ran up the stairs, he suddenly felt a power within him which enabled him to overcome the man almost effortlessly, while calling upon the sweetest name of the Lord Jesus. was not only adults who were brought to Father Ioannikios, but even children who exhibited sure signs of possession. They spoke in foreign languages, foretold the future, and blasphemed so much that it was frightening. It was much easier to win them over than the adults, however. This was not simply because they were only children, but also because their innocent nature was much more receptive to God’s grace. There were cases where the possessed would relate in detail, and in a loud voice, whatever Father Ioannikios did or thought, or if he ate a little more than usual. They told him that all of his efforts to cast them out would be in vain. Therefore, he fasted even more, for he knew that prayer and fasting are the best weapons to use in healing those who are afflicted. only were the saint’s prayers effective against evil spirits, but also in healing many other illnesses of people who came to him with sincere faith. Once, a young man, the son of a merchant from a nearby town, visited him in his cell. He told him of his sorrow at being a drunkard, because this caused his parents intense grief. He fell down at the feet of Father Ioannikios, begging to be released from this destructive passion, by his prayers. Father Ioannikios put on his epitracheilion and read the prayer for the sick, and then he anointed him with holy oil. He ordered him to drink a little holy water every morning before eating or drinking anything else. a while, the young man visited Father Ioannikios again and said that from the time that he prayed over him and anointed him with the holy oil, he felt such revulsion for wine that he could no longer endure the smell of it. He gave fervent thanks to Father Ioannikios for this. The saint advised him to continue to drink the holy water, ascribing his cure to the grace of God. Later, the young man became interested in monasticism and entered a monastery in Kursk province. compassion for everyone, Saint Ioannikios was always ready to help a poor person in trouble and even went so far as to deny himself as much as possible. large throng of pilgrims usually visited the monastery on the Feast of the Transfer of the Relics of Saint Nicholas on May 9, and the church was very crowded during the services. Once, two well-dressed, still young women from Rostov on the Don River came for this Feast. One of them was pregnant and was so pressed by those in the church that she felt that her child was about to be born. The other woman got her out of the church with some difficulty, and her son was born in the monastery guesthouse. This created a disturbance and so the manager told Father Ioannikios what had happened, and asked him what to do. He wondered if he should ask the women to go to the nearby village. “Why,” Father Ioannikios cried, “are we like animals to act in such a way?” went to the guesthouse himself and asked the other woman to come out and tell him right away about everything in detail. Then he sent other women pilgrims to the monastery to go and help them. He also sent for the parish priest to come and baptize the baby, because a Hieromonk is not permitted to do so, except in cases of great necessity. He himself became the child’s godfather2 and participated in this unforeseen event which befell these visitors so far from their home, for which they thanked him very much. The boy’s father, a wealthy merchant of Rostov, became a great benefactor of the Holy Mountain Hermitage and sincerely respected Father Ioannikios, keeping him informed about the child’s growth and accomplishments. of the saint’s extraordinary character traits was his love for children. Often, among the pilgrims, there were families with children, who received special attention from the Elder. He also had a child-like simplicity and trust, and he knew how to convey this to the youngsters so that they loved him and listened to him. He said, “The innocence of such children always evokes tenderness in me. One child looks like an angel of God, the purity of his soul just radiates from his face, especially at Holy Communion.” unfortunate persons, feeble-minded adults, may seem like children in their undeveloped minds. These also received the special love and protection of the kindly Father Ioannikios. We have already see how much he loved Theophilos, the blessed Fool for Christ (+ January 30, 1868), and how he cared for him during his illness, visiting him and gratifying all his wishes. was not the only one he befriended, however. Father Ioannikios always knew how to get along with those whose mental faculties were somewhat diminished. They always loved him and listened to him, and would frequently work along with the monks. Hieromonk Kyprianos, the monastery’s Father Confessor reposed, Father Ioannikios, in the humility and simplicity of his soul, did not wish to take his place. Some of the monks, however, desired this. Even Father Kyprianos himself pointed him out as a Confessor who was more experienced than anyone else. The Superior, Archimandrite Germanus, chose him as his own Father Confessor following the death of Father Kyprianos. This elevated him in the eyes of the entire monastery, but he always acted in such a way that he would not arouse anyone’s jealousy or give them cause to complain. he was sent out into the world by the Superior on the monastery’s business. Even though he was exposed to worldly turmoil, he preserved his spiritual tranquility by unceasing prayer. He also brought much benefit to those worldly people in whose company he happened to find himself. In particular, he loved to visit with his spiritual children who were living in the world. He completed his business quickly and in an expeditious manner. He did not like to sit around for very long. He performed his duties, and then went home to the monastery. His ill health also made such traveling and movement necessary for him. If he remained in his cell too long, the bleeding would start again. If he was traveling, it stopped right away. So it happened that he would leave the monastery feeling very weak, but when he returned he felt much stronger. Whether he was in a railroad car, at the train station, at an inn, or in the home of a peasant, he always tried to benefit his neighbor. cell was very simple. There were a few icons, a number of Church Service Books, some clothing, a poor man’s tea service, and a cheap clock. That was all. He always had books all over his cell. Some were opened, others had page markers. It was apparent that the Elder spent all his spare time in reading. A lampada always burned in his cell before the holy icons. He always advised people to prepare for, and to partake of, the Holy Mysteries of Christ as often as possible. He would say, “Someone who often prepares himself for receiving Holy Communion will improve in his inward being unconsciously, and even that is a great accomplishment. Our union with Christ through partaking of His Mysteries makes even our poor and insufficient preparation better by His grace. It renews us and recreates us, transforming us from carnal creatures to spiritual beings. Every person who partakes of the Holy Mysteries frequently will soon discover this and feel it within himself. Do not tell me that you are not prepared, or are unworthy to partake often. You are not prepared because of laziness, and in this way you do what the Enemy likes. He cannot endure anyone who prepares himself and receives Communion often, because this person is frightening and inaccessible to him. You are not worthy! Who among us can claim to be worthy of receiving the Body and Blood of our Lord? All of us are unworthy of this gift of God’s mercy! If we deprive ourselves of this gift by saying that we are unworthy, then we sin grievously, because we are pushing God away from ourselves. If we acknowledge our unworthiness, if we repent, and if we thirst to partake of the Holy Mysteries, then we receive help from above, and this becomes the means by which we partake of the Holy Mysteries uncondemned.” he himself was cautious about manifestations from the spiritual world, Father Ioannikios always warned his Spiritual Children about believing in dreams or visions. simplicity was extraordinary, and often it was like that of a child. Since he was non-acquisitive, he always declined expensive gifts. If he was forced to accept, he would give all of it to the monastery, according to the strict cenobitic Rule. It was easy to make him happy with a small inexpensive gift. He preferred small sizes of books, such as the Psalter, the Holy Gospels, or the book of Canons. He had them in the smallest sizes one could obtain. His tea service was also quite small, almost like those made for children. Nothing made him happier than to be presented with a small drinking glass, or a tiny tea cup, or a small comb. events occurred to make his poor health even worse. Once, while passing through the monastery yard, he saw that the crank on the water well was not working properly, and that the novice who was sent to repair it was unable to do so. The Elder came, and without stopping to think about it, he started to help. He climbed to the top of the structure and fell down into the well, where he might have drowned if the pulley hadn’t kept his head above the water. He bruised his shoulder, arm, and side very seriously on the wooden sides of the well. The monks came running and pulled him out of the well nearly unconscious, and he was ill for a long time afterward. This fall made his health even worse and, as he said himself, it was the precursor of his approaching death. found himself in danger once again, on one of his trips by train. He was rushing, as quickly as ever, to get into the coach. He missed his step, however, and fell between the car and the station platform. He was saved by his slender build, which allowed the train to pass over him, brushing him slightly with the wheels. after this, he was sick for some time, and his side turned black and hard to the touch. As he lay beneath the train expecting to be killed, he prayed to the Mother of God asking her to deliver him from such a terrible death. Suddenly, he felt as if someone were pulling him toward the platform to a narrow space where he lay on his side and waited for the entire train to pass over him. “Yes, my time is near, perceptibly near,” he said. He began to ask his friends not to forget him after his death, and to remember his parents Nikḗtas and Martha as well. “If you love me,” he said, “do not forget my parents. In this way you will show your love for me.” February 1, 1882 he was visited by the Superior, Father Germanus after Vespers, who found the Elder very ill. They sent for a doctor, who diagnosed him with acute pneumonia, and stated that his condition was grave. His Confessor, Hieromonk Arkadios, brought him the Holy Mysteries every day, and visited him often. His neighbor in the next cell, Hieromonk Dometios, was with him almost all the time and looked after him with rare love and devotion. February 8, he received the Mystery of Holy Unction. Toward evening on February 10, he became much worse. Now his death was very near, indeed. His Confessor read the Prayer for the dying over him. Father Germanus came to visit and stayed until the end, which was not long in coming. At 7:00 P.M. he passed peacefully and quietly away. crowds in the monastery were very large. Memorial Services were sung over him, and everyone wanted to bid him farewell in his cell. It was very stuffy because of the crowds, but his body remained incorrupt. There was no odor of death, but he was so thin that his body on the table looked like bones covered with skin. February 11, his body was taken from his cell to the church of the Protecting Veil by Hieromonk Paisios, the Confessor for the monks. On February 12, in the same church, the Superior, Archimandrite Germanus, solemnly served the Liturgy with other priests, and the Funeral Service took place afterward. The coffin was taken to the underground church in the caves and was buried there. Ioannikios was glorified on July 12, 2008. 1 The monastery was rebuilt after it was destroyed by the French in 1812. 2 According to Canon 4 of the Fourth Ecumenical Synod, a monk may not intrude upon or meddle in ecclesiastical affairs. See The Pedalion p. 248. The Interpretation of this Canon says that “monks must not become godfathers to children being baptized (except in cases of urgent necessity...”) Pedalion page 249.

Mongol, Scythia, 1846, First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Sythia, Mongol Lands (Don River 5), incorrupt Relics
Zadonsk;Zadonsk Monestary; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14; incorrupt relics of Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk were first uncovered in May 1846, during the construction of the new cathedral at Zadonsk. They were found beneath the altar of the old church. Tikhon is also commemorated on August 13.

Mongol, Scythia, 1851, Child Schemamonk Bogolep, relics transfer but slid into river where he had promised spiritual presence
Mongol, Scythia, 1851, Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Black Ravine (Chernyi Yar), about 250 K up the River from Astrackhan, 1750 his grave in church side altar, eroding river bank threatens church, 1851 attempted transfer his relics but slid into river, where he had continually appeared promising spiritual presence for believers; Black Ravine (Chernyi Yar), about 250 K up the River from Astrackhan Schemamonk, totally given up worldly life for Christ; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Child Schemamonk Bogolep was the son of a Moscow nobleman Iakov Lukich Ushakov and his wife Katherine. He was born in 1660 at Moscow. At Baptism they gave him the name Boris, in honor of the holy Passion-Bearer Boris (July 24). was appointed voevoda (military-commander) in the city of Chernyi Yar (Black Ravine), situated 250 versts from Astrakhan. He was known for his integrity. From infancy Boris displayed unusual traits. On Wednesdays and Fridays he would not drink milk from his mother’s breasts. When the bells pealed at the church, he began to cry, and became quiet only when they brought him into the church. When they did not take the infant to church, he cried all day and ate nothing. 1662 a deadly pestilence spread about in Russia. The child fell ill, and the pestilence afflicted him in the legs. He became lame, but continued to walk to church. The parents prayed for the health of their son and they tried everything in their power to heal him. But no sooner had the one illness gone, than upon his face there appeared another, called scales. during his illness the child saw a wandering monk who visited at their home. The angelic garb so impressed the child, that he began to implore his parents to sew him such clothing and permit him to receive monastic tonsure. The holy child proclaimed: “You will see for yourselves, when you tonsure and grant me the angelic garb, I shall be well.” The parents consented. The child was invested in the schema with the name Bogolep (the Russian version of the Greek name Theoleptos, meaning “similar to God”). the next day the child schemamonk was completely healthy, his face was clear and there remained no trace of the illness. But on the third day there was a new illness, he developed a fever, and it struck down the child. He died on August 1, 1667 and was buried at the left wall of the wooden Black Ravine church in honor of the Resurrection of Christ. (This church was built after a great fire in Black Ravine, on July 24, 1652 the Feast of Saint Boris). A chapel was built over the grave of the child. Life of the holy Schemamonk Bogolep was compiled under a vow by the Black Ravine merchant Savva Tatarinov during the years 1731-1732. of the saint, with the Troparion and Kontakion to him, were widely dispersed throughout the Astrakhan region. 1750 on the place of the wooden church a stone church was built with a side-altar in honor of the holy Martyr John the Warrior. The grave of the holy schemamonk was enclosed in this side altar. bank of the river, where the church of the Resurrection of Christ stood, was constantly eroding. By the mid-nineteenth century the structure of the church was threatened, and they removed all the holy things from it. For a long time the people of Black Ravine did not remove the chief holy object: the grave of the holy schemamonk. Finally, in 1851 when the water had already approached 4 ft. 8 inches, the people petitioned the Most Holy Synod with a request to transfer the holy relics of the Schemamonk Bogolep, and they received permission for this. The small child’s coffin was laid bare, but just when the city head took it into his hands, it slid out of his hands and disappeared into the waters of the Volga. disappearance of the relics just at the opening of the grave was accepted as the Will of God, since the holy child had repeatedly appeared to many either in sleep, or awake while walking along the river bank, or coming down the hill. He consoled them, promising that he would be present spiritually with believers. simple life of the holy Schemamonk Bogolep, full of the mysteries of God, illustrates the words of the Savior concerning children: “Let the children come unto Me and forbid them not, for of such is the Kingdom of God. Truly I say to you, whosoever shall not receive the Kingdom of God as a little child, shall not enter therein. And He took them up in His arms, put His hands upon them, and blessed them” (Mark 10: 14-16). pray to Saint Bogolep for children, and also for protection against lightning.

Mongol, Scythia, 1891-1918, Hieromartyr Nikodemos, Bishop of BelgorodBelgorod, Scythia (Seversky Donets River 1), historian
Mongol, Scythia, 1891-1918, Hieromartyr Nikodemos, Bishop of Belgorod, Scythia (Seversky Donets River 1), from line of missionary priests itNorth, 1896 Superintendent of Petersburg TSchool & ctaker Pedagogical Courses, many awards, 1899 tKaluga arector KSpiritual seminary, 1909 r Olonets Seminary, taught students obey authorities, at least for awhile, Akathist to Saint John Chrysostom which he wrote in college, but genius write for genius, 1911 Bishop, 1913 BoBelogorod&Vicar of Kursk, composer church hymns, as spiritual writer&Church historian, author of books about ascetics of Arkhangelsk and Olonets, compiler Biographies of the National Ascetics of Piety ot XVIII-XIX centuries, he wrote of Lives of the Saints of the St. Petersburg.and Vologda dioceses, as well ascetics Solovki Monastery, 1911 -he worked hard on discovery relics St. Joasaph of Belgorod, composed prayers, wrote miracle cases, 1918 martyred; Hieromartyr Νikόdēmos, Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 28; Hieromartyr Νikόdēmos, Bishop of Belgorod (in the world Alexander Mikhailovich Kononov) was born on June 18, 1871 in Arkhangelsk province, son of Father Michael Kononov and his wife Claudia. Kononov family traces its roots back to the XVII century, and there were many remarkable priests who served as missionaries in the north. Kononov graduated from the Arkhangelsk Theological Seminary and the St. Petersburg Theological Academy. 1896 he was tonsured as a monk with the name Νikόdēmos, in honor of Saint Νikόdēmos of Kozha Lake (July 3), and he was ordained as a Hieromonk. the same time, he was appointed Superintendent of the Alexander Nevsky Theological School in St. Petersburg, as well as the caretaker of the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Courses. his work, Father Νikόdēmos received many awards. In 1901, he received a Bible from the Synod "in encouraging his love for children, which he showed in his deeds and in truth." On August 30 of that same year, he was elevated to the rank of Archimandrite. three years, Father Νikόdēmos was sent to Kaluga as rector of the Kaluga Spiritual seminary, in 1909 he was appointed as rector of the Olonets Seminary. this time Archimandrite Νikόdēmos received thanks from the Kaluga bishop for his "vigilant labors, recently incurred, his impact on the excitable minds of the pupils, so that they stopped fermenting and the thought, if not forever, then for a long time - not to obey the lawful orders of the authorities," as the bishop declared in expressing his gratitude. Holy Synod blessed Archimandrite Νikόdēmos to compose an Akathist to Saint John Chrysostom, which was printed by the Synod for ecclesiastical use. Νikόdēmos had originally written the Akathist to Saint John Chrysostom while he was still a student of St. Petersburg Theological Academy. at that time the censor had rejected the Akathist in approximately these terms: "An Akathist to a genius ought to be written by a genius, not by some unknown Hieromonk." 1911, at St. Petersburg, Father Νikόdēmos was consecrated as a bishop by Metropolitan Vladimir (Bogoyavlensky) of Moscow and Kolomensk. 1913, Bishop Νikόdēmos became Bishop of Belgorod, and Vicar of the Kursk Diocese. the time of his pastoral activities, Vladyka was a composer of Church hymns, he composed Akathists to his patron Saint Νikόdēmos of Kozha Lake Monastery, Tryphon of Pechenga (December 15), and the Monastic Martyr Job the Gorge-dweller, wonderworker of Solovki (August 5). a spiritual writer and Church historian, Bishop Νikόdēmos was the author of books about the ascetics of Arkhangelsk and Olonets, he was also one of the main compilers of the multi-volume work "Biographies of the National Ascetics of Piety of the XVIII-XIX centuries." book "Elder Father Naum of Solovki, the Ascetic of Karelia" was published in 1910. addition, he wrote several collections of Lives of the Saints of the St. Petersburg.and Vologda dioceses, as well as those of the ascetics Solovki Monastery. also wrote a history of Eldership. worked hard in connection with the discovery of the holy relics of St. Joasaph of Belgorod (on September 4, 1911). his service in the Diocese, he composed two prayers to Saint Joasaph, as well as his great opus "The Life, Glorification and Miracles of Saint Joasaph." the direction of Bishop Νikόdēmos, and with his direct participation, three volumes of consistory cases related to the activities of Saint Joasaph were published. chambers in the Holy Trinity Monastery were reconstructed, and a unique museum of Saint Joasaph was created, which contained an extensive collection of documents. 1918, on the second day of the Feast of the Nativity of Christ, the Belgorod Hierarch was arrested right in the altar of Trinity Cathedral by the Red Commissar Saenko, for preaching against robbery and violence. the request of the faithful who demanded Vladyka's release, the local Chekists "released" him for one day, and those who those who requested it were arrested. of the groups of believers protesting against the Bishop's arrest was led by the wife of a priest, the head of the second women's gymnasium, Maria Dmitrievna Kiyanovskaya, who was arrested as a "leader of a counter-revolutionary demonstration" and was shot. next day, Vladyka was arrested again. days after his arrest on the orders of Commissar Saenko, Bishop Νikόdēmos was shot secretly and was buried in a common grave outside the city. the capture of Belgorod by the Volunteer White Army (six months after Vladyka's execution), his grave was opened. Medical examination of the remains found that in addition to the presence of a non-lethal gunshot wound in the Saint's chest, there was a skull fracture caused by a heavy blow with a blunt object, a huge bruise at the top of the head, and a break in the laryngeal cartilage, indicating that he had been strangled by someone. holy relics of Saint Νikόdēmos were given due honors, and were buried at Holy Trinity Monastery near the shrine of Saint Joasaph of Belgorod. October 29, 2017, Metropolitan John (Popov) performed the rite of the great consecration and the first Liturgy in the church dedicated to the Hieromartyr Νikόdēmos (Kononov), located in the Belgorod Metropolis at the place where the relics of the Saint were found. This coincides with the 100th anniversary of the start of the persecution of the Church, and the fifth anniversary of the discovery of the relics of the Hieromartyr Νikόdēmos. Belgorod;

Mongol, Scythia, Don River Folder (to Sea of Azov, Crimea, Black Sea)

Don River

Don River Source (Novomoskovsk)
Novomoskovsk

Don River 1 (Kulikovo Field)

Kuchkov, Kulikovo Field (Don River 1, Muravsky Trail 7, Kulikovo Pole)
Kulikovo Pole (Kulikovo Field); Intercession of the “Don” Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19; Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated on August 26 ; Repose of the Venerable Sergius, Abbot and Wonderworker of Radonezh, Commemorated on September 25 ;

Battle of Kulikovo Field, 1380, Russia over Mongol Golden Horde, Don River 1, Muravsky Trail 7
Battle of Kulikovo; Translation of the relics of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on August 30; Memorial Saturday of St Demetrius;

Don River 2 (near Kulikovo Field)

Don River 3

Don River 4 (Bystraya River Mouth)

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 4, Bystraya River Folder

Bystraya Sosna River

Bystraya Sosna River Source (aloing the border)

Cheremis, Land of the Cheremis (Mari) People (Bystraya Sosna and Don Rivers)
Cheremis, Land of the Cheremis (Mari) People; Venerable Macarius the Abbot of Zheltovod and Unzha, Commemorated on July 25;

Bystraya Sosna River 1 (Livny)

Livny (Liven), Scythia (Bystraya Sosna River 1)
Livny, Scythia (Bystraya Sosna River 1); St. Theophan the Recluse the Bishop of Tambov, Commemorated on January 10;

Elets, Scythia (Muravsky Trail 6, Bystraya Sosna River Mouth, Don River 4)
Elets; Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane, Commemorated August 26 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Elets, Commemorated January 11 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œElets-Chernigov"Â, Commemorated on February 5 ; Venerable Nectarius of Optina, Commemorated on April 29;

Bystraya Sosna River Mouth (Don River 4)

Don River 5 (Zadonsk and Elets)

Zadonsk, Sythia, Mongol Lands (Don River 5)
Zadonsk;Zadonsk Monestary; Venerable Anthony of Optina, Commemorated on August 7 ; Tikon of Zadonsk, Commemorated August 13 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Venerable Theodore of Sanaxar, Commemorated on February 19 ; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7; St Theophan the Recluse the Bishop of Tambov; First opening of the relics of St Tikhon of Zadonsk, Commemorated on May 14;

Don River 6 (Zadonsk and Elets)

Don River 7

Don River 8 (Vorenezh)

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 8, Vorenezh River Folder

Vorenezh River

Vorenezh River Source (along the border)

Vorenezh River 1

Voronezh River 2 (Lipitsa)

Voronezh River 3 (Voronezh)

Voronezh River Mouth (Voronezh, Don River 8)

Voronezh, Scythia (Voronezh River Mouth, Don River 8)
Voronezh; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated August 7 ; Venerable Anthony of Optina, Commemorated on August 7 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia, Commemorated August 13; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated on September 18 ; St Metrophanes (in schema Macarius) the Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated on November 23; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Rescuer of the DrowningÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated Febraury 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Unfading BloomÂ, Commemorated on April 3; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ;

Voronezh Annunciation Cathedral, 1718, Saint Metrophanes, incorrupt relics
Voronezh Annunciation Cathedral; First finding of the relics of St Metrophanes the First Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated on August 7 Uncovering of the Relics of Saint Metrophanes, Bishop of Voronezh (1832): The memory of the deep piety and pastoral virtues of Saint Metrophanes (Macarius, in the schema) was revered at Voronezh from the time of his death (November 23, 1703). His successors, the Voronezh hierarchs, considered it their sacred duty to make annual remembrance of the first hierarch of their flock, together with his parents, the priest Basil and Maria. people of Voronezh and its environs came to the Annunciation cathedral, where memorial services were offered at his tomb. Contributing to the intense remembrance of Saint Metrophanes was also his dying request that prayers be said for him. For this purpose the saint, even during his lifetime, had built a chapel at the cathedral in honor of the holy Archangel Michael (his patron saint), and in it a special priest served the Liturgy. Although succeeding generations did not know the saint, they also revered his memory. veracity of the sainthood of the first hierarch of the Voronezh diocese was also confirmed by his incorrupt relics, attested during their repeated transfers from one temple to another. In the year 1718, Metropolitan Pachomius of Voronezh, about to begin the construction of a new cathedral, gave orders to demolish the old Annunciation cathedral. The body of Saint Metrophanes was temporarily transferred into the church of the Unburnt Bush. In 1735, the body of Saint Metrophanes was transferred into the new cathedral, during which time the incorrupt state of his relics was again observed. At the place of the burial of the saint, panikhidas were customarily served for him. 1820 it was noticed that the number of those venerating Saint Metrophanes and thronging to Voronezh, had extraordinarily increased. Grace-filled signs also increased. Archbishop Anthony II of Voronezh made repeated reports to the Holy Synod about the miracles, and he petitioned for a resolution for the glorification of the saint. The Holy Synod then prescribed that records be kept of miracles at the grave of Saint Metrophanes. In the year 1831, after seeing the incorrupt body of the saint, Archbishop Anthony together with commission members of the Holy Synod, Archbishop Eugenius of Yaroslavl and Archimandrite Hermogenes of the Moscow Savior-Androniev monastery, became convinced in the miraculous intercession of Saint Metrophanes before the Throne of God. The Holy Synod then issued its resolution adding Saint Metrophanes to the ranks of the Saints. Since then, the Russian Church celebrates the memory of the saint twice during the year: November 23, the day of his repose, and August 7, the day of his glorification. Anthony II (1827-1846) established in the Voronezh also the following feastdays in honor of Saint Metrophanes: June 4, the Feast of his namesake Saint Metrophanes, Patriarch of Constantinople; April 2, the saint’s day of consecration as bishop in 1682; and December 11, the day of the transfer of the relics of Saint Metrophanes in 1831. Metrophanes left behind a Spiritual Testament. Its original is preserved in the State Historical Museum. Upon the testament is the unique authoritative signature of the saint: “This spiritual dictate is attested to by me... Bishop Metrophanes of Voronezh.” the lower cover (inside) is an inscription from the eighteenth century: “This is the book of testament or last will of the Voronezh schemamonk Macarius, written in the God-saved city of Voronezh, in the house of His Grace the bishop and schemamonk Macarius, who reposed in the month of November on the 23rd day in the year 1703, and was buried on the 4th day of December.” the day preceding the Uncovering of the Relics of Saint Metrophanes, Archbishop Anthony of Voronezh went to church, so as to lay out the new vestments prepared for the relics. Suddenly, he felt so weak that he was barely able to go about his cell. Troubled by this, he sat and pondered and then he heard a quiet voice: “ Do not transgress my legacy.” he did not understand right away, and instead thinking about his own plans, he gathered up his strength and opened the closet where the vestments were, and there he caught sight of the monastic schema, brought shortly before this by an unknown monk who had entrusted it to him and said that it soon would be needed. this monastic schema, the hierarch then realized that the words, “Do not transgress my legacy,” was actually the will of Saint Metrophanes, that they not place upon his relics bishop’s vestments, but rather to clothe them in the schema. By this and by his extreme humility, he indicated the deep spiritual connection with his patronal saint (in schema), Saint Macarius of Unzhensk.

Voronezh Region, Scythia (Between the Don and Khopyor River)
Voronezh Oblast, Main rivers: Don Voronezh Bityug Khopyor ; Hieromartyr and Metropolitan of Moscow and Krutitsy, Peter Polyansky, Commemorated September 27 ; Hieromartyr and Metropolitan of Moscow and Krutitsy, Peter Polyansky, Commemorated on October 10 ; Icon of the Mother of God œthe Rescuer of the DrowningÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ; St Tikhon the Bishop of Amathus in Cyprus, Commemorated on June 16 ;

Don River 9 (Ostrogozhsk)

Ostrogozhsk, Scythia (Don River 9)
Ostrogozhsk District; Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5; The Divnogorsk-Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God received the first part of its title from where it was enshrined when it was glorified: the Dormition monastery of Divnogorsk, in the former Ostrogozhsk district in Voronezh governance. Its title of "Sicilian" comes from its place of origin

Tikha Sosna (Quiet Pine) River

Tikha Sosna [Quiet Pine] River Mouth (Don River 9)
Icon of the Mother of God "the Rescuer of the Drowning", Commemorated February 5;

Divnogorsk, Scythia (Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna)
Divnogorsk, Wondering Heights, Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna; Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Rescuer of the Drowning"Â, Commemorated on February 5;

Wondering Heights, Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna
Wondering Heights, Chalk Clifts, Mouth of the Tikha Sosna; Icon of the Mother of God "œthe Rescuer of the Drowning"Â, Commemorated on February 5;

Don River 10 (Bityug River Mouth)

Bityug River Mouth (Don River 10)

Don River 11 (Khopvor River Mouth)

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 11, Khopyor River Folder

Khopyor River

Khopyor River Source (Volga Upland)

Khopyor River 1 (Balashov)

Khopror River 2 ( Borisoglebsk)

Khopror River 4 (Uryupinsk)

Kh River Mouth (Serafimovich)

Khopror River 3(Novokhopyorsk)

Verona River

Verona River Source (Volga Upland)

Vorona River 1

Verona River 2

Verona (Ust) River 3

Vorona River Mouth (Khopyor River)

Boris and Gleb (Borisoglebsk) monastery
Borisoglebsk; St Paul of Rostov;

Khopyor River Mouth (Don River 11)

Don River 12 (Sarai)

Don River 13 (Greben)

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 13, Chira River Folder

Chir River

Chir River Source
Chir River

Chira River Mouth (Greben, Don River 13)

Greben (Chira River Mouth at Don River)
Greben (Chira River Mouth at Don River); Icon of the Mother of God of Greben, Commemorated July 28 ; Greben Icon of the Mother of God, glorified by miracles and located in a church in the city of Greben (on the River Chira, flowing into the Don), was presented by the inhabitants of the city to Great Prince Demetrius of the Don upon his return from the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. 1471, after a successful campaign against Novgorod, Great Prince Ivan III built the church of the Dormition in Moscow at Lubyanka and placed in it the Greben icon of the Mother of God, which he had taken with him on the campaign. He adorned the icon with a silver riza covered with precious stones, and ordered an Akathist to be written in honor of the icon. When the church burned in 1617, the icon miraculously was preserved. The icon, almost a reverse image of the Iveron icon (February 12, March 31, October 13), is recognized by the distinctive folds of the Virgin’s omaphorion and the position of the Christ Child’s legs.

Pontic steppe
Pontic steppe;

Don River 14 (Novocherkassk, Rostov on Don)

Novocherkassk, Scythia (Don River 14)
Novocherkassk; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9;

Rostov on Don (Don River 14)
Rostov on Don (Don River 14); St Paul of Rostov, Commemorated October 22 ; Venerable Joseph of Optina, Commemorated on May 9; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30;

Rostov on Don Cathedral, 1860
Rostov on Don Cathedral, 1860;

Ascension Cathedral or Novocherkassk Cathedral, Rostov, Scythia, 1904
Ascension Cathedral or Novocherkassk Cathedral, Rostov, Scythia; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14;

Rostov Oblast, Rostov on Don
Rostov Oblast;

Romanov, Rostov on Don, Russia (Don River 13.5)
Romanov, Rostov on Don, Russia; Kazan-Yaroslavl Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on July 8;

Ordinsk, Rostov on Don, Orlovsky
Ordinsk, Rostov, Orlovsky; Saint Peter, Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30; Peter, Prince of the Horde, was the nephew of Bergai Khan of the Golden Horde. the year 1253 Saint Cyril, Bishop of Rostov (May 21), went to the Horde to petition for church needs in his diocese and he told the khan about the Christian Faith, and of the miracles and healings worked by the relics of Saint Leontius of Rostov (May 23). the retinue was the young nephew of the khan, upon whom the holy bishop made a very strong impression. After some length of time the son of Bergai fell ill. the account of the Russian bishop about the healings, he summoned Saint Cyril, and through his prayers the sick one was healed. The khan richly rewarded Saint Cyril and sent him off to his diocese. the way the lad, the nephew of Bergai Khan, overtook the holy hierarch, and entreated him to take him along to Rostov. At Rostov the boy was baptized with the name Peter, and he married. Saint Peter distinguished himself with a love for silence, contemplation, and prayer. After a miraculous appearance to him of the Apostles Peter and Paul he built a monastery near Lake Nera in their honor. After the death of his wife, shortly before his own death in 1290, the saint embraced monasticism at the monastery he had founded. veneration of the holy Prince Peter began in the fourteenth century. A general celebration was established at the Council of 1547.

Mongol, Scythia, Don River 14, Seversky Donets Folder

Seversky Donets River

Seversky Donets River Source (Central Russian Upland)
Central Russian Upland;

Seversky Donets River 1 (Belogorod)

Belgorod, Scythia (Seversky Donets River 1)
Belgorod; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; Uncovering of the relics of St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated September 4 ; St Joasaph the Bishop of Belgorod, Commemorated on December 10 ; St Sophronius the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on March 30;

Kharkov, Scythia (High Point, Source of 3 Rivers, Seversky Donets River1)
Kharkov governance; Icon of the Mother of God of Ozerianka, Commemorated on October 30 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on February 5; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5 ; Icon of the Mother of God "the Seeker of the Lost", Commemorated February 5; Saint Meletius, Archbishop of Khar'kov and Akhtyrsk, Commemorated on February 12; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; Icon of the Mother of God of Akhtyr, Commemorated on July 2 ;

Polovetsians (Cumans), Zmiiv, Muravsky Trail 3
Polovetsians (Cumans), Zmiiv, Muravsky Trail 3; Martyr and Confessor Michael the Wonderworker of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 20;

Seversky Donets River 2 (Sviyahsk Monastery)

Sviatogorsk ("Holy Hill") Dormition monastery (Seversky Donets River 2)
Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk; Saint Ioannikios, Father Confessor of the Dormition Holy Mountain Hermitage, Commemorated on February 10;

Holy Mountain Hermitage in Kharkhov Province (Seversky Donets River 2)
Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk; Saint Ioannikios, Father Confessor of the Dormition Holy Mountain Hermitage, Commemorated on February 10;

Sviyazhsk Dormition monastery (Seversky Donets 2)
First Translation of the relics of St Herman the Archbishop of Kazan;

Sviatogorsk, near Sloviansk ((Seversky Donets River 2)
city of Sviatogorsk, near Sloviansk ; Icon of the Mother of God of Sviatogorsk, Commemorated July 17 ;

Ozeryanivka, Scythia (near Seversky Donets River 2)
Ozeryanivka, Scythia (near Seversky Donets River 2); Ozerianka Icon of the Mother of God of Shuiu-Smolensk, Commemorated on November 2;

Don Cossacks, Don River, Donbass Region, Donetsk Side
Don Cossacks, Donbass Region, Donetsk Side; Don Cossacks; Donbass Region, Both sides of the Seversky Donets River; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17;

Seversky Donets River 3

Seversky Donets River Mouth (Don River 14)

Don Cossacks, Donbass Region, Luhansk Side
Don Cossacks, Donbass Region, Luhansk Side; Don Cossacks, Donbass Region, Donetsk Side; Don Cossacks; Donbass Region, Both sides of the Seversky Donets River; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17;

Don River Mouth (Sea of Azov)

Azov, Scythia (Don River, Azov Sea)
Azov (Don River, Azov Sea); St Metrophanes (in schema Macarius) the Bishop of Voronezh, Commemorated November 23 ;

Olshansk, Scythia (Azov, Don River, near Crimea)
Olshansk in the early 1500's was approximately the area Azov Governate of the 1700's; Uncovering of the relics of Holy Princess Juliana Olshanskaya, Commemorated on July 6;

Mongol, Scythia, Don River, Muravsky Trail Folder

Muravsky Trail
Muravsky Trail To avoid major river crossings, the route followed the high ground between the basins of the Dnieper and Don, making an almost straight line from the Dnieper bend to Tula. It ran mostly through thinly populated tallgrass steppe country ('Muravi is an old Slavic word for prairie or grassland) avoiding forests, marshes and river crossings. ;

Muravsky Trail 1 (Perekop)
Muravsky Trail To avoid major river crossings, the route followed the high ground between the basins of the Dnieper and Don, making an almost straight line from the Dnieper bend to Tula. It ran mostly through thinly populated tallgrass steppe country ('MuravÃƒÂƒÃ‚ÂƒÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â¡' is an old Slavic word for prairie or grassland) avoiding forests, marshes and river crossings. ;

Muravsky Trail 2 (Parallel to the Sea of Azov)

Muravsky Trail 3 (east of Dnieper 6 and west of Donets 3)

Polovetsians (Cumans) Chuhuiv, Muravsky Trail 3
Polovetsians (Cumans) Chuhuiv, Muravsky Trail 3; Martyr and Confessor Michael the Wonderworker of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 20;

Muravsky Trail 4 (west of Donets River Source)

Muravsky Trail 5 (Stary Oskol)

Muravsky Trail 6 (Livny)

Muravsky Trail 7 (Tula)

Tula, Kaluga, Russia (Upa River 1, Muravsky Trail 7)
Tula, Russia (Upa River 1); Synaxis of the Saints of Tula, Commemorated on September 22 ; Venerable Leonid of Optina; Venerable Polycarp of Briansk, Commemorated February 23 ;

Muravsky Trail 9 (Serpukhov, crossing at Oka River 6)
Muravsky Trail To avoid major river crossings, the route followed the high ground between the basins of the Dnieper and Don, making an almost straight line from the Dnieper bend to Tula. It ran mostly through thinly populated tallgrass steppe country ('MuravÃƒÂƒÃ‚ÂƒÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â¡' is an old Slavic word for prairie or grassland) avoiding forests, marshes and river crossings. ;

Mongol, Scythia, Dniester River Folder (Eastern Moldovia)

Dniester River

Dniester River Source (Ukranian Carpathians near Drohobych)
Dniester River Source: Ukranian Carpathians near Drohobych.

Dniester River 1 (Ukraine)

Dniester River 2 (Galich, Ukraine)

Galicia, Moldovia (Halychia, Eastern Europe, Dniester River 2)
Galicia (Eastern Europe); Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated October 1 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Macariev, Commemorated on September 17 ; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ;

Galich, Moldovia (Halych) Ukraine (Dniester River 2) Vladimir the Great, 900's
Galich, (Halych) Ukraine (Dniester River 2); Icon of the Mother of God of Macariev, Commemorated on September 17 ; Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated October 1 ; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ;

Halych, Moldovia (Galich) Ukraine (Dniester River 2) Vladimir the Great, 900's
Galich, (Halych) Ukraine (Dniester River 2); Icon of the Mother of God of Macariev, Commemorated on September 17 ; Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated October 1 ; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ;

Dniester River 3 (Ukraine)

Dniester River 4 (Seret River Mouth)

Dniester River 5 (Khotyn, Smotrych River Mouth)

Khotyn, Ukraine (Dniester River 5)
Khotyn or Khutin; Venerable Barlaam of Khutin, Commemorated on June 24;

Kamenets Podolski, Moldovia or Ukraine (Smotrych Mouth, Dniester 5)
Kamenets Podolski, Ukraine or Moldovia ; Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated October 1 ;

Dniester River 6 (entering Moldova)

Dniester River 7 (near Podoha)

Podolia, Moldovia (Dniester River 7)
Podolia; St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Repose of St Theodosius of Chernigov, Commemorated on February 5 ;

Dniester River 8 (Dubasari, Moldova)

Dniester River 9 (Bender, Moldova)

Gerbovets monastery (Dniester River 9, Bessarabia, Romania or Moldovia)
Gerbovets monastery (Bessarabia, Romania) ; Bessarabia, Romania, Bassarabia is a historical term for the geographic region in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the east and the Prut River on the west; Icon of the Mother of God of Gerbovets, Commemorated on October 1 ;

Kishinev, Bassarabia, Moldovia
Kishinev, Bassarabia, Moldovia; Icon of the Mother of God of Gerbovets, Commemorated on October 1;

Bessarabia, Moldovia, Romania (area between Prut and Dniester Rivers)
Bessarabia, Moldovia, Romania; Icon of the Mother of God of Gerbovets, Commemorated on October 1;

Dniester River Mouth (near Odessa, Black Sea)

Mongol, Scythia, Lesser Scythia Folder (Dacia Pontica)

Scythia, Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica, from Moldavia and Transylvania (Dacia) to Pontine)
Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica); Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated July 7 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated on July 7 ; Martyr Epictetus the Presbyter at Halmyris, Commemorated on July 8;

Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica, from Moldavia and Transylvania (Dacia) to Pontine)
Lesser Scythia (in Dacia Pontica); Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated July 7 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Meletius, Archbishop of Kharkov and Akhtyr, Commemorated on February 28; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated on July 7 ; Martyr Epictetus the Presbyter at Halmyris, Commemorated on July 8;

Dacia Pontica (Lesser Scythia, Dacia (Transylvania) to Pontus)
Dacia Pontica: from Transylvania thru Lesser Scythia to Pontus Dacia; Pontica; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated July 7 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica (Dobrogea), Commemorated on February 28; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated on July 7 ; Martyr Epictetus the Presbyter at Halmyris, Commemorated on July 8;

Tomis, Lesser Scythia (Constantsa, in Dacia Pontica)
Tomis (Constantsa); Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated July 7 ; Martyr Macrobius at Tomis in Romania, Commemorated September 13 ; Saint Vetranion of Tomis, Commemorated on January 25; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica (Dobrogea), Commemorated on February 29; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyr Evangelicus the Bishop of Tomis, Constanta in Romania, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Niculitel and Cocosh Monastery, Lesser Scythia
Niculits›el; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4;

Noviodunum, Lesser Scythia (Isacea, Danube River 17)
Noviodunum (Isacea); Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4;

Tulcea County, Lesser Scythia
Tulcea County; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4;

Halmyris (in Lesser Scythia on Danube)
Halmyris (in Scythia on Danube); Epictetus and Astion, Commemorated July 8 ; Martyr Epictetus the Presbyter at Halmyris, Commemorated on July 8;

Mongol, Scythia, Volga River Folder

Annunciation Monastery (Tolyatti, Volga River 12)
Annunciation Monastery (Tolyatti);

Astrakhan, Scythia (Volga River Mouth, North Caspian Sea)
Astrakhan (Volga River Mouth); Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Venerable John, Bishop of Manglisi, Commemorated on March 28; St Joseph the Metropolitan of Astrakhan, Commemorated on May 11

Atil, Scythia, 765-969. Capital of the Khazars (Volga River Mouth)
Atil, Scythia, 765-969. Capital of the Khazars; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11;

Black Ravine (Chernyi Yar), about 250 K up the River from Astrackhan, the child Bogolep, schema
Black Ravine (Chernyi Yar), about 250 K up the River from Astrackhan Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Child Schemamonk Bogolep was the son of a Moscow nobleman Iakov Lukich Ushakov and his wife Katherine. He was born in 1660 at Moscow. At Baptism they gave him the name Boris, in honor of the holy Passion-Bearer Boris (July 24). was appointed voevoda (military-commander) in the city of Chernyi Yar (Black Ravine), situated 250 versts from Astrakhan. He was known for his integrity. From infancy Boris displayed unusual traits. On Wednesdays and Fridays he would not drink milk from his mother’s breasts. When the bells pealed at the church, he began to cry, and became quiet only when they brought him into the church. When they did not take the infant to church, he cried all day and ate nothing. 1662 a deadly pestilence spread about in Russia. The child fell ill, and the pestilence afflicted him in the legs. He became lame, but continued to walk to church. The parents prayed for the health of their son and they tried everything in their power to heal him. But no sooner had the one illness gone, than upon his face there appeared another, called scales. during his illness the child saw a wandering monk who visited at their home. The angelic garb so impressed the child, that he began to implore his parents to sew him such clothing and permit him to receive monastic tonsure. The holy child proclaimed: “You will see for yourselves, when you tonsure and grant me the angelic garb, I shall be well.” The parents consented. The child was invested in the schema with the name Bogolep (the Russian version of the Greek name Theoleptos, meaning “similar to God”). the next day the child schemamonk was completely healthy, his face was clear and there remained no trace of the illness. But on the third day there was a new illness, he developed a fever, and it struck down the child. He died on August 1, 1667 and was buried at the left wall of the wooden Black Ravine church in honor of the Resurrection of Christ. (This church was built after a great fire in Black Ravine, on July 24, 1652 the Feast of Saint Boris). A chapel was built over the grave of the child. Life of the holy Schemamonk Bogolep was compiled under a vow by the Black Ravine merchant Savva Tatarinov during the years 1731-1732. of the saint, with the Troparion and Kontakion to him, were widely dispersed throughout the Astrakhan region. 1750 on the place of the wooden church a stone church was built with a side-altar in honor of the holy Martyr John the Warrior. The grave of the holy schemamonk was enclosed in this side altar. bank of the river, where the church of the Resurrection of Christ stood, was constantly eroding. By the mid-nineteenth century the structure of the church was threatened, and they removed all the holy things from it. For a long time the people of Black Ravine did not remove the chief holy object: the grave of the holy schemamonk. Finally, in 1851 when the water had already approached 4 ft. 8 inches, the people petitioned the Most Holy Synod with a request to transfer the holy relics of the Schemamonk Bogolep, and they received permission for this. The small child’s coffin was laid bare, but just when the city head took it into his hands, it slid out of his hands and disappeared into the waters of the Volga. disappearance of the relics just at the opening of the grave was accepted as the Will of God, since the holy child had repeatedly appeared to many either in sleep, or awake while walking along the river bank, or coming down the hill. He consoled them, promising that he would be present spiritually with believers. simple life of the holy Schemamonk Bogolep, full of the mysteries of God, illustrates the words of the Savior concerning children: “Let the children come unto Me and forbid them not, for of such is the Kingdom of God. Truly I say to you, whosoever shall not receive the Kingdom of God as a little child, shall not enter therein. And He took them up in His arms, put His hands upon them, and blessed them” (Mark 10: 14-16). pray to Saint Bogolep for children, and also for protection against lightning.

Bolghar, Scythia (Kama River Mouth, Volga River 10)
Bolghar or Bolgara; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Kazaria, Scythia (Volga River Mouth)
Kazaria; St Olga the Princess of Russia, in Holy Baptism Called Helen, Commemorated on July 11; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Mongol, Scythia, Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria, land of the Volga Bulgars; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Samara, Scythia (Volga River 13)
Samara, Russia; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1;

Sarai (city), Scythia
Sarai (city); St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Saratov, Scythia (Volga River 14)
Saratov (Volga River 14) ; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ;

Scythia, Volga Region - Land of the Tartars
Volga Region - Land of the Tartars; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7;

Volga Region - Land of the Tartars
Volga Region - Land of the Tartars; Martyr Peter of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Repose of St Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31; St Tikhon the Patriarch of Moscow, and Enlightener of North America, Commemorated on April 7;

Tetyakov, Sythia (Volga River 11)
Tetyushi; In 1277, the allied forces of the Russian princes, in union with the Tatar forces, took part in a campaign in the Osetian land and in the taking of "its famed city Tetyakov."; St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated September 19 ;

Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria, land of the Volga Bulgars; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Volga-Kama Bulghar
Volga Bulgaria, land of the Volga Bulgars; Child Schemamonk Bogolep, Commemorated on July 29; Venerable Hilarion of Optina, Commemorated September 18 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1;

Kamska Bulgars, Volga-Kama Bulghar

Mongol, Scythia, Ural River Folder

Ural River

Orenburg, Scythia (Ural River 4)
Orenburg ; Orenburg Cossacks; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1;

Orenburg Cossacks, Russia, 1734-1916
Russia, 1734-1916, Orenburg Cossacks; Venerable Barsanuphius of Optina, Commemorated on April 1;

Kartalin District, Scythia
Kartalin District; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ;

Kartaly (Kahetin), Scythia (a crossroads)
Kartaly (Kahetin), Scythia; Kartalin District; St Vladimir, Metropolitan of Kiev and Gallich, Commemorated January 25 ;

Ural River Source (Southern Ural Mountains)

Ural River 1 (Magnitogorsk)

Ural River 2 (Orsk)

Ural River 3

Ural River 4 (Orenburg)

Sakmara River Mouth (Ural River 4)

Ural River 5

Ural River Mouth (Caspian Sea)

Mongol, Scythia, Sarmatae, Lower Dnieper River Area of Ukraine

Mongol, Scythia, Sarmatae, Lower Dnieper River Area, Not Asian
Mongol, Scythia, Sarmatae, Lower Dnieper River Area, Not Asian; Mongol, Scythia, Sarmatae, Lower Dnieper River Area of Ukraine; Martyr Romulus and with him many others, Commemorated on September 6;

Mongol, China Folder, its major rivers

China (Mongol China)
China; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906) ; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910) ; FRANCIS XAVIER, Missionary to the Far East, 1552, Commemorated December 3 ; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; Repose of St John of Kronstadt; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Icon of the Mother of God œThe Word was made Flesh, Commemorated on March 9; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ; Blessed Dovmont (Timothy) the Prince of Pskov, Commemorated on May 20 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Mongol, China, 1260-“1368, Mongol-Tartar Capital - Dadu (Peking or Beijing)
1260-“1368 Mongol-Tartar Capital - Dadu (Peking or Beijing); Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, China, 1368-1644, Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty;

Mongol, China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty
China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ;

Mongol, China, 1899-1901, Boxer Rebellion, Anti Christian
Boxer Rebellion; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂœThe Word was made FleshÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on March 9 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Mongol, China, Republic of China, 1912-1949
China, Republic of China, 1912-1949; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31;

Mongol, China, 1915-1916, Empire of China
China, 1915-1916, Empire of China ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1927-1949, Chinese Civil War, Nationalist vs. Communist
Chinese Civil War 1927-1949;

Mongol, China History Folder

Mongol, China, 1260-1368, Mongol Tartar Capital Peking Folder, Yuan Dynasty

Mongol, China, 1251-1259, Golden Horde Khan, Mongke Khan, Christian, converted by Nevsky
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1251-1259, Mongke Khan; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, China, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old, Christian
Scythia, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, China, 1257-1266, Batu's brother Berke (Bergai) Khan, Blue Horde and White Horde, Moslem, but allied w Nevsky
Scythia, 1257-1266, Berke Khan ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, China, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan, Yuan Dynasty, China, Mongolia, Korea, Buddist, M Polo
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan ; (/ËˆkuËblaÉª/; Mongolian: Ð¥ÑƒÐ±Ð¸Ð»Ð°Ð¹, romanized: Hubilai; Chinese: å¿½å¿…çƒˆ; pinyin: Hūbìliè; 23 September  1215 – 18 February 1294), also known as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan, was the fifth khagan-emperor[note 1] of the Mongol Empire (Ikh Mongol Uls), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although after the division of the empire this was a nominal position). He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294. was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[2] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[3][4][5] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, from Siberia to what is now Afghanistan.[6] 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, and some adjacent areas; he also amassed influence in the Middle East and Europe as a Khagan. He assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to unite all of China proper. imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei. White, the color of the royal costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of the Yuan dynasty.[7] 1 Early years 2 Victory in North China 3 Enthronement and civil war 4 Reign 4.1 Great Khan of the Mongols 4.2 Emperor of the Yuan dynasty 4.2.1 Scientific developments and relations with minorities 4.2.2 Continuation of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices 5 Warfare and foreign relations 5.1 Tibet and Xinjiang 5.2 Kublai's annexation of Goryeo 5.3 Further naval expansion 5.4 Invasions of Japan 5.5 Invasions of Vietnam 5.6 Southeast Asia and South Seas 5.7 Europe 5.8 Africa 6 Capital City 6.1 Xanadu 7 Nayan's rebellion 8 Later years 9 Family 9.1 Wives and sons 9.2 Daughters 10 Poetry 11 Legacy 12 In popular culture 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15.1 Citations 15.2 Sources 16 Further reading 17 External links years[edit] Khan was the fourth son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River.[8] Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Khagan (Mongol emperor) Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei, was enthroned as Khagan in 1229.[citation needed] the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.[citation needed] most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold).[9] Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist), and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing.[10] Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic.[11] in North China[edit] of young Kublai by Anige, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China. received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of Henan, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving Xi'an. acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty. 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his Chinese associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials.[12] 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he asked the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.[13] Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali King Duan Xingzhi (æ®µèˆˆæ™º) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.[14] Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan.[15] was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the Kingdom of Qocho (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished.[16] Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.[citation needed] Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory.[17] Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts.[18][19][20][21] Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of the Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).[citation needed] “The Emperor Kublai Khan in a tower carried by four elephants on the day of the battle“ French Engraving, 18th century. 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan, near the Yangtze. While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him.[citation needed] The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states.[22] Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao. and civil war[edit] article: Toluid Civil War received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plains.[23] he reached Mongolia, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum, which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu, opposed this. Kublai's Chinese staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in North China and Manchuria supported his candidacy.[24] returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the Borjigin lines except that of Jochi. This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become khan.[citation needed] Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next Great Khan at the Grand Kurultai in the year 1260. Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a Jami al-Twarikh (or Chingiznama). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31 [1] led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals.[25] To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou, but Jia broke his promise and arrested them.[26] Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu, crowned khan of Chagatai's territory. the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan, son of Ögedei Khan. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to Han Chinese warlords.[citation needed] Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.[27] When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai, Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, at first accepted Kublai's invitation.[28][29] However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters. Khan of the Mongols[edit] invasions and conquests mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258), and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire.[30] Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.[31] Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde.[32][33] The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime.[24][34] also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana, the empress of the Chagatai Khanate, who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death. Kaidu of the House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel.[35] This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.[citation needed] Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus.[36] 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrender his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy.[37] Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back.[37] called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander.[38] Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China.[39] The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there.[40] renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?"[41][42] Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan.[43][44] Defections from Kublai's Dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces. of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Han Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280. Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song, were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye.[citation needed] succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign.[43] Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China.[45] However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258), Sakhalin (1264), Burma (1277), Champa (1282), and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–8), and the invasion of Java (1293) failed. the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form a grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.[citation needed] son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids.[43] Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq. of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the Mongolian script, dated 1289. French National Archives. In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam (dhabihah) or Judaism (kashrut), which offended Mongolian custom.[46] Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the execution of Ahmad Fanakati, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor.[citation needed] niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke, Köchü, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes.[47] The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai.[48] Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.[49][50][51][52] of the Yuan dynasty[edit] also: Timeline of the Yuan dynasty Yuan Dynasty of China, c. 1294 Khan considered China his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.[53] From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng, and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.[54] also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor, giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks. 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.[55][56] In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their[whose?] corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.[citation needed] the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu (Chinese: å¤§éƒ½; Wade–Giles: Ta-tu; lit. 'Grand Capital', known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu (Chinese: ä¸Šéƒ½; lit. 'Upper Capital', also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor). unify China,[57] Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into the sea and ending the Song dynasty.[58] opera flourished during Yuan China. of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor.[59] This included China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.[60][61] The Central Region (Chinese: è…¹è£) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268.[62] the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean.[62] In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.[63] Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on.[64][65] In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins.[66] In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall.[67] It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.[citation needed] Sangha was a Tibetan.[68] A rich merchant from the Madurai Sultanate, Abu Ali, was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of Chaesongnyeon during the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo according to the Dongguk Tonggam, Goryeosa and Liu Mengyan's ZhÅng'ÄnjÃ.[69][70] encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjià, (Mysterious Order).[71] Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Europeans visited the empire, notably Marco Polo in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.[citation needed] the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79] The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.[80] developments and relations with minorities[edit] "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang. Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.[81] Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who became administrator of Yunnan. He was a well learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China. Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of the Yuan capitol). Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi.[82] Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar. cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced the knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants.[citation needed] physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna's works were also published in China during that period.[83] mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry, Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China.[84] brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented the Muslim trebuchet (or Huihui Pao), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang.[85] of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices[edit] Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish (kashrut) or Muslim (dhabihah) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision was also strictly forbidden.[86][87][88] and foreign relations[edit] also: Kublai Khan's campaigns, Mongol military tactics and organization, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty Yuan dynasty hand cannon Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian units.[89][90][91] Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.[92] Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.[citation needed] and Xinjiang[edit] 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya monasteries. The Chagatayid khan, Duwa, helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin.[93] Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu, killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.[citation needed] annexation of Goryeo[edit] also: Korea under Yuan rule and Mongol invasions of Korea dragons chasing a flaming pearl was a symbol associated with Goryeo Sumiyabaatar/ Ð‘. Ð¡ÑƒÐ¼ÑŒÑÐ°Ð±Ð°Ð°Ñ‚Ð°Ñ€, "Ð¥ÑƒÐ±Ð¸Ð»Ð°Ð¹ Ð˜Ñ… Ð¥Ð°Ð°Ð½Ñ‹ Ò¯ÐµÐ¸Ð¹Ð½ ÐœÐ¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð» – Ð¡Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾ÑÑ‹Ð½ Ñ…Ð°Ñ€Ð¸Ð»Ñ†Ð°Ð°", "Relationship between Mongolia and Korea during Kubilai Khan rule", 439p, 2015, ISBN 978-99973-302-5-3 Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo (the state on the Korean Peninsula) and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan.[94][95][96][97][98] Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.[citation needed] naval expansion[edit] Gangnido reflects the Chinese geographical knowledge during the Mongol Empire about countries in the West.[99] Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Song Dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.[100] of Japan[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Japan Japanese samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. MÅko ShÅ«rai Ekotoba (è’™å¤è¥²æ¥çµµè©ž), circa 1293. Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongols, Semu, Koreans, Hui and Chinese people.[81][101] Because the Wokou extended support to the crumbling Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated invasions of Japan. Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.[102] second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Chinese, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to 240 feet (73 m) long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by 180 kilometres (110 miles). The Mongols easily took over Tsushima Island about halfway across the strait and then Iki Island closer to Kyushu. The Korean fleet reached Hakata Bay on June 23, 1281 and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen. Mongolian landing forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Akasaka and the Battle of Torikai-Gata. Takezaki Suenaga's samurai attacked the Mongolian army and fought them, as reinforcements led by Shiraishi Michiyasu arrived and defeated the Mongolians, who suffered around 3500 dead.[103] samurai warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the KÅan Campaign (å¼˜å®‰ã®å½¹) or the "Second Battle of Hakata Bay", the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships by the Samurai. The Japanese army was heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with two-meter high walls, and was easily able to repulse the Mongolian forces that were launched against it.[citation needed] samurai boarding Yuan ships in 1281. archaeologist Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of Takashima District, Shiga. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of Nagasaki.[104] David Nicolle wrote in The Mongol Warlords, "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.[105] soldiers, second version ships, second version of a 14th-century prized Yuan dynasty junk of Vietnam[edit] article: Mongol invasions of Vietnam Khan invaded Äáº¡i Viá»‡t (now Vietnam) three times, each repelled by the ruling Tráº§n dynasty. The ancestors of the Tráº§n clan originated from the province of Fujian and migrated to Äáº¡i Viá»‡t under Tráº§n Kinh é™³äº¬ (Chén JÄ«ng),[106] where their mixed-blooded descendants later established the Tráº§n dynasty and came to rule Äáº¡i Viá»‡t; despite many intermarriages between the Tráº§n and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Tráº§n Lý[107][108] and Tráº§n Thá»«a,[109] some of the mixed-blood descendants of the clan could still speak Chinese, as evidenced when a Yuan dynasty envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Tráº§n prince Tráº§n Quá»‘c Tuáº¥n (later Supreme Commander Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o) in 1282.[110][111][112][113][114] first incursion was in 1257, but the Tráº§n dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty between the Mongols and Äáº¡i Viá»‡t in the twelfth lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Tráº§n dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a darughachi.[115][116] However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Tráº§n king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of Champa, but the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t court refused. Kublai sent another envoy to the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t to demand that the Tráº§n king surrender his land and his kingship. The Tráº§n king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.[citation needed] his first failure, Kublai wanted to install Nhân Tông's brother Tráº§n Ãch Táº¯c – who had defected to the Mongols – as king of Annam (Äáº¡i Viá»‡t?), but hardship in the Yuan's supply base in Hunan and Kaidu's invasion forced Kublai to abandon his plans.[citation needed] second Mongol invasion of Äáº¡i Viá»‡t began late in 1284, when the Mongol Yuan forces under the command of Toghan, the prince of Kublai Khan, crossed the border and quickly occupied ThÄƒng Long (now Hanoi) in January 1285, after the victorious battle of Omar in Váº¡n Kiáº¿p (north east of Hanoi). At the same time Sogetu, second in command of the Yuan army, moved from Champa northward and rapidly marched to Nghe An in the north central region of Vietnam, where the army of the Tráº§n dynasty under general Tráº§n Kien was defeated and surrendered to him. However, the Tráº§n king and the commander-in-chief Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o changed their tactics from defence to attack and struck against the Mongols. In April, General Tráº§n Quang Kháº£i defeated Sogetu in ChÆ°Æ¡ng DÆ°Æ¡ng and the Tráº§n king won a battle in Tây Káº¿t, where Sogetu died. Soon after, general Tráº§n Nháºt Duáºt also won a battle in Hàm Tá» (now HÆ°ng Yên) and Toghan was defeated by General Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o. Thus Kublai failed in his first attempt to invade Äáº¡i Viá»‡t. Toghan hid himself inside a bronze pipe to avoid being killed by the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t archers; this act brought humiliation upon the Mongol Empire and Toghan himself.[citation needed] third Mongol invasion began in 1287. It was better organized than the previous effort; a large fleet and plentiful stocks of food were used. The Mongol Yuan forces, under the command of Toghan, moved to Váº¡n Kiáº¿p from the north west and met the infantry and cavalry of Kublai's Kipchak commander Omar (coming by another way along the Red River) and quickly won the battle. The naval fleet rapidly attained victory in Vân Äá»“n near Háº¡ Long Bay. However, the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t General Tráº§n Khánh DÆ° managed to intercept and captured the heavy, fully stocked cargo ships, filled with food and supplies for Toghan's army. As a result, the Mongolian army in ThÄƒng Long suffered an acute shortage of food. With no news about the supply fleet, Toghan ordered his army to retreat to Váº¡n Kiáº¿p. The Äáº¡i Viá»‡t army began their general offensive and recaptured a number of locations occupied by the Mongols. Groups of Äáº¡i Viá»‡t infantry were ordered to attack the Mongols in Váº¡n Kiáº¿p. Toghan had to split his army into two and retreated in 1288.[citation needed] early April 1288 the naval fleet, led by Omar and escorted by infantry, fled home along the Báº¡ch Äáº±ng river. As bridges and roads were destroyed and attacks were launched by Äáº¡i Viá»‡t troops, the Mongols reached Báº¡ch Äáº±ng without an infantry escort. Äáº¡i Viá»‡t's small flotilla engaged in battle and pretended to retreat. The Mongols eagerly pursued the Äáº¡i Viá»‡t troops only to fall into their pre-arranged battlefield. Thousands of small Äáº¡i Viá»‡t boats quickly appeared from both banks, launched a fierce attack that broke the Mongols' combat formation. The Mongols, meeting such a sudden and strong attack, in panic tried to withdraw to the sea. The Mongols' boats were halted, and many were damaged and sank. At that time, a number of fire rafts quickly rushed toward the Mongols, who were frightened and jumped down to reach the banks where they were dealt a heavy blow by an army led by the Tráº§n king and Tráº§n HÆ°ng Äáº¡o.[citation needed] Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Äáº¡i Viá»‡t's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Láº¡ng SÆ¡n. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to Yangzhou for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Tráº§n king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Tráº§n king, which continued to the end of the Yuan dynasty.[116][117] Asia and South Seas[edit] articles: First Mongol invasion of Burma and Mongol invasion of Java expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the Irrawaddy Delta, whereupon they captured Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom and established their government.[118] Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal suzerainty, but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s.[119] Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.[citation needed] Khan maintained close relations with Siam, in particular with prince Mangrai of Chiangmai and king Ram Khamheng of Sukhothai.[120] In fact, Kublai encouraged them to attack the Khmers after the Thais were being pushed southwards from Nanchao.[120][121][122] This happened after king Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire refused to pay tribute to the Mongols.[120][123][124] Jayavarman VIII was so insistent on not having to pay tribute to Kublai that he had Mongol envoys imprisoned.[120][124][122] These attacks from the Siamese eventually weakened the Khmer Empire. The Mongols then decided to venture south into Cambodia in 1283 by land from Champa.[125] They were able to conquer Cambodia by 1284.[126] Cambodia effectively became a vassal state by 1285 when Jayavarman VIII was finally forced to pay tribute to Kublai.[125][127][128] the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against Singhasari on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Chiang Mai had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.[118] articles: Marco Polo and Rabban Bar Sauma information: Europeans in Medieval China gives financial support to the Polo family. Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians – merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders – made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Chinese, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Rus, Persia, and Mesopotamia.[citation needed] Bar Sauma, ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and Ilkhan Arghun, travelled from Dadu to Rome, Tuscany, Genoa, Paris, and Bordeaux to meet with European rulers in 1287–88. the 13th century, the Sultanate of Mogadishu through its trade with medieval China had acquired enough of a reputation in Asia to attract the attention of Kublai Khan.[129] According to Marco Polo, the Mongol Emperor sent an envoy to Mogadishu to spy out the Sultanate but the delegation was captured and imprisoned. Kublai Khan then sent another envoy to treat for the release of the earlier Mongol delegation sent to Africa.[130] City[edit] White Stupa of Dadu (or Khanbaliq; now Beijing) Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in Xanadu on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's, Guo Shoujing, accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and armillary spheres that represented the celestial globe. Turkestani architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Chinese Dadu).[131] Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a Newar named Araniko, built the White Stupa that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.[132] advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a 30 km (19 mi) channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to Gansu to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.[citation needed] rebellion[edit] the conquest of the Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large appanages in Manchuria.[133] Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over Chang'an and Shanxi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria.[134] The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.[135] Yuan dynasty jade belt plaque featuring carved designs of the Azure Dragon, highly regarded as a symbol of Yuan dynasty China's maritime strength. by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, Nayan, a fourth-generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either Temüge or Belgutei, instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.[136]) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia.[137] Manchuria's native Jurchens and Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of Qasar, joined Nayan's rebellion,[138] and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.[139] rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of Chungnyeol of Goryeo assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.[139] Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of Liaoning but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the Khangai Mountains and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.[38] but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family.[140] Kublai harshly punished the darughachi appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.[141] This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.[citation needed] years[edit] section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ilkhanate Persia, Ghazan converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his suzerain. Khan dispatched his grandson Gammala to Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to ensure his claim to Ikh Khorig, where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the Central Siberian Plateau.[citation needed] his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son Zhenjin, who became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng and actively administered the dynasty according to Confucian fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the Golden Horde, expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).[citation needed] became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son Temür, who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.[citation needed] Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, China, 1260-“1368, Mongol-Tartar Capital - Dadu (Peking or Beijing)
1260-“1368 Mongol-Tartar Capital - Dadu (Peking or Beijing); Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, China, 1261, Through A Nevsky and Metrop Cyril III, at Sarai, GH capital, an Orthodox diocese was established
Sarai (city); St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19 ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated November 23; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21 ; St Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Basil the Prince of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on June 8 ; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God in memory of Saving of Moscow from the Invasion of Khan Achmed, Commemorated on June 23; St Peter the Prince of Ordinsk, Rostov, Commemorated on June 30 ;

Mongol, China, 1262-1300, Nogai Khan, a general and defacto ruler of GH, Moslem
Mongol, China, 1262-1300, Nogai Khan, a general and defacto ruler of GH;

Mongol, China, 1266-1280, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Mengu-Timur, pro Orthodox
Scythian Golder Horde Tartar Khan, 1266-1280, Mengu-Timur ; Right-believing Prince Roman of Ryazan, Commemorated on July 19; North Ossetia-“Alania; Khan Mengu-Temir, 1266-1280; Saint Theodore, Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, and his sons Saints David and Constantine, Commemorated on September 19; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, China, 1280-1287, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Tode Mongke, pro Orthodox
Mongol, China, 1280-1287, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Tode Mongke, pro Orthodox; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, China, 1287-1291, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Talabuga, pro Orthodox
Mongol, China, 1287-1291, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Talabuga, pro Orthodox; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, China, 1291-1312, Golden Horde Tartar Khan, Toqta, pro Orthodox
Scythian Golden Horde Tartar Khan, 1291-1312, Toqta; Repose of the Holy Right-believing Princess Anna of Kashin, Commemorated on October 2; Martyr Michael, Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22;

Mongol, China, 1312-1341, Golder Horde Tartar Khan, Oz Beg Khan, Khan Uzbekm, Moslem
Scythian Golder Horde Tartar Khan, 1312-1341, Oz Beg Khan, Khan Uzbek; Martyr Michael the Prince of Tver, Commemorated on November 22; Repose of St Peter the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on December 21;

Mongol, China, 1342-1357, Golder Horde Tartar Khan,Jani Beg, Moslem
Mongol, Scythia, 1342-1357, Golder Horde Tartar Khan,Jani Beg; St. Alexis the Metropolitan of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 12;

Mongol, China, 1360's, White,Blue, and Gray Hordes of the Golden Horde
White,Blue, Gray and Golden Hordes ; St Eudokia, in Monasticism Euphrosyne, the Grand Duchess of Moscow, Commemorated on July 7 ;

Mongol, China, 1368-1644, Ming Dynasty Folder

Mongol, China, 1368-1644, Ming Dynasty, 16th Century Trade with Europe
Ming Dynasty; Ming dynasty [7] officially the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by Han Chinese. Although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the Shun dynasty, soon replaced by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty), numerous rump regimes ruled by remnants of the Ming imperial family ”collectively called the Southern Ming ”survived until 1662.[d] Hongwu Emperor (r. 1368-“1398) attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty:[8] the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the navy's dockyards in Nanjing were the largest in the world.[9] He also took great care breaking the power of the court eunuchs[10] and unrelated magnates, enfeoffing his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the Huang-Ming Zuxun, a set of published dynastic instructions. This failed when his teenage successor, the Jianwen Emperor, attempted to curtail his uncles' power, prompting the Jingnan Campaign, an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the Yongle Emperor in 1402. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it Beijing, constructed the Forbidden City, and restored the Grand Canal and the primacy of the imperial examinations in official appointments. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa. rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances; the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the Great Wall of China into its modern form. Wide-ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially, but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures.[8] Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million,[11] but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples.[8] Haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from "Japanese" pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. the 16th century, however, the expansion of European trade “ albeit restricted to islands near Guangzhou such as Macau “ spread the Columbian Exchange of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing chili peppers to Sichuan cuisine and highly productive maize and potatoes, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of Japanese and American silver. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose paper money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the heterodoxy introduced by Wang Yangming permitted a more accommodating attitude. Zhang Juzheng's initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture produced by the Little Ice Age joined changes in Japanese and Spanish policy that quickly cut off the supply of silver now necessary for farmers to be able to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was himself defeated shortly afterward by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty.

Mongol, China, 1370-1380, Mongol Blue Horde Khan Mami, Sunni Moslem
Scythia, 1370-1380, Mongol Blue Horde Khan Mami; Intercession of the œDonÂ Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19;

Mongol, China, 1644-1912, Qing Dynasty Folder, 1685 Kangxi's Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1644-1699, 17th Century Folder, China Russia War of the Amur, Orthodox Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1643-1661, Qing dynasty Emperor, Shunzhi Emperor, chased Ming south, haircutting policy, small pox
Mongol, China, 1643-1661, Qing dynasty Emperor, Shunzhi Emperor ; Shunzhi Emperor (15 March 1638-5 February 1661) was the second Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the first Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigned from 1644 to 1661. committee of Manchu princes chose him to succeed his father, Hong Taiji (1592–1643), in September 1643, when he was five years old. The princes also appointed two co-regents: Dorgon (1612–1650), the 14th son of the Qing dynasty's founder Nurhaci (1559–1626), and Jirgalang (1599–1655), one of Nurhaci's nephews, both of whom were members of the Qing imperial clan. 1643 to 1650, political power lay mostly in the hands of Dorgon. Under his leadership, the Qing Empire conquered most of the territory of the fallen Ming dynasty (1368–1644), chased Ming loyalist regimes deep into the southwestern provinces, and established the basis of Qing rule over China proper despite highly unpopular policies such as the hair cutting command of 1645, which forced Qing subjects to shave their forehead and braid their remaining hair into a queue resembling that of the Manchus. After Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650, the young Shunzhi Emperor started to rule personally. He tried, with mixed success, to fight corruption and to reduce the political influence of the Manchu nobility. In the 1650s, he faced a resurgence of Ming loyalist resistance, but by 1661 his armies had defeated the Qing Empire's last enemies, seafarer Koxinga (1624–1662) and the Prince of Gui (1623–1662) of the Southern Ming dynasty, both of whom would succumb the following year. The Shunzhi Emperor died at the age of 22 of smallpox, a highly contagious disease that was endemic in China, but against which the Manchus had no immunity. He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who had already survived smallpox, and who reigned for sixty years under the era name Kangxi (hence he was known as the Kangxi Emperor). Because fewer documents have survived from the Shunzhi era than from later eras of the Qing dynasty, the Shunzhi era is a relatively little-known period of Qing history. was the name of this ruler's reign period in Chinese. This title had equivalents in Manchu and Mongolian because the Qing imperial family was Manchu and ruled over many Mongol tribes that helped the Qing to conquer the Ming dynasty. The emperor's personal name was Fulin, and the posthumous name by which he was worshipped at the Imperial Ancestral Temple was Shizu. China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; Icon of the Mother of God œThe Word was made FleshÂ, Commemorated on March 9;

Mongol, China, 1652-1695, China War of the Amur Region
Russia China War of the Amur Region (1652-1695) ; Icon of the Mother of God œThe Word was made FleshÂ, Commemorated on March 9;

Mongol, China, 1661-1722, Qing dynasty Emperor, Kangxi, prosperous time, P spiritual mission
China, 1661-1722, Qing dynasty Emperor, Kangxi Emperor; Kangxi Emperor (5 February 1654 – 20 December 1722), given name Xuanye, was the third Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper. Kangxi Emperor's reign of 61 years (from 1661 until 1722) makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history (although his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor, had the longest period of de facto power) and one of the longest-reigning rulers in the world.[1] However, since he ascended the throne at the age of seven, actual power was held for six years by four regents and his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang. Kangxi Emperor is considered one of China's greatest emperors.[2] He suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, forced the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan and assorted Mongol rebels in the North and Northwest to submit to Qing rule, and blocked Tsarist Russia on the Amur River, retaining Outer Manchuria and Outer Northwest China. Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated the period known as the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong" or "High Qing",[3] which lasted for several generations after his death. His court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary. China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on November 26;

Mongol, China, 1684-1686, Chinese Invasions of Albazin and Amur River
Siberia, Chinese Invasions of Albazin (1684-1686) ; Icon of the Mother of God œThe Word was made FleshÂ, Commemorated on March 9; Blessed Dovmont (Timothy) the Prince of Pskov, Commemorated on May 20;

Mongol, China, 1685, Qing dynasty Emperor, Kangxi's Peking Spiritual Mission
China, 1661-1722, Qing dynasty Emperor, Kangxi Emperor; China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on November 26;

Mongol, China, 1700-1799, I8th Century Folder, China Russia War of the Amur, Orthodox Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1722, Priest, Innocent of Irkutsk, appointment to Peking Spiritual Mission
Moscow, 1700-1731, Priest, Innocent of Irkutsk; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on November 26; Uncovering of the relics of St Innocent the Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on February 9;

Mongol, China, 1722-1735, Qing Emperor,Yongzheng, continued prosperous time and PSM, but blocked Innocent
China, 1722-1735, Qing dynasty Emperor,Yongzheng Emperor; China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated on November 26;

Mongol, China, 1800-1899, 19th Century History Folder, Boxer Rebellion, War of the Amur, Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1849-1910, CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, missionary to Asia, first China, then Japan, St Paul's Tokyo
Richmond, Virginia; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910) ; was born in Richmond, Virginia, in 1829, and ordained deacon in 1855. Episcopal Church sent him to China, where he was ordained priest in 1857. 1859 he was sent to Nagasaki, Japan, and in 1866 was consecrated Bishop of China and Japan. 1868 Japan was opened to far greater contact with the West than before, and he determined that he could achieve best results by concentrating his efforts on Japan. 1874 (or is that 1877?) a new bishop (Samuel Isaac Joseph Schereschewski, see October 14) was consecrated for China, Williams went to Tokyo (then called Edo or Yedo), where he founded what is now St Paul's University. 1878 he helped unite several mission efforts in the formation of the Nippon Sei Ko Kai, the Holy Catholic Church in Japan. 1889 his health began to fail, and he asked to be relieved. In 1893 a successor was appointed, and Williams stayed on, living in Kyoto and helping to open new mission stations. returned to America in 1908 and died 2 December 1910. by James Kiefer

Mongol, China, 1850-1861, Qing dynasty, Xianfeng Emperor, Taiping and Nian Rebellions, Second Opium War
China, Qing dynasty Emperor, 1850-1861, Xianfeng Emperor; Xianfeng Emperor (17 July 1831 - 22 August 1861), or by temple name Emperor Wenzong of Qing, given name Yizhu, was the eigth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the seventh Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigned from 1850 to 1861. During his reign the Qing dynasty experienced several wars and rebellions including the Taiping Rebellion, Nian Rebellion, and Second Opium War (Arrow War). He was the last Chinese emperor to have total executive ruling power. After his death, the Qing dynasty was controlled by Empress Dowager Cixi. China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910);

Mongol, China, 1861-1875, Qing Emperor, Tongzhi Emperor, Tongzhi Restoration, an unsuccessful modernization program
China, Qing dynasty Emperor, 1861-1875, Tongzhi Emperor; Tongzhi Emperor (27 April 1856 -12 January 1875), born Zaichun of the Aisin Gioro clan,[1] was the ninth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign, from 1861 to 1875, which effectively lasted through his adolescence, was largely overshadowed by the rule of his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi. Although he had little influence over state affairs, the events of his reign gave rise to what historians call the "Tongzhi Restoration", an unsuccessful modernization program. China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906), Commemorated 14 October; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22;

Mongol, China, 1875-1908, Qing dynasty Emperor, Guangxu Emperor, Empress Coup
China, Qing dynasty Emperor, 1875-1908, Guangxu Emperor; Guangxu Emperor (14 August 1871 -“ 14 November 1908),[1] personal name Zaitian,[2] was the tenth Emperor of the Qing dynasty,[3] and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign lasted from 1875 to 1908, but in practice he ruled, without Empress Dowager Cixi's influence, only from 1889 to 1898. He initiated the Hundred Days' Reform, but was abruptly stopped when the empress dowager launched a coup in 1898, after which he was put under house arrest until his death. His regnal name, "Guangxu", means "glorious succession". China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906), Commemorated 14 October; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22;

Mongol, China, 1899-1901, Boxer Rebellion (Shandong and North China Plain) against Christian Foreigners
Boxer Rebellion; The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-imperialist, anti-foreign, and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness, known in English as the Boxers because many of their members had practiced Chinese martial arts, also referred to in the Western world at the time as Chinese Boxing. in North China had been building resentment against Christian missionaries. immediate background of the uprising included severe drought and disruption by the growth of foreign spheres of influence after the Sino-Japanese War of 1895. several months of growing violence and murder in Shandong and the North China Plain against foreign and Christian presence in June 1900, Boxer fighters, convinced they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing with the slogan "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners." and Chinese Christians sought refuge in the Legation Quarter. response to reports of an invasion by the Eight Nation Alliance of American, Austro-Hungarian, British, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian troops to lift the siege, the initially hesitant Empress Dowager Cixi supported the Boxers on June 21 issued an Imperial Decree declaring war on the foreign powers. foreign civilians, and soldiers as well as Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter were besieged for 55 days by the Imperial Army of China and the Boxers. officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favoring conciliation, led by Prince Qing. supreme commander of the Chinese forces, the Manchu General Ronglu (Junglu), later claimed he acted to protect the foreigners. in the Mutual Protection of Southeast China ignored the imperial order to fight against foreigners. Eight-Nation Alliance, after being initially turned back, brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Army, and arrived at Peking on August 14, relieving the siege of the Legations. Uncontrolled plunder of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with summary execution of those suspected of being Boxers. Boxer Protocol of 7 September 1901 for the execution of government officials who had supported the Boxers, for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing, 450 million taels of silver ”approximately $10 billion at 2018 silver prices and more than the government's annual tax revenue ”to be paid as indemnity over the course of the next 39 years to the eight nations involved. Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; Icon of the Mother of God œThe Word was made Flesh, Commemorated on March 9 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Mongol, China, 1900-1912, 20th History Folder, Boxer Rebellion, War of the Amur, Peking Spiritual Mission

Mongol, China, 1901, Chang Tzi-tzung +221 otPeking Mission tortured killed,received incorruptible crowns oGlory
Peking (Hai River and Northern tip of North China Plain); Hieromartyr Metrophanes (Chang Tzi-tzung), first Chinese priest and the martyrs of the Boxer Rising in China, Commemorated on June 11; the great and saving day of Pentecost the Holy Spirit descended upon the Apostles, as Christ had promised (John 16:7-15). unlearned fishermen were made wise by divine grace, proclaiming the Gospel of Christ and teaching with authority. of them (except for Saint John the Theologian) sealed their labors with their own blood. was the beginning of the Church's mission to make disciples of all nations (Matthew 28:18), which continues even to the present day. 1685, the Russian Orthodox Church established an Orthodox mission in Peking (now Beijing). For more than two hundred years, some of the Chinese converted to Christianity, and married Russian spouses. of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, against the foreign powers occupying China, these Chinese Christians were given the choice of renouncing Christianity, or being tortured and killed. hundred and twenty-two members of the Peking Mission, led by their priest, Father Metrophanes Chang (Chang Tzi-tzung) refused to deny Christ, and received incorruptible crowns of glory. these Holy New Martyrs are Saint Metrophanes, his wife Tatiana, his sons John and Isaiah, Isaiah's fiancée Maria; the church school teachers Paul Wang and Ia Wen; and many others.

Mongol, China, 1908-1912, Qing dynasty Emperor, Puyi
China, Qing dynasty Emperor, 1908-1912, Puyi ; China, 1644-1912, Qing dynasty ; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22;

Mongol, China, 1912-1949, Republic of China Folder

Mongol, China, 1912-1923, Republic of China President, Yuan Shikai
China, Republic of China President, 1912-1923, Yuan Shikai ; China, Republic of China, 1912-1949; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31;

Mongol, China, 1916-1923, Republic of China President, Li Yuanhong
China, Republic of China President, 1916-1923, Li Yuanhong ; China, Republic of China, 1912-1949; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31;

China, 1916-1966, John oSan Francisco, tBelgrade&ROCOR, tShanghai bCathedral, 5k exodus tPhillipines, DC lobbying, Paris, San Fran
Russia, Kiev, 1916-1966, St John oSan Francisco, fKharkov, Ukraine (High Point, Three Rivers source of the Seversky Donets, Vorskla River), born to pious aristocrats, sickly youth, poor appetite, intense religious interest, military school ed, Kharkiv U, law degree 1918, theological ed Belgrade 1925, Bishop Russian Church Outside Russia ROCOR, fled Bolsheviks, emigrated tYugoslavia, tonsured monk by ROCOR primate, taught iSerbian High School, hieromonk 1926, served iGreek, Bishop i1934, tShanghai, 1946 China Archbishop, ONationalities unity, built large cathedral w large Bell tower& lParish house, Churches, hospitals, orphanages, intensely active, barefoot Fool, end WWII exodus fCommunists 1949, 5,000 refuges Tubabao, Philippines, Wash DC lobbing tEnter US, parish in DC, 1951 Western Europe Archdiocese from Paris, restored Gaullican liturgy, consecrated ordained Bishops, 1962 Diocese San Francisco after friend Tikhon, sorrowful disunity days there, but peace there & new cathedral; Kharkov; Saint John [Maximovitch], Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, Commemorated on July 2; Father among the Saints John (Maximovitch), Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco (1896-1966), a diocesan bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) served widely from China to France to the United States. John departed this life on June 19 (O.S.) / July 2 (N.S.), 1966, was officially glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad on July 2, 1994. glorification was later recognized for universal veneration by the Patriarchate of Moscow on July 2, 2008. future Saint John was born on June 4, 1896, in the village of Adamovka in Kharkiv province pious aristocrats, Boris and Glafira Maximovitch. was given the baptismal name of Michael, after the Holy Archangel Michael. In his youth, Michael was sickly and had a poor appetite, but he displayed an intense religious interest. was educated at the Poltava Military School (1907-14); Kharkiv Imperial University, from which he received a law degree (in 1918); and the University of Belgrade (where he completed his theological education in 1925). and his family fled their country as the Bolshevik revolutionaries descended on the country, emigrating to Yugoslavia. he enrolled in the Department of Theology of the University of Belgrade. was tonsured a monk in 1926 by Metropolitan Anthony (Khrapovitsky) of Kharkov the first primate of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia). Anthony later in 1926 ordained him hierodeacon. Gabriel of Chelyabinsk ordained him hieromonk on November 21, 1926. to his ordination he began an active life of teaching in a Serbian high school serving, at the request of local Greeks and Macedonians, in the Greek language. the growth of his popularity, the bishops of the Russian Church Aboard resolved to elevate him to the episcopate. John was consecrated bishop on May 28, 1934, with Metropolitan Anthony serving as principal consecrator, which he was assigned to the Diocese of Shanghai. years later he was named Archbishop of China. his arrival in Shanghai, Bishop John began working to restore unity among the various Orthodox nationalities. time, he worked to build a large cathedral church that was dedicated to Surety of Sinners Icon to the Mother of God, with a bell tower and large parish house. he inspired many activities: building of churches, hospitals, and orphanages among the Orthodox and Russians of Shanghai. was intensely active, constantly praying and serving the daily cycle of services, while also visiting the sick with the Holy Gifts. often would walk barefooted even in the coldest days. Yet to avoid the appearance of secular glory, he would pretend to act the fool. the end of World War II and the coming to power of the communists in China, Bishop John led the exodus of his community from Shanghai in 1949. Initially, he helped some 5,000 refugees to a camp on the island of Tubabao in the Philippines, he travelled successfully to Washington, D.C., to lobby to amend the law to allow these refugees to enter the United States. was while on this trip that Bishop John took time to establish a parish in Washington dedicated to Saint John the Forerunner. 1951, Archbishop John was assigned to the Archdiocese of Western Europe with his cathedra in Paris. his time there, he also served as archpastor of the Orthodox Church of France, restored Gallican liturgy he studied and then celebrated. was the principal consecrator of the Orthodox Church of France's first modern bishop, Jean-Nectaire (Kovalevsky) of Saint-Denis, ordained to the priesthood the man who would become its second bishop, Germain (Bertrand-Hardy) of Saint-Denis. 1962, Archbishop John was assigned to the Diocese of San Francisco, his long time friend Archbishop Tikhon. John's days in San Francisco were to prove sorrowful as he attempted to heal the great disunity in his community. was able to bring peace such that the new cathedral, dedicated to the Joy of all Who Sorrow Icon of the Mother of God, was completed. revering Saint John of Kronstadt, Archbishop John played an active role in preparation of his canonization. reposed during a visit to Seattle on July 2, 1966, accompanying a tour of the Kursk-Root Icon of the Mother of God. was laid to rest in a crypt chapel under the main altar of the new cathedral. CREDIT: www.monasteryofstjohn.org/?p=about_st_john

Mongol, China, 1917-1923, President, Li Yuanhong, President of China
China President, 1917-1923, Li Yuanhong, President of China (off and on) ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1921, Peking Man Site
China, 1921, Peking Man Site; Even though the original fossils disappeared in 1941 during World War II, excellent casts and descriptions remain. So to believe in Peking Man, we have to trust those descriptions from people who came to China to find a prehistoric man. Here is the story of the discovery and identification before that disappearance (copied from Wikipedia, Peking Man Site): Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson and American palaeontologist Walter W. Granger came to Zhoukoudian, China in search of prehistoric fossils in 1921. They were directed to the site at Dragon Bone Hill by local quarrymen, where Andersson recognised deposits of quartz that were not native to the area. Immediately realising the importance of this find he turned to his colleague and announced, "Here is primitive man; now all we have to do is find him!" Excavation work was begun immediately by Andersson's assistant Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky, who found what appeared to be a fossilised human molar. He returned to the site in 1923, and materials excavated in the two subsequent digs were sent to Uppsala University in Sweden for analysis. In 1926 Andersson announced the discovery of two human molars in this material, and Zdansky published his findings. Canadian anatomist Davidson Black of Peking Union Medical College, excited by Andersson and Zdansky'™s find, secured funding from the Rockefeller Foundation and recommenced excavations at the site in 1927 with both Western and Chinese scientists. Swedish palaeontologist Anders Birger Bohlin unearthed a tooth that fall, and Black placed it in a gold locket on his watch chain. Black published his analysis in the journal Nature, identifying his find as belonging to a new species and genus which he named Sinanthropus pekinensis, but many fellow scientists were skeptical about such an identification on the basis of a single tooth, and the foundation demanded more specimens before it grant additional money. A lower jaw, several teeth, and skull fragments were unearthed in 1928. Black presented these finds to the foundation and was rewarded with an $80,000 grant that he used to establish the Cenozoic Research Laboratory. Excavations at the site under the supervision of Chinese archaeologists Yang Zhongjian, Pei Wenzhong, and Jia Lanpo uncovered 200 human fossils (including six nearly complete skullcaps) from more than 40 individual specimens. These excavations came to an end in 1937 with the Japanese invasion. Fossils of Peking Man were placed in the safe at the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Peking Union Medical College. Eventually, in November 1941, secretary Hu Chengzi packed the fossils so that they could be sent to USA for safekeeping until the end of the war. The fossils vanished en route to the port city of Qinhuangdao in northern China. So to believe in Peking Man, we have to trust those casts and descriptions from people who came to China to find a prehistoric man. Note: according to their stories, all these people involved already believed in evoluton and were looking for its proofs like missing links. Some were medical doctors, some were geologists, some were both, and much of their science actually derived from this type of search. Since evolution does not jive with the origin of sin and death, it is impossible to fear God and believe in Evolution. The Bible story is all about that original sin and and our salvation from sin and death through the life of Jesus Christ, both his current business as head of his Body the Church (our crosses) and his previous business on his cross. So to be understood, Life by Faith (the solution to sin and death) requires us to understand the origin of sin and death. PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1921-1976, Communist China Leader, Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, Communist China Leader, 1921-1976; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1922-1926, Republic of China President, Yan Huiqing
China, Republic of China President, 1922-1926, Yan Huiqing, President or Premier Republic of China; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31;

Mongol, China, 1922-1945, ERIC LIDDEL, flying scotsman, Chariots of Fire, teacing wealthy chinese 1-12, Japan-China W prisoner
China, 1922-1945, ERIC LIDDELL, Tianjin, Far North China (Hai River Mouth, Five Rivers), flying scotsman, 400m Olympic Champion, Chariots of Fire, teacing wealthy chinese 1-12, China-Japan war 1941, 1943 prisoner at Weihsien, died 1945 brain tumor ; Tianjin (Hai River Source, Five Rivers); ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22; Henry Liddell (16 January 1902 – 21 February 1945, was a Scottish athlete, rugby union international and missionary. was the winner of the Men's 400 metres at the 1924 Summer Olympics held in Paris. He was portrayed in the film Chariots of Fire. in China, Liddell returned there as a Protestant missionary in later life. Liddell, often called the "Flying Scotsman", was born in Tianjin (formerly transliterated as Tientsin) in North China, second son of the Rev & Mrs James Dunlop Liddell who were Scottish missionaries with the London Missionary Society. Liddell became well-known for being the fastest runner in Scotland while at Eltham College. withdrew from the 100 meter race 1924 Olympics in Paris as he refused to run on a Sunday. Liddell spent the intervening months training for the 400 metres, an event in which he had previously excelled. Even so, his success in the 400m was largely unexpected. He not only won the race, but broke the existing world record with a time of 47.6 seconds. returned to Northern China where he served as a missionary, like his parents, from 1925 to 1943 - first in Tianjin and later in the town of Xiaozhang. Liddell's first job as a missionary was as a teacher at an Anglo-Chinese College (grades 1-12) for wealthy Chinese students. It was believed that by teaching the children of the wealthy that they themselves would later become influential figures in China and promote Christian values. his first furlough in 1932, he was ordained as a minister of religion. On his return to China he married Florence Mackenzie of Canadian missionary parentage in Tianjin in 1934. 1941 life in China was becoming so dangerous that the British Government advised British nationals to leave. Florence and the children left for Canada to stay with her family when Liddell accepted a new position at a rural mission station in Shaochang, which gave service to the poor. Meanwhile, the Chinese and the Japanese were at war. When the fighting reached Shaochang the Japanese took over the mission station. In 1943, Liddell was interned at the Weihsien Internment Camp with the members of the China Inland Mission Chefoo School. He died there of a brain tumor on 21 February 1945, five months before liberation. — more at Wikipedia

Mongol, China, 1923-1924, Republic of China President, Cao Kun
China, Republic of China President, 1923-1924, Cao Kun ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1924-1927, Republic of China President, Wellington Koo
China, Republic of China President, 1924-1927, Wellington Koo ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1924-1926, Republic of China Chief Executive, Duan Qirui
China, Republic of China Chief Executive, 1924-1926, Duan Qirui ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1927-1928, Republic of China President, Zhang Zuolin
China, Republic of China President, 1927-1928, Zhang Zuolin; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1928-1975, Republic of China President, Chiang Kai-shek
China, Republic of China President, 1928-1975, Chiang Kai-shek ; Philip Lendel Tsen of PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Mongol, China, 1937-1945, Second Japan China War
Japan, 1937-1945, Second Japan China War ; Marco Polo Bridge Incident, 1937 (starts the war); ERIC LIDDELL, MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 21;

Mongol, China, 1949-Present, Communist China Folder

Mongol, China, Yellow River Folder (North China Plain, Peking)

Yellow River

Yellow River from Source 2

Yellow River Source (Bayan Har Mountains)
Bayan Har Mountains;

Bayan Har Mountains
Bayan Har Mountains;

Yellow River Source 2 (Bayan Har Mountains)
Yellow River;

Yellow River 1

Yellow River 1b

Yellow River 1c

Yellow River 1d

Yellow River 1e

Qinghai lake, Qinghai Province
Qinghai lake ;

Yellow River 1f

Yellow River 2

Maijishan, Maijishan Grottoes
Maijishan, Maijishan Grottoes;

Yellow River 2b

Yellow River 2c

Yellow River 2d

Yellow River 2e

Yellow River 2f

Yellow River 2g

Yellow River 3

Yellow River 3b

Yellow River 3c

Yellow River 4d

Yellow River 4e

Xianyang, China (Silk Road North 2 Changan, Yellow River 4e)
Xianyang; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

Yellow River 5 Overview

North China (Yellow River Area)
North China; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Honan Province (Central Plains, Yellow River)
Honan Province; PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31 ;

Central Plain of China
Central Plain of China;

North China Plain
North China Plain; The North China Plain is based on the deposits of the Yellow River and is the largest alluvial plain of eastern Asia. The plain is bordered on the north by the Yanshan Mountains and on the west by the Taihang Mountains edge of the Shanxi ('western mountains') plateau. To the south, it merges into the Yangtze Plain. From northeast to southeast, it fronts the Bohai Sea, the highlands of Shandong Peninsula, and the Yellow Sea. The Yellow River flows through the middle of the plain into Bohai Sea. ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Weihsien Internment Camp, Shandong, China (Yellow River 10) 1937
Weihsien Internment Camp; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

Shandong Province (South of Yellow River Mouth)
Shandong Province; North China Plain; Boxer Rebellion; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ;

Yellow River Mouth (Bohai Sea)

Chefoo School, China Inland Mission, Yantai, near Yellow River Mouth
Chefoo School, China Inland Mission, Yantai; ERIC LIDDELL, MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

British Empire - Weiihai - Strategic penninsula into Peking C across from Seoul K
British Empire - Weiihai - Strategic position penninsula into Peking, China across from Seoul, Korea; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836);

Mongol, China, Yangtze River Folder (Shanghai)

Yangtze River

Yangtze River Source (head of Dan Qu tributary)

Yangtze River 1 (Qinghai)

Yangtze River 2 (China Inland Mission, Yunnan)

China Inland Mission, China Burma border (China's Yangtze River 2, Burma's Salween River 1) 1865
China Inland Mission Dengyue; Dengyue is a treaty port; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ; VEDANAYAGAM SAMUEL AZARIAH, FIRST INDIAN ANGLICAN BISHOP, DORNAKAL, 1945, Commemorated January 2 ;

Yalong River Mouth (Yangtze River 2)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 2, Yunnan Protected Areas Folder

Daen Lao Range
Daen Lao Range;

Tiger Leaping Gorge
Tiger Leaping Gorge ; Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Three Paralles Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas 1

Three Paralles Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas 2

Three Paralles Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas 3

Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas
Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas;

Yunnan Province and Yunnan, China
Yunnan Province and Yunnan, China; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ;

Dengyue, China
Dengyue, Dengyue is a treaty port; China Inland Mission LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ;

Yangtze River 3 (Yibin)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 3, Min River Folder, (Inland China)

Min River

Min River (Sichuan) Source (Min Mountains)

Min River 1 (Shaochang or Chengdu)

Shaochang (Changdu), (Min River 1)
Shaochang (Min River 1); ERIC LIDDELL, MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

Inland China (Min Mts, north and east of Yunnan Province)
Inland China in Relation to Yunnan Province; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ;

Kangding, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River 1 of Yangtze 3)
Kangding, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River of Yangtze); Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Tagong, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River 1 of Yangtze River 3)
Tagong, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River of Yangtze River); Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Litang, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River 1 of Yangtze 3)
Litang, Sichuan (Inland China, Min River of Yangtze); Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Min River 2

Emeishan, Sichuan, China (Inland China, Min River 2 of Yangtze River 3)
Emeishan, Sichuan, China (Inland China, Min River of Yangtze River 3); Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Leshan, Sichuan (Inlane China, Min River 2 of Yangtze River 3)
Leshan, Sichuan; Tom and Margaurite Antonson, 2015

Min River (Sichuan) Mouth (Yangtze River 3)

Yangtze River 4 (Luzhou)

Tuo River Mouth (Yangtze River 4)

Yangtze River 5 (Chongqing)

Jialing River Mouth (Yangtze River 5)

Yangtze River 6 (Wanzhou)

Wu River Mouth (Wu Gorge, Yangtze River 6)

Three Gorges Dam (Yangtze River 7)

Yangtze River 7 (Yichang)

Yangtze River 8 (Jingzhou)

Yangtze River 9 (Yueyang)

Xiang River Mouth (Yangtze River 9)

Yangtze River 10 (Wuhan)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 10, Xiang River Folder

Xiang River

Xiang River Source (Haiyang Mountain, northeast of Guilin)
Haiyang Mountain;

Xaing River 1 (Hengyang)

Zi River Mouth (Xiang River 2, Yangtze River 9)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 10, Han River Folder, Dengzhou

Han River

Dengzhou, China (a treaty port on Han River)
treaty port; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ;

North China Mission Station (Dengzhou)
Dengzhou is a treaty port; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ;

Han River Source (along the border)

Han River Mouth (Yangtze River 10)

Yangtze River 11 (Jiujiang)

Gan River Mouth (Yangtze River 11)

Mongol, China, Yangtze River 11, Gan River Folder

Gan River (Jiangxi)

Gan River Tributary

Gan River Source (along the border)

Gan River Source (South Central Jiangxi)

Yangtze River 12 (Anqing)

Yangtze River 13 (Tongling)

Yangtze River 14 (Wuhu)

Yangtze River 15 (Nanjing)

Yangtze River 16 (Zhenjiang)

Yangtze River 17 (Nantong)

Yangtze River 18 (Shanghai)

Huangpu River Mouth (Yangtze River 18)

Yangtze River Mouth (Shanghai, East China Sea)

Shanghai, China (Yangtze River Mouth, East China Sea)
Shanghai; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906) ; Saint John [Maximovitch], Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, Commemorated on July 2;

Shanghai Orthodox Cathedral, 1946, large cathedral w large Bell tower& lParish house, Churches+
Russia, Kiev, 1916-1966, St John oSan Francisco, fKharkov, Ukraine (High Point, Three Rivers source of the Seversky Donets, Vorskla River), born to pious aristocrats, sickly youth, poor appetite, intense religious interest, military school ed, Kharkiv U, law degree 1918, theological ed Belgrade 1925, Bishop Russian Church Outside Russia ROCOR, fled Bolsheviks, emigrated tYugoslavia, tonsured monk by ROCOR primate, taught iSerbian High School, hieromonk 1926, served iGreek, Bishop i1934, tShanghai, 1946 China Archbishop, ONationalities unity, built large cathedral w large Bell tower& lParish house, Churches, hospitals, orphanages, intensely active, barefoot Fool, end WWII exodus fCommunists 1949, 5,000 refuges Tubabao, Philippines, Wash DC lobbing tEnter US, parish in DC, 1951 Western Europe Archdiocese from Paris, restored Gaullican liturgy, consecrated ordained Bishops, 1962 Diocese San Francisco after friend Tikhon, sorrowful disunity days there, but peace there & new cathedral; Shanghai; Saint John [Maximovitch], Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, Commemorated on July 2; Father among the Saints John (Maximovitch), Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco (1896-1966), a diocesan bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) served widely from China to France to the United States. John departed this life on June 19 (O.S.) / July 2 (N.S.), 1966, was officially glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad on July 2, 1994. glorification was later recognized for universal veneration by the Patriarchate of Moscow on July 2, 2008. future Saint John was born on June 4, 1896, in the village of Adamovka in Kharkiv province pious aristocrats, Boris and Glafira Maximovitch. was given the baptismal name of Michael, after the Holy Archangel Michael. In his youth, Michael was sickly and had a poor appetite, but he displayed an intense religious interest. was educated at the Poltava Military School (1907-14); Kharkiv Imperial University, from which he received a law degree (in 1918); and the University of Belgrade (where he completed his theological education in 1925). and his family fled their country as the Bolshevik revolutionaries descended on the country, emigrating to Yugoslavia. he enrolled in the Department of Theology of the University of Belgrade. was tonsured a monk in 1926 by Metropolitan Anthony (Khrapovitsky) of Kharkov the first primate of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia). Anthony later in 1926 ordained him hierodeacon. Gabriel of Chelyabinsk ordained him hieromonk on November 21, 1926. to his ordination he began an active life of teaching in a Serbian high school serving, at the request of local Greeks and Macedonians, in the Greek language. the growth of his popularity, the bishops of the Russian Church Aboard resolved to elevate him to the episcopate. John was consecrated bishop on May 28, 1934, with Metropolitan Anthony serving as principal consecrator, which he was assigned to the Diocese of Shanghai. years later he was named Archbishop of China. his arrival in Shanghai, Bishop John began working to restore unity among the various Orthodox nationalities. time, he worked to build a large cathedral church that was dedicated to Surety of Sinners Icon to the Mother of God, with a bell tower and large parish house. he inspired many activities: building of churches, hospitals, and orphanages among the Orthodox and Russians of Shanghai. was intensely active, constantly praying and serving the daily cycle of services, while also visiting the sick with the Holy Gifts. often would walk barefooted even in the coldest days. Yet to avoid the appearance of secular glory, he would pretend to act the fool. the end of World War II and the coming to power of the communists in China, Bishop John led the exodus of his community from Shanghai in 1949. Initially, he helped some 5,000 refugees to a camp on the island of Tubabao in the Philippines, he travelled successfully to Washington, D.C., to lobby to amend the law to allow these refugees to enter the United States. was while on this trip that Bishop John took time to establish a parish in Washington dedicated to Saint John the Forerunner. 1951, Archbishop John was assigned to the Archdiocese of Western Europe with his cathedra in Paris. his time there, he also served as archpastor of the Orthodox Church of France, restored Gallican liturgy he studied and then celebrated. was the principal consecrator of the Orthodox Church of France's first modern bishop, Jean-Nectaire (Kovalevsky) of Saint-Denis, ordained to the priesthood the man who would become its second bishop, Germain (Bertrand-Hardy) of Saint-Denis. 1962, Archbishop John was assigned to the Diocese of San Francisco, his long time friend Archbishop Tikhon. John's days in San Francisco were to prove sorrowful as he attempted to heal the great disunity in his community. was able to bring peace such that the new cathedral, dedicated to the Joy of all Who Sorrow Icon of the Mother of God, was completed. revering Saint John of Kronstadt, Archbishop John played an active role in preparation of his canonization. reposed during a visit to Seattle on July 2, 1966, accompanying a tour of the Kursk-Root Icon of the Mother of God. was laid to rest in a crypt chapel under the main altar of the new cathedral. CREDIT: www.monasteryofstjohn.org/?p=about_st_john

Saint John's University, Shanghai, 1859-1952
Saint John's University, Shanghai, 1859-1952; Shanghai; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906) ;

Mongol, China, Hong Kong Folder, Xi and Pearl Rivers

Mongol, China, Hong Kong History

Mongol, China, Hong Kong, 1842-1941 and 1945-1984, British Colony
Hong Kong, British Colony, 1842-1941 and 1945-1984; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Mongol, China, Hong Kong, 1941-1945, Japanese Occupation
Hong Kong, Japanese Occupation, 1941-1945 ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Mongol, China, 1945-1984, Hong Kong, British Colony
Hong Kong, British Colony, 1945-1984 ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Mongol, China, Hong Kong, Xi River Folder, Macau

Xi River

Xi River Source (Li River)

Xi River Source 2

Xi River Source 3

Macau, China (Xi River Estuary)
Macau, China; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Macau Protestant Chapel, China, 1821
Macau Protestant Chapel; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Xi River Source (Xun River)

Xi River Mouth (Hong Kong, Pearl River Delta)

Yu River Source (Baise City)

Xun River Source (Qian and Yu Rivers)

Qian River

Chongzou River

Mongol, China, Hong Kong, Pearl (Canton) River Folder, Hong Kong

Pearl (Canton) River

Pearl (Canton) River Source (along the border)

Pearl River 2

Pearl River 2nd Source (along the border

Pearl River (Guangzhou or Canton)

Pearl (Canton) River Mouth

Pearl River Estuary

Hong Kong, China (Pearl River Estuary) 1998
Hong Kong ; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Hong Kong, British Colony (Pearl River Estuary) 1842-1997
Hong Kong ; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

British Empire - Hong Kong, British Colony (Pearl River Estuary) 1842-1997
Hong Kong ; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944;

Mongol, China, Hai River Folder (Peking or Bejing, Far North China)

Hai River

Peking, Mongol Capitol since 1260, China (Hai River and North China Plain)
Peking (Hai River and Northern tip of North China Plain); Major rivers flowing through the municipality include the Yongding River and the Chaobai River, part of the Hai River system, and flow in a southerly direction. St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk and Yaroslav, Commemorated on September 19; Repose of St Innocent the first Bishop of Irkutsk, Commemorated November 16 ; Icon of the Mother of God "œThe Word was made Flesh"Â, Commemorated on March 9 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ; St John Maximovitch the Metropolitan of Tobolsk, Commemorated on June 10; Hieromartyr Metrophanes (Chang Tzi-tzung), first Chinese priest and the martyrs of the Boxer Rising in China, Commemorated on June 11;

Peking Union Medical College, 1917
Peking Union Medical College; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Peking Man Site, 1921
China, 1921, Peking Man Site; Even though the original fossils disappeared in 1941 during World War II, excellent casts and descriptions remain. So to believe in Peking Man, we have to trust those descriptions from people who came to China to find a prehistoric man. Here is the story of the discovery and identification before that disappearance (copied from Wikipedia, Peking Man Site): Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson and American palaeontologist Walter W. Granger came to Zhoukoudian, China in search of prehistoric fossils in 1921. They were directed to the site at Dragon Bone Hill by local quarrymen, where Andersson recognised deposits of quartz that were not native to the area. Immediately realising the importance of this find he turned to his colleague and announced, "Here is primitive man; now all we have to do is find him!" Excavation work was begun immediately by Andersson's assistant Austrian palaeontologist Otto Zdansky, who found what appeared to be a fossilised human molar. He returned to the site in 1923, and materials excavated in the two subsequent digs were sent to Uppsala University in Sweden for analysis. In 1926 Andersson announced the discovery of two human molars in this material, and Zdansky published his findings. Canadian anatomist Davidson Black of Peking Union Medical College, excited by Andersson and Zdansky'™s find, secured funding from the Rockefeller Foundation and recommenced excavations at the site in 1927 with both Western and Chinese scientists. Swedish palaeontologist Anders Birger Bohlin unearthed a tooth that fall, and Black placed it in a gold locket on his watch chain. Black published his analysis in the journal Nature, identifying his find as belonging to a new species and genus which he named Sinanthropus pekinensis, but many fellow scientists were skeptical about such an identification on the basis of a single tooth, and the foundation demanded more specimens before it grant additional money. A lower jaw, several teeth, and skull fragments were unearthed in 1928. Black presented these finds to the foundation and was rewarded with an $80,000 grant that he used to establish the Cenozoic Research Laboratory. Excavations at the site under the supervision of Chinese archaeologists Yang Zhongjian, Pei Wenzhong, and Jia Lanpo uncovered 200 human fossils (including six nearly complete skullcaps) from more than 40 individual specimens. These excavations came to an end in 1937 with the Japanese invasion. Fossils of Peking Man were placed in the safe at the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Peking Union Medical College. Eventually, in November 1941, secretary Hu Chengzi packed the fossils so that they could be sent to USA for safekeeping until the end of the war. The fossils vanished en route to the port city of Qinhuangdao in northern China. So to believe in Peking Man, we have to trust those casts and descriptions from people who came to China to find a prehistoric man. Note: according to their stories, all these people involved already believed in evoluton and were looking for its proofs like missing links. Some were medical doctors, some were geologists, some were both, and much of their science actually derived from this type of search. Since evolution does not jive with the origin of sin and death, it is impossible to fear God and believe in Evolution. The Bible story is all about that original sin and and our salvation from sin and death through the life of Jesus Christ, both his current business as head of his Body the Church (our crosses) and his previous business on his cross. So to be understood, Life by Faith (the solution to sin and death) requires us to understand the origin of sin and death. PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Zhoukoudian (a cave system, Peking Man Site)
Zhoukoudian; Peking Man; Peking Man mystery; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Beijing
Beijing; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ; Metropolitan Philotheos of Tobolsk, Enlightener of Siberia, Commemorated on May 31;

Cenozoic Research Laboratory (Beijing) 1928
Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Geological Survey of China; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Tianjin, Far North China (Hai River Mouth, Five Rivers)
Tianjin (Hai River Source, Five Rivers); ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22; PIERRE TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, SCIENTIST AND MILITARY CHAPLAIN, 1955, Commemorated April 10 ;

Hai River Source 2 ( Five Rivers)
The Hai River at Tianjin is formed by the confluence of five rivers, the Southern Canal, Ziya River, Daqing River, Yongding River, and the Northern Canal.

Hai River Source 1 (Peking)
The Northern Canal joins with the Bai He (or Chaobai River) at Tongzhou. The Northern Canal (sharing a channel with Bai He) is also the only waterway from the sea to Beijing. Therefore, early Westerners also called the Hai He the Bai He.

Hai River Mouth (Bohai Sea)

Mongol, China, Great Wall of China Folder, 1368-1644, 13,170 Miles

Great Wall of China
Great Wall of China;

Great Wall of China - Dandong

Great Wall of China - Hushan Great Wall
Great Wall of China - Hushan Great Wall;

Great Wall of China - Liaoning Wall
Great Wall of China - Liaoning Wall;

Great Wall of China - Jinshanling
Great Wall of China - Jinshanling;

Great Wall of China - Mutianyu Great Wall
Great Wall of China - Mutianyu Great Wall;

Great Wall of China - Juyong Pass
Great Wall of China - Juyong Pass;

Great Wall of China - Badaling
Great Wall of China - Badaling;

Great Wall of China - Sihaiye in Yanqing County
Great Wall of China - Sihaiye in Yanqing County;

Great Wall of China - Pingxing Pass
Great Wall of China - Pingxing Pass;

Great Wall of China - Piantou Pass in Xinzhou
Great Wall of China - Piantou Pass in Xinzhou;

Great Wall of China - Yanmen Pass
Great Wall of China - Yanmen Pass;

Great Wall of China - Ordos Desert
Great Wall of China - Ordos Desert;

Great Wall of China - Yinchuan, Ningxia
Great Wall of China - Yinchuan; Hexi Corridor; Ningxia;

Great Wall of China - Jiayu Pass
Great Wall of China - Jiayu Pass;

Great Wall of China - Yang Pass
Great Wall of China - Yang Pass;

Great Wall of China - Yumen Pass
Great Wall of China - Yumen Pass;

Great Wall of China - Lop Lake
Great Wall of China - Lop Lake;

Mongol, China, Silk Road Folder (to China to Turkey)

Mongol, Crimea Folder

Crimea, Invasion Gateway to Russia both by Varangian Trade R and M Trail, always taken first
Crimea; Crimean Tartars; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10 ; Intercession of the œDon Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated on August 19; St Callinicus the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on August 23; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Apostle Andrew, the Holy and All-Praised First-Called, Commemorated November 30 ; St Stephen the Confessor the Archbishop of Surozha in the Crimea, Commemorated on December 15 ; Apostle Clement of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ; Icon of the Mother of God œElets-ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ; St Joachim, First Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated February 10 ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7 ; Hieromartyr Capiton of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7 ; Hieromartyr Eugene of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7 ; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23; Martyr Bathusius in the Crimea, Commemorated on March 26; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; St Martin the Confessor the Pope of Rome, Commemorated on April 14; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Ephraim the Abbot of Perekop, Novgorod, Commemorated on May 16; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Mongol, Crimea History Folder

Mongol, Crimea, 375-581, 4th-6th Century, Crimean Goths Folder

Mongol, Crimean Goths, 4th to 16th Centuries, Cembalo
Land of the Crimean Goths - Cembalo; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Mongol, Crimean Goths, 4th to 16th Centuries
Crimean Goths; Martyr Bathusius in the Crimea, Commemorated on March 26 ; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on May 19; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Mongol, Crimea, 375-383, Crimean Gothic King, Jungerich (Athanaric)
Crimean Goths; Gothic King Jungerich (Athanaric) (375-383); Martyr Bathusius in the Crimea, Commemorated on March 26 ;

Crimean, Goth, 741-791, Saint, John of Gothia
Crimean, Goth, 741-791, Saint, John of Gothia; St. John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Mongol, Crimea, 750-969, Khzaria Border, Northern Half of Crimea
Crimea, Khzaria Border, 750-969, Northern Half of Crimea; St. John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26

Mongol, Crimea, 581-980, Byzantine Era

Mongol, Crimea, 650-900, Khazar Eastern Crimea

Mongol, Crimea, Khazar Eastern Crimea, 650-900
Khazar Eastern Crimea, 650-900; The Khazars created what for its duration was the most powerful polity to emerge from the break-up of the Western Turkic Khaganate.[12] Astride a major artery of commerce between Eastern Europe and Southwestern Asia, Khazaria became one of the foremost trading empires of the medieval world, commanding the western marches of the Silk Road and playing a key commercial role as a crossroad between China, the Middle East and Kievan Rus'.[13][14] For some three centuries (c. 650-“965) the Khazars dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus.[15]; Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad Caliphate, after serving as Byzantium's proxy against the Sasanian Persian empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity.[16] Between 965 and 969, the Kievan Rus' ruler Sviatoslav I of Kiev conquered the capital Atil and destroyed the Khazar state.

Mongol, Crimea, 980-1199, 10th -12th Century, Byzantine Korsun falls to Russia and Vladimir for Anna

Russia, Crimea, 980, Byzantine Korsun falls to Russia and Vladimir the Great for the hand of Anna
Korsun, 980, Byzantine Cherson falls to Russia and Vladimir the Great for the hand of Anna; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15;

Mongol, Crimea, 1200-1408, 13th - 14th Century, Land of the Crimean Tartars

Mongol, Crimea, 1200 - 1699, Crimea and Uzbekistan - Land of the Crimean Tatars - 13th - 17th Century
Crimean Tatars; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Mongol, Crimea, 1220's-1699, Crimean Tatars, 13th to 17th Centuries
Crimean Tatars; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11; Icon of the Mother of God of Kiev-Bratsk, Commemorated on June 2;

Mongol, Crimea, 1223-1255, Mongol Khan Batu, Founder Golden Horde, Conquered Crimea first, later allied w Nervsky
Scythia, 1223-1255, Mongol Khan Batu, Founder Golden Horde; Mongol Empire, 1206-1368, Capital Karakorum ; Venerable Pambo the Recluse of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on July 18; St Tsotne Dadiani the Confessor, Commemorated on July 30; Icon of the Mother of God œof the SignÂ, the œKursk-RootÂ, Commemorated on September 8; Martyr Mercurius of Smolensk, Commemorated on November 24; Right-believing George the Great Prince of Vladimir, Commemorated on February 4; Martyr Abraham of Bulgaria, Commemorated on April 1; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Crimea, 1238, Fall of Vladimir to the Tartar Army, Batu Khan, Battle of Sit (Sita) River
Russia, Vladimir, 1238, Fall of Vladimir to the Tartar Army, Battle of Sit River; Venerable Euphrosyne of Suzdal, Commemorated on September 18; Icon of the Mother of God Elets-ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on February 5 ; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Right-believing Prince Basil (Vasilko) of Rostov, Commemorated on March 4; Blessed Prince Gleb Andreevich the Son of St Andrew Bogoliubsky, Commemorated on June 20 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1251-1259, Golden Horde Khan, Mongke Khan, Christian, Touli's son, converted by Nevsky
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1251-1259, Mongke Khan; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Crimea, 1255-1256, Mongol Khan Sartaq, Christian, Batu's son, Nevsky's close friend, converted by N
Scythia, 1255-1256, Mongol Khan Sartaq, Christian; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old, Christian
Scythia, 1256-1257, Ulaghchi, 11 years old; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1257-1266, Batu's bro Berke Khan, Blue Horde and White Horde, moslem, but allied w Nevsky
Scythia, 1257-1266, Berke Khan ; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1259-1294, Golden Horde Khan, Kublai Khan, Yuan Dynasty China, M Polo
Scythian Golden Horde Khan, 1259-1294, Kublai Khan ; Right-believing Prince Basil of Yaroslavl, Commemorated on July 3;

Mongol, Crimea, 1355-1380, Golden Horde Crimean Governor, Mamai, lost at Kulikovo, S of Radonezh
Mongol Crimea, 1355-1380, Golden Horde Crimean Governor, Mamai; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Zvenigorod the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on December 3;

Mongol, Crimea, 1376-1406, Tokhtamysh, Mongol Blue, White and Golden Horde Khan
Mongol, Scythia, 1376-1406, Tokhtamysh, Mongol Blue, White and Golden Horde Khan; [n 1] (c. 1342–1406) was a prominent Khan of the Blue Horde who briefly unified the White Horde and Blue Horde subdivisions of the Golden Horde into a single state. He has been cited as the last great ruler of the Golden Horde territories.[1][2] campaigns descended from Genghis Khan's grandson, Tuqa-Timur. He appears in history in 1376, trying to overthrow his uncle Urus Khan, ruler of the White Horde, and fleeing to the great Timur. Tokhtamysh outlived Urus and both his sons, and forcefully ascended to the throne of the White Horde in 1378, with Timur's backing. dreamt of emulating his ancestors and made plans to reunite the Golden Horde. 1380, he invaded the Blue Horde by fording across the Volga, and defeated Mamai during the Second Battle of the Kalka River. The ruler of the Blue Horde, Mamai, was killed shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo, marking Tokhtamysh's victory and the reunification of the Golden Horde. full extent of Tokhtamysh's authority. and the armies of the Golden Horde rally in front of Moscow, 1382. against Moscow Donskoy had raised a large army to defeat and suppress the Mongol–Tatar hordes, and, after defeating Mamai during the Battle of Kulikovo, could not raise another army against Tokhtamysh Khan. reunited the Blue and White Hordes into the Golden Horde, in 1382, Tokhtamysh led a successful campaign against Russia as a punishment for the Kulikovo defeat - setting back, though not ending, the Russian aspiration to free themselves of Tatar rule. In just six years, Tokhtamysh had reunified the lands of the Golden Horde from Crimea to Lake Balkhash. three days of siege, Tokhtamysh was faced with a stalemate, until Donskoy's brothers-in-law prince of Nizhnii Novgorod Dmitry of Suzdal tricked citizens into surrendering the city.[3] The destruction of Moscow led to Dimitry's surrender to the authority of Tokhtamysh at the end of 1382. Tokhtamysh also took Donskoy's son Vasily I of Moscow hostage.[4] started to act as a sovereign ruler, which must have worried his former suzerain Timur, who as a result invaded Tokhtamysh twice; in 1391 and in 1395, eventually supplanting him and imposing Temür Qutlugh as a khan of Golden Horde. Tokhtamysh took refuge in Lithuania, at the court of grand duke Vytautas.[5] 1397 both rulers signed a treaty in which Tokhtamysh confirmed Vytautas as a rightful ruler of Ruthenian lands that were once part of the Golden Horde, and now belonged to Lithuania, in exchange of military assistance. It is possible that the treaty required Vytautas to pay tribute from these lands once the khan regained his throne. Vytautas probably was planning to establish himself as overlord in Tatar lands.[6] This joint expedition, supported by Polish volunteers under Spytek of Melsztyn, was defeated on 12 August 1399 in the Battle of the Vorskla River by forces led by Temiir Kutlugh and Nogay emir Edigü. The defeat was disastrous, ending Vytautas's ambitious policy in the Pontic steppe and forcing Tokhtamysh to seek refuge again, this time in Siberia.[7] About twenty princes, among them Andrei of Polatk and Dmitry of Briansk were killed, along with many prominent lords, like Spytko.[8] died in Siberia in 1406. Siege of Moscow in 1382 gather during the Siege of Moscow of the Golden Horde attack Moscow. prepare for the Siege of Moscow against Tamerlane article: Tokhtamysh–Timur war and his troops gather to launch a war against the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh. he could defeat the Ilkhanate Chobanids and capture the disputed territories of the Caucasus since the days of Berke Khan, in 1385 Tokhtamysh, with an army of 50,000 (or five tumens), invaded Persia and took Tabriz. Returning north they took 200,000 slaves from the Caucasus, including tens of thousands of Armenians from the districts of Parskahayk, Syunik, and Artsakh.[9] proved to be a fatal error for Tokhtamysh, who moved north from the Caucasus, thus allowing his Ilkhanate rivals to side with Timur, who annexed Persia to his own expanding kingdom. Furious, Tokhtamysh turned back and made war on his former ally. Tokhtamysh conceded defeat and withdrew to the steppe. However, in 1387 he suddenly invaded Transoxiana, the heart of Timur's realm. Unfortunately for Tokhtamysh, heavy snow forced him back to the steppe. 1395, the scenario reached its climax as Timur attacked the Golden Horde and defeated Tokhtamysh at the Terek. Timur sacked cities of the Golden Horde such as Azov (Tana), Astrakhan[10] and Tokhtamysh's capital, Sarai Berke. Timur captured artisans and craftsmen of the Golden Horde, and placed a puppet ruler, Koirichak, on the throne of the White Horde and appointed Temür Qutlugh khan of the Horde. escaped to the Ukrainian steppes and asked for help from the Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania. In the great Battle of the Vorskla River (1399) the combined forces of Tokhtamysh and Vytautas were defeated by two of Timur's generals, khan Temur Qutlugh and emir (murza, visir) Edigu. The defeated Tokhtamysh was killed near present-day Tyumen by Edigu's men in 1406. was the last khan who minted coins with Mongolian script.

Mongol, Crimea, 1380-1419, Golden Horde Crimean Governor, Edigu, White H, muslim, unpaid t, Nogali Tartar
Mongol, Crimea, 1380-1419, Golden Horde Crimean Governor, Edigu; (or Edigey) (also İdegäy or Edege Mangit) (1352–1419) was a Turkic Muslim emir of the White Horde who founded a new political entity, which came to be known as the Nogai Horde. was from the Crimean Manghud tribe, the son of Baltychak, a Turkic noble who was defeated and killed by Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde in 1378. He gained fame as a highly successful general of Tokhtamysh before turning the arms against his master. By 1396, he was a sovereign ruler of a large area stretching between the Volga and Ural (known locally as Yayyk) rivers, which would later be called the Nogai Horde. 1397 Edigu allied himself with Timur-Qutlugh and was appointed General and commander-in-chief of the Golden Horde armies. In 1399 he inflicted a crushing defeat on Tokhtamysh and Vytautas of Lithuania at the Vorskla River. Thereupon he managed to unite under his rule all Jochi's lands, albeit for the last time in history. 1406 he located his old enemy Tokhtamysh in Siberia. Edigu's agents killed Tokhtamysh. The following year he raided Volga Bulgaria. 1408, he staged a destructive Tatar invasion of Russia, which hadn't paid the tribute due to the horde for several decades. Edigu burnt Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets, Rostov, and many other towns but failed to take Moscow, though he had still burnt it. years later (1410) Edigu was dethroned in the Golden Horde and had to seek refuge in Khwarezm. he had previously had relations with the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh, including marrying his daughter to the latter's son Muhammad Juki,[1] Shah Rukh later had Edigu expelled back to Sarai. There he was assassinated by one of Tokhtamysh's sons in 1419. dynasty in the Nogai Horde continued for about two centuries, until his last descendants moved to Moscow, where they took baptism and became known as Princes Urusov and Yusupov. Venerable Gregory the Abbot of Avnezh, Vologda, Commemorated on June 15;

Mongol, Crimea, 1408-1774, Crimean Khanate Folder, Muslim White Horde, Slave Traders

Mongol, Crimea, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Muslim White Horde, Nogali Tartar
Scythia, 1408, Khan Edigei (Edigu) Invasion of Russia, Destroying Rostov, New Novgorod, and Gorodets ; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of Radonezh the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius, Commemorated on November 17 ; St Photius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on July 2;

Mongol, Crimea, 1411-1412, Jalal al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh, fled to Lithuania, w Vytautas, k by his b
Mongol, Crimea, 1411-1412, Jalal al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh; al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh (1380-1412) was the Khan of the Golden Horde in 1411–1412. He was the son of Tokhtamysh, Khan of the Golden Horde until 1395.[1] is also famous for his written history of the Mongol Empire. He is also known as the Green Sultan. tried to regain his Khanate with Lithuanian aid, but was defeated in 1399. He continued his campaign until he died c. 1405. Jalal al-Din then fled to Lithuania. He too sought assistance from the Lithuanian Grand Prince Vytautas the Great. In 1410, he fought under Vytautas in the victory at Grunwald against the Teutonic Order.[2] next year, while Edigu (the real power in the Khanate) was in Khwarezm, Jalal al-Din returned to the Golden Horde. With Lithuanian support, he overthrew Khan Temur (son of Temur Qutlugh), and retook the throne of Sarai. Sometime after 1411 he minted coins bearing his name. According to a Russian chronicle, Jalal reigned for about a year, until he was murdered by his brother Karim Berdi.

Mongol, Crimea, 1417-1419, Yeremferden, Tokhtamysh, Jabbar Berdi, with Vytautas
Mongol, Crimea, 1417-1419, Yeremferden ibn Tokhtamysh; (died 1419), also known as Jabbar Berdi, was a khan of the Golden Horde from 1417 to 1419. was one of the sons of Tokhtamysh who struggled for power after their father's death. His reign was marked by relative peace save for occasional struggles with Vytautas against Edigu and what would become the Nogai Horde. his death, control over the Horde was split between Dawlat Berdi, his son, and Ulugh Muhammad, his nephew.

Mongol, Crimea, 1419-1445, Ulugh Muhammad, Crimea and Kazan Tartar Khan, Vytautas s, Ottoman s, Vasilly II
Kazan Tartar Khan, 1437-1445, Ulugh Muhammad; Muhammad (1405-1445) was a medieval Tatar statesman, Gengisid, Khan of the Golden Horde (before 1436), ruler of Crimea (1437), and the founder of the Khanate of Kazan, which he ruled from 1438-1445. He was the son of the oglan Ichkile Hassan and the cousin of Tokhtamysh. He received the nickname "Ulugh", meaning older or large, in contrast to another Muhammed who was called "Kichi", meaning younger or small. Muhammad was Khan of the Golden Horde in 1419-1423, 1426, 1428. In 1428-1432 he waged a stubborn struggle for possession of the Ulug Ulus with the representatives of a minor branch of the Tukaytimurids (one of the branches of the Gengisids). being defeated, Ulugh Muhammad escaped to Volga Bulgaria vilayet in 1423. With the support Vytautas, Ulugh Muhammad was able to regain the throne of the Golden Horde in 1426. He succeeded in spreading the power of the Horde to Crimea and established friendly relations with the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. Muhammad sent an embassy to Egypt in 1428-1429. In 1431 the son and grandson of the ruler of Moscow, Dmitriy Donskoy came to the court to Ulugh Muhammad in order to reach a decision about princely succession. Ulugh Muhammad ruled in favour of the grandson, Vasiliy II . St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; St Gerasimus the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29;

Mongol, Crimea, 1445-1466, Maxmud, Kazan Tartar Khan, defeated then supported Vassily II, then a Moscow 1448
Mongol, Scythia, 1445-1466, Kazan Tartar Khan, Maxmud of Kazan; Khan (?-1466) was the Khan of the Khanate of Kazan from 1445-1466. was the eldest son of Olug Moxammad, and is reputed to be one of the Khanate's founders. participated in his father's military campaigns against Muscovy and in 1445 was victorious at the Battle of Suzdal, taking the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II captive and forcing Muscovy to pay tribute (yasak). After the death of Olug Moxammad, Maxmud succeeded to the throne of Kazan. December 1446 he supported Vassily II in dethroning Dmitry Shemyaka. 1448 Maxmud attacked Moscow to preserve advantageous treaty conditions that were concluded after the battle of Suzdal. In that period, the Qasim Khanate, governed by Maxmud's relatives, was created as a buffer state between Muscovy and the Khanate of Kazan. Repose of Saint Jonah, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, Commemorated on March 31;

Mongol, Crimea, 1441-1774, Crimean-Nogali Tartar Slave Raids
Mongol, Crimea, 1441-1774, Crimean-Nogali Tartar Slave Raids Tatars descended upon Chernigov in 1662 and destroyed it - Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on April 16 ; Cossack Hetmanate ; Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands 1441-1774 ; Martyr Macarius the Archimandrite of Kanev and Pereyaslavl, Commemorated on September 7 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Theodosius the Archbishop of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 9 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1441-1466, Crimean Khan, Haca I Giray
Mongol, Crimea, 1441-1466, Crimean Khan, Haca I Giray; St. Jonah the Metropolitan of Moscow, Commemorated on June 15;

Mongol, Crimea, 1451, Miraculous deliverance of Moscow by Robe of Theotokos
Russia, Moscow, 1451, Miraculous deliverance of Moscow by Robe of Theotokos; The holy Robe of the Mother of God, which previously saved Constantinople, later saved Moscow from hostilities. Tatars of the Horde of the princeling Mazovshi approached the walls of Moscow in the summer of 1451. Saint Jonah, Metropolitan of Moscow, with constant prayer and church services, encouraged the defenders of the capital. On the night of July 2, the Chronicle relates, great confusion occurred within the Tatar camp. The enemy abandoned their plundered goods and speedily departed in disarray. Moscow Prince, 1440-1505, Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, the Great; St Leucius of Volokolamsk, Commemorated on August 17 ; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on August 19 ; Venerable Prince Andrew, in Monasticism Joasaph, of Kubensk, Vologda, Commemorated on September 10 ; Venerable Cassian of Uglich, Commemorated on October 2; Venerable Dionysius the Recluse of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on October 3; Venerable Dositheus the Abbot of Verkneostrov, Pskov, Commemorated on October 8; Icon of the Mother of God of Yakhrom, Commemorated on October 14; Venerable Joseph the Igumen and Wonderworker of Volokolamsk, Commemorated on October 18; St Theophilus of the Kiev Caves and Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated on October 26; St Philip of Rabanga, Commemorated on November 15; Venerable Sava the Abbot of Zvenigorod the Disciple of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Commemorated on December 3; St Pachomius of Keno Lake, Commemorated on January 7; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8; St Paisius of Uglich, Commemorated on January 8; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8 ; Venerable Michael the Fool-for-Christ of the Klops Monastery, Novgorod, Commemorated on January 11; St Anthony of Krasny Kholm, Commemorated on January 17 ; Venerable Athanasius the Abbot of Syandemsk, Vologda, Commemorated on January 18; Venerable Macarius the Roman of Novgorod, Commemorated on January 19 ; Venerable Euthymius of Syanzhemsk, Vologda, Commemorated on January 20; St Pitirim the Bishop of Perm, Commemorated on January 29; St Tryphon, Bishop of Rostov, Commemorated on February 1; Right-Believing Prince Roman of Uglich, Commemorated on February 3; St Bassian of Uglich, Commemorated on February 12; Venerable Cosmas of Yakhrom, Commemorated on February 18; Right-believing Prince Daniel of Moscow, Commemorated on March 4; Finding of the relics of St Theodore the Prince of Smolensk, and Yaroslav, and His Children, Commemorated on March 5; St Euthymius the Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated on March 11; Venerable Macarius the Abbot and Wonderworker of Kalyazin, Commemorated on March 17 ; St Innocent of Komel the Disciple of St Nilus of Sora, Vologda, Commemorated on March 19 ; Martyr Stephen of Kazan, Commemorated on March 24; Venerable Zosimas the Abbot of Vorbozomsk, Commemorated on April 4; Venerable Daniel the Abbot of Pereyaslavl-Zalesski, Commemorated on April 7; Icon of the Mother of God of Vilnius, Commemorated on April 14; Venerable Zosimas the Abbot of Solovki, Commemorated on April 17; Venerable Alexander the Abbot of Oshevensk, Commemorated on April 20; Venerable Sylvester the Abbot of Obnora, Commemorated on April 25; Hieromartyr Macarius the Metropolitan of Kiev, Commemorated on May 1; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14; Venerable Serapion of Pskov, Commemorated on May 15; Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of Komel, Vologda, Commemorated on May 19; Venerable Tikhon of Kaluga Or Medin, Commemorated on June 16;

Mongol, Crimea, 1468-1515, Crimean Khan, Mengli I Giray, his nobles, Genoese mercenaries and Rus defeated G Horde
Crimean Khan, 1468-1515, Mengli I Giray; I Giray (1445–1515), also spelled as Mengli I Giray, was a khan of the Crimean Khanate (1466, 1469–1475, 1478–1515) and the sixth son of Hacı I Giray.[1] at the time of Mengli Girai for power (1466–1478)[edit] took Mengli twelve years to establish himself as khan. When Haji Girai died power went to his eldest son Nur Devlet. Mengli revolted. He was supported by the Crimean nobility while Nur Devlet was supported by the Great Horde. 1467 Mengli occupied the capital of Kyrk-Er but was soon driven out by Nur Devlet and fled to the Genoese at Kaffa. June 1468 a delegation of nobles elected him khan at Kaffa. He, the nobles and a Genoese detachment marched on the capital. After six months Nur Devlet was expelled and fled to the North Caucasus, but was captured and imprisoned in the Genoese fortress at Sudak. reign 1469–1475[edit] made an anti-Turkish alliance with Principality of Theodoro. In the summer of 1469 a Turkish fleet burned some villages near Kaffa. From late 1473 Eminek made himself head of the Shirin clan which held the eastern peninsula of Crimea. He became the second most powerful man in the country and was often hostile to Mengli. March 1475 the nobles replaced Mengli with his elder brother Hayder of Crimea. Mengli fled to Kaffa. In May 1475 a large Turkish fleet arrived at Kaffa seeking to subordinate the Genoese. They took Kaffa and other Genoese forts and the Principality of Theodoro. Mengli, who had supported the Genoese, was captured and taken to Constantinople. Nur Devlet was released from prison and restored as a Turkish vassal. Nur Devlet’s third reign (1475-78) was unsuccessful. In the winter of 1477/78 Crimea was briefly conquered by Janibeg, a nephew of Akhmed Khan of the Great Horde. Eminek wrote to the sultan asking that Mengli be restored. In the spring of 1478 Mengli was released and arrived at Crimea with a Turkish fleet and Turkish soldiers. He was joined by Eminek’s troops, Nur Devlet was driven out and Mengli became khan as a Turkish vassal. reign (1478–1515)[edit] made a great contribution to the development of Crimean Tatar statehood. He founded the fortress of Özü.[2] 1480, Menlii entered into a treaty of alliance with Ivan III, Grand Duke of Muscovy. The alliance was directed against Poland-Lithuania, the Great Horde and the Khanate of Astrakhan. was an important factor in the Great stand on the Ugra river which led to Russian independence from the Great Horde. 1502, Menlii defeated the last khan of the Golden Horde and took control over its capital, Saray. He proclaimed himself Khagan (Emperor), claiming legitimacy as the successor of the Golden Horde's authority over the Tatar khaganates in the Caspian-Volga region. was buried in the Durbe (or turbe) of Salaçıq in Bakhchysarai. In that city, he commissioned Zıncırlı Medrese (medrese with chains) in Salaçıq (1500), Durbe in Salaçıq (1501), and Demir Qapı (Iron Gate) portal in the Bakhchisaray Palace (by Aloisio Novi) (1503). often depended on troops from the Crimea's numerous Italian trading cities, and Genoese mercenaries formed a significant part of his army. his raids on Lithuania see Crimean-Nogai Raids for 1480–1511. Crimean Khanate, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr 1500 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Mongol, Crimea, 1478-1774 , Crimean Khanate, Sunni Muslim
Crimean Khanate, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr 1500 ; Mengli I Giray; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Kiev-Bratsk, Commemorated on June 2;

Mongol, Crimea, 1500, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr
Crimean Khanate, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr 1500 ; Mengli I Giray; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Mongol, Crimea, 1512, Crimean Tartar War at Kaluga, Laurence, Fool for Christ
Crimean Tartar War at Kaluga 1512; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10; Laurence, the Fool-for-Christ and Wonderworker of Kaluga, lived at the beginning of the XVI century at a distance of half a verst from old Kaluga, near a forest church dedicated to the Nativity of Christ, set upon a high hill. was a long underground entrance from his dwelling place to the church, where he attended services. He also lived at the home of the Kaluga Prince Simeon. It is thought that Blessed Laurence was descended from the noble Khitrov family, since his name is at the head of their memorial at the Peremyshl’sk Liutykov Monastery in the Kaluga diocese. Laurence went barefoot both winter and summer, dressed in a shirt and sheepskin coat. By his ascetical struggles he had risen to such heights of virtue that during his lifetime, he was glorified by gifts of grace. He healed many diseases of the eyes through his prayers. the Crimean Tatars attacked Kaluga in May 1512, Blessed Laurence, then in the Prince's home, suddenly shouted in a loud voice: “Give me my sharp axe, for the curs are attacking Prince Simeon and I must defend him!” Saying this, he grabbed the axe and left. Suddenly, he was on board a ship next to the Prince. The Holy Fool Laurence inspired and encouraged the soldiers, and at that very hour they defeated the enemy. he is depicted on icons with an axe in his right hand, set upon a long handle. It is certain that Prince Simeon (+ 1518), who owed his life to Blessed Laurence, built a monastery on the site of the Saint’s ascetical struggles and dedicated it to him. Laurence reposed on August 10, 1515, on his Name Day. The Saint is also commemorated on July 8, perhaps in remembrance of his first posthumous miracle in Kaluga in 1621.1 that year, the paralyzed boyar Lev Andreevich Kologrivov, who could not move his hands and legs, and was unable to speak, was placed near the tomb of Saint Laurence. During a Moleben, as the Gospel was read, the paralyzed man spoke and began to believe. Raising his right hand, he made the Sign of the Cross; then he stood up, went to the tomb and attached himself to it. By the end of the Moleben, he was able to speak normally, and became perfectly healthy. Laurence seems to have been glorified in the second half of the XVI century. Tsar Ivan the Terrible wrote the following on a deed granting land to the monastery in 1565: “To the Monastery of the Nativity of Christ, where Laurence, the Fool-for-Christ lies." the Napoleonic invasion of Russia, the intercession of Blessed Lawrence for his native land was shown in a vivid manner. Kaluga became "the limit of the (French) offensive and the beginning of the enemy's retreat and destruction," according to an inscription on the Maloyaroslavets monument commemorating the battle on October 12, 1812. August 2018, some of Saint Laurence's relics were discovered in a storeroom of the Moscow Central Museum of the Armed Forces. On August 10/23, a portion of the holy relics was given to the Monastery in Kaluga where the body of Saint Laurence was once buried.

Mongol, Crimea, 1512-1515, Laurence, Fool for Christ at Kaluga, sharp axe, suddenly on board ship with prince, inspired soldiers
Russia, Kaluga,1512, Laurence, Fool for Christ at Kaluga; Crimean Tartar War at Kaluga 1512; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10; Laurence, the Fool-for-Christ and Wonderworker of Kaluga, lived at the beginning of the XVI century at a distance of half a verst from old Kaluga, near a forest church dedicated to the Nativity of Christ, set upon a high hill. was a long underground entrance from his dwelling place to the church, where he attended services. He also lived at the home of the Kaluga Prince Simeon. It is thought that Blessed Laurence was descended from the noble Khitrov family, since his name is at the head of their memorial at the Peremyshl’sk Liutykov Monastery in the Kaluga diocese. Laurence went barefoot both winter and summer, dressed in a shirt and sheepskin coat. By his ascetical struggles he had risen to such heights of virtue that during his lifetime, he was glorified by gifts of grace. He healed many diseases of the eyes through his prayers. the Crimean Tatars attacked Kaluga in May 1512, Blessed Laurence, then in the Prince's home, suddenly shouted in a loud voice: “Give me my sharp axe, for the curs are attacking Prince Simeon and I must defend him!” Saying this, he grabbed the axe and left. Suddenly, he was on board a ship next to the Prince. The Holy Fool Laurence inspired and encouraged the soldiers, and at that very hour they defeated the enemy. he is depicted on icons with an axe in his right hand, set upon a long handle. It is certain that Prince Simeon (+ 1518), who owed his life to Blessed Laurence, built a monastery on the site of the Saint’s ascetical struggles and dedicated it to him. Laurence reposed on August 10, 1515, on his Name Day. The Saint is also commemorated on July 8, perhaps in remembrance of his first posthumous miracle in Kaluga in 1621.1 that year, the paralyzed boyar Lev Andreevich Kologrivov, who could not move his hands and legs, and was unable to speak, was placed near the tomb of Saint Laurence. During a Moleben, as the Gospel was read, the paralyzed man spoke and began to believe. Raising his right hand, he made the Sign of the Cross; then he stood up, went to the tomb and attached himself to it. By the end of the Moleben, he was able to speak normally, and became perfectly healthy. Laurence seems to have been glorified in the second half of the XVI century. Tsar Ivan the Terrible wrote the following on a deed granting land to the monastery in 1565: “To the Monastery of the Nativity of Christ, where Laurence, the Fool-for-Christ lies." the Napoleonic invasion of Russia, the intercession of Blessed Lawrence for his native land was shown in a vivid manner. Kaluga became "the limit of the (French) offensive and the beginning of the enemy's retreat and destruction," according to an inscription on the Maloyaroslavets monument commemorating the battle on October 12, 1812. August 2018, some of Saint Laurence's relics were discovered in a storeroom of the Moscow Central Museum of the Armed Forces. On August 10/23, a portion of the holy relics was given to the Monastery in Kaluga where the body of Saint Laurence was once buried.

Mongol, Crimea, 1512-1515, Laurence, Fool f Christ, Kaluga, sharp axe, suddenly board prince's ship, inspired soldiers
Russia, Kaluga,1512, Laurence, Fool for Christ at Kaluga; Crimean Tartar War at Kaluga 1512; Blessed Laurence the Fool-For-Christ at Kaluga, Commemorated on August 10; Laurence, the Fool-for-Christ and Wonderworker of Kaluga, lived at the beginning of the XVI century at a distance of half a verst from old Kaluga, near a forest church dedicated to the Nativity of Christ, set upon a high hill. was a long underground entrance from his dwelling place to the church, where he attended services. He also lived at the home of the Kaluga Prince Simeon. It is thought that Blessed Laurence was descended from the noble Khitrov family, since his name is at the head of their memorial at the Peremyshl’sk Liutykov Monastery in the Kaluga diocese. Laurence went barefoot both winter and summer, dressed in a shirt and sheepskin coat. By his ascetical struggles he had risen to such heights of virtue that during his lifetime, he was glorified by gifts of grace. He healed many diseases of the eyes through his prayers. the Crimean Tatars attacked Kaluga in May 1512, Blessed Laurence, then in the Prince's home, suddenly shouted in a loud voice: “Give me my sharp axe, for the curs are attacking Prince Simeon and I must defend him!” Saying this, he grabbed the axe and left. Suddenly, he was on board a ship next to the Prince. The Holy Fool Laurence inspired and encouraged the soldiers, and at that very hour they defeated the enemy. he is depicted on icons with an axe in his right hand, set upon a long handle. It is certain that Prince Simeon (+ 1518), who owed his life to Blessed Laurence, built a monastery on the site of the Saint’s ascetical struggles and dedicated it to him. Laurence reposed on August 10, 1515, on his Name Day. The Saint is also commemorated on July 8, perhaps in remembrance of his first posthumous miracle in Kaluga in 1621.1 that year, the paralyzed boyar Lev Andreevich Kologrivov, who could not move his hands and legs, and was unable to speak, was placed near the tomb of Saint Laurence. During a Moleben, as the Gospel was read, the paralyzed man spoke and began to believe. Raising his right hand, he made the Sign of the Cross; then he stood up, went to the tomb and attached himself to it. By the end of the Moleben, he was able to speak normally, and became perfectly healthy. Laurence seems to have been glorified in the second half of the XVI century. Tsar Ivan the Terrible wrote the following on a deed granting land to the monastery in 1565: “To the Monastery of the Nativity of Christ, where Laurence, the Fool-for-Christ lies." the Napoleonic invasion of Russia, the intercession of Blessed Lawrence for his native land was shown in a vivid manner. Kaluga became "the limit of the (French) offensive and the beginning of the enemy's retreat and destruction," according to an inscription on the Maloyaroslavets monument commemorating the battle on October 12, 1812. August 2018, some of Saint Laurence's relics were discovered in a storeroom of the Moscow Central Museum of the Armed Forces. On August 10/23, a portion of the holy relics was given to the Monastery in Kaluga where the body of Saint Laurence was once buried.

Mongol, Crimea, 1515-1523, Crimean Khan, Mehmed I Giray, control steppe nomads, b at Kazan, killed before
Mongol, Crimea, 1515-1523, Crimean Khan, Mehmed I Giray; I Giray (1465-1523, reigned 1515-1523) was khan of the Crimean Khanate. was preceded by his father Menli I Giray (r. 1478-1515) and followed by his son Gazi I Giray (1523-1524). gained control of the steppe nomads, put his brother on the throne of Kazan and was killed after taking Astrakhan. he not been killed he might have joined the three khanates with the Nogais and re-created something like the Golden Horde.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] Crimean Khan, 1468-1515, Mengli I Giray; Crimean Khanate, Capture of Kiev by Khan Mengli-Gyr 1500 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; St Barsanuphius the Bishop of Tver, Commemorated on April 11;

Mongol, Crimea, 1521, Invasion of Moscow by Tatars led by Khan Makhmet-Girei
Moscow, 1521, Invasion of Moscow by Tatars led by Khan Makhmet-Girei ; Icon of the Mother of God "Virgin of Tenderness" of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated August 26 ; Finding of the relics of Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonsk, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on November 19; Monkmartyr Adrian of Poshekhonye, Yaroslavl, Commemorated on March 5; Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on May 21 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1551-1577, Khan, Devlet I Giray, invaded Rus 1591, Don Icon in Chapel w soldiers Story
Mongol, Crimea, 1551-1577, Khan, Devlet I Giray ; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Don Icon of the Mother of God was painted by Theophanes the Greek. On the day of the Kulikovo Battle (September 8, 1380, the Feast of the Nativity of the Most Holy Theotokos), the Icon was with the Russian army, giving it help, but after the victory it was passed on by the Don Cossacks as a gift to their commander, Great Prince Demetrius of the Don (1363-1389), who then transferred it to Moscow. Icon at first was at the Kremlin’s Dormition Cathedral, and later at the Annuniciation Cathedral (the Icon is now in the Tretiakov State Gallery). In commemoration of the victory on the banks of the River Don it was called the Don Icon. the year 1591, the Crimean Khan Nuradin and his brother Murat-Girei invaded Russia with a numerous army. Advancing on Moscow, they positioned themselves on the Vorobiev hills. A church procession was made around Moscow with the Don Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos in order to guard the city from the enemy. the day of battle it was in the military chapel in the ranks of the soldiers, and set the Tatars to flight. In 1592, in thanksgiving to the Most Holy Theotokos for Her mercy manifest through the Don Icon, the Don monastery was founded at the very place where the icon had stood amid the soldiers. The wonderworking icon was placed in this monastery, and its feastday was established as August 19. established custom, once every four years His Holiness the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia performs the rite of the preparation of Holy Chrism in the small cathedral in honor of the Don Icon of the Mother of God.

Mongol, Crimea, 1574-1595, Khan, Murad III Giray, invaded Rus 1591, Don Icon in chapel w soldiers Story
Mongol, Crimea, 1574-1595, Khan, Murad III Giray; Intercession of the "Don" Icon of the Mother of God against the Tatars Attack, Commemorated August 19 ; Don Icon of the Mother of God was painted by Theophanes the Greek. On the day of the Kulikovo Battle (September 8, 1380, the Feast of the Nativity of the Most Holy Theotokos), the Icon was with the Russian army, giving it help, but after the victory it was passed on by the Don Cossacks as a gift to their commander, Great Prince Demetrius of the Don (1363-1389), who then transferred it to Moscow. Icon at first was at the Kremlin’s Dormition Cathedral, and later at the Annuniciation Cathedral (the Icon is now in the Tretiakov State Gallery). In commemoration of the victory on the banks of the River Don it was called the Don Icon. the year 1591, the Crimean Khan Nuradin and his brother Murat-Girei invaded Russia with a numerous army. Advancing on Moscow, they positioned themselves on the Vorobiev hills. A church procession was made around Moscow with the Don Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos in order to guard the city from the enemy. the day of battle it was in the military chapel in the ranks of the soldiers, and set the Tatars to flight. In 1592, in thanksgiving to the Most Holy Theotokos for Her mercy manifest through the Don Icon, the Don monastery was founded at the very place where the icon had stood amid the soldiers. The wonderworking icon was placed in this monastery, and its feastday was established as August 19. established custom, once every four years His Holiness the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia performs the rite of the preparation of Holy Chrism in the small cathedral in honor of the Don Icon of the Mother of God.

Mongol, Crimea, 1641-1666, Crimean Khan, Mehmed IV Giray
Crimean Khan, 1641-1666, Mehmed IV Giray; Uncovering of the relics of St Theodosius the Archbishop of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 9 ; Martyr Macarius the Archimandrite of Kanev and Pereyaslavl, Commemorated on September 7;

Mongol, Crimea, 1662, Crimean-Nogali Tatars descended upon Chernigov in 1662
Tatars descended upon Chernigov in 1662 and destroyed it - Icon of the Mother of God Weeping œIlyin ChernigovÂ, Commemorated on April 16 ; Cossack Hetmanate ; Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands 1441-1774 ; Martyr Macarius the Archimandrite of Kanev and Pereyaslavl, Commemorated on September 7 ; Uncovering of the relics of St Theodosius the Archbishop of Chernigov, Commemorated on September 9 ;

Mongol, Crimea, 1666-1671, Crimean Khan, Adil Giray, high taxes, placed on throne by Ottomans
Crimean Khan, 1666-1671, Adil Giray ; Giray, Adil Khan Girai was khan of the Crimean Khanate from 1666 to 1671. is said to have been the grandson of Fetih I Giray (see below). His father was killed in battle in 1624 when the Turks tried to overthrow Mehmed III Giray. None of his descendants were khans. His elder brother Fetih was nureddin in 1641-44 during the first reign of Mehmed IV Giray. His kalga and nuredddin were Devlet and Gazi, sons of his brother Fetih. Adil Giray was one of the many sons of Selaet I Giray. He served as nureddin under his brothers İslam III Giray and Mehmed IV Giray circa 1651 to before 1666. His son was Devlet III Giray (1716-1717). He was killed by a fall from a horse. 1666 he was placed on the throne by the Ottomans who were displeased with khan Mehmed IV. At the time he was in exile at Rhodes. [1] He came into conflict with his nobles, especially the Shirin clan, because of his questionable ancestry and high taxes. It is said he strongly supported the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and was one of the candidates in the Polish royal election of 1669.[2] For the complex events to the north, see The Ruin (Ukrainian history) and Petro Doroshenko. 1671 he was removed as khan by Ottoman sultan Mehmed IV, either when the sultan decided go to war with the Commonwealth[3] or because he had ravaged some villages loyal to the pro-Turkish Doroshenko.[4] He was exiled to Karnobat in modern Bulgaria and died the following year. grandfather and father[edit] story goes that some time between 1588 and 1597 [5] a noble Polish girl was captured during a Tatar raid and presented to Fetih Giray. Fetih wanted to marry her but she refused to betray her faith so she was held for ransom. A court servant named Haji Mustafa was sent take the girl to Poland and bring back the ransom. En route the girl gave birth to a son. Fetih indignantly denied responsibility and sent men to kill all three of them for the crime of fornication and insulting his good name. The girl died of childbirth and Haji Mustafa fled with the infant, whom he named Mustafa. After Fetih’s death in 1597 they settled in Crimea near Ak-Mesjid (Simferopol). Mustafa grew up as a simple shepherd and had two sons. In 1623 he was summoned to the capital by Mehmed III Giray. Mehmed recognized him as Fetih’s son, appointed him nureddin and made him take the name of Devlet Giray. His sons were to be called Fetih and Adil Giray in place of their lower class names of Kul-Bolda and Chul-Bolda. Because of this his family was called Choban or shepherd. The following year the Turks invaded Crimea and were defeated. While pursuing the defeated Turks Adil's father Mustafa-Devlet Giray-Choban was killed. (1880) differs from Gaivoronsky's account (above) as follows. The girl was called Maria Potoska. He has 'Haji Ahmed' for Haji Mustafa and 'Ahmed Giray' for Devlet Geray. He seems to think (p558) that Adil was another son of 'Choban Giray'. He says that Mustafa was adopted because Mehmed was childless. Purgstall (1856) says that the girl was 'probably Maria Potocka'. Martyr Macarius the Archimandrite of Kanev and Pereyaslavl, Commemorated on September 7;

Mongol, Crimea, 1671-1704, Crimean Khan, Selim I Giray, 4 times Khan, first time lost to Pochaev Icon
Mongol, Crimea, 1671-1704, Crimean Khan, Selim I Giray; I Giray, Selim Khan Girai (Crimean Tatar: I Selim Geray, Turkish: 1. Selim Giray) was four times khan of the Crimean Khanate in the period from 1671 to 1704. During this time Crimean khans were regularly appointed and replaced by the Ottomans. The main events of the period were the continuing conflicts in Ukraine, the Russian capture of Azov and the Great Turkish War during which the Turks were pushed back from Vienna to about the line of Belgrade. Unlike other khans of the period, he ruled well and had no conflicts with his nobles. He was born in 1631. khans were the direct descendants of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Emperor. After the death of Genghis Khan (1227) the empire was partitioned and the part in East Europe and Northwest Asia was named Golden Horde. The Golden Horde khans embraced Islam. region which was also called Desht-i Qipchaq was the home of Kypchak Turks and the khanate was Turkified. the early 15th century Golden Horde was further partitioned. One of the parts was the Crimean Khanate founded in and around the Crimean Peninsula, modern Ukraine in 1441. 1478, Giray was the name of the dynasty of khans. However, after partitioning, the parts of the khanate were no longer the major powers in the East Europe and in 1478 after an Ottoman campaign to Cremea, the Crimean Khanate had to accept the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Being the main Moslem vassal of the empire, Crimean Khanate had a privileged status in the Ottoman Empire. father Bahadır I Giray (1637) was one of the many sons of Selâmet I Giray (1608). Selyamet was the ancestor of most subsequent khans. He had 10 daughters and either 10 or 13 sons, five of whom were khans. Among his sons were Devlet II Giray (1699, 1709), Gazi III Giray (1704), Qaplan I Giray (1707, 1713, 1730), Saadet IV Giray (1717), Meñli II Giray (1724, 1737) and Selâmet II Giray (1740) and Azamet, Adil, Muhamed, Shabaz, Maksud, Sahib and Safa. Most subsequent khans were descended from Devlet II, except for the sons of Saadet and Selyamet and the son and grandson of Qaplan. reign (1671-1678)[edit] was appointed as the khan in 1671 while he was in retirement at 'Cholmek' near Yambol in modern in Bulgaria. It is said that he obtained the khanship by bribing vizier Kologi.[1] His kalga and nureddin were his brother Selyamet and his cousin Safa. He was immediately called to fight in the Polish–Ottoman War (1672–76). Howorth[2] says that he and his two sons contributed to the capture of Kamianets-Podilskyi. He captured many prisoners in Pokutia and Volhynia but was forced to abandon them by Jan Sobieski. When the Nogais near Akkerman revolted against the Porte Selim forced them to move to Crimea, but they drifted back. 1676 the pro-Turkish Doroshenko was defeated at Chyhyryn by the Russians and forced to abdicate. In 1677 Turkish and Crimean troops were sent to re-take Chyryhin. The Russians barely won the siege, Selim received part of the blame and was removed. See Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681). He spent the winter in Kaffa and retired to Rhodes. was followed by Murad Giray and then Haci II Giray. In 1683 Murad was removed for his part in the Turkish defeat at Vienna. Haci was soon driven out by the Crimean nobles. reign (1684-1691)[edit] Turkish disaster at Vienna led to the so-called Great Turkish War (1683-1699) in which all the neighboring powers ganged up to push the Turks south. Russia’s role was to send two expeditions against Crimea (Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689). Both failed due to supply problems, but they kept Crimean troops away from the main fighting in the west. In 1688 Selim defeated some Austrians. In 1689 he was again successful near Belgrade, but his son was killed. He chose to resign the khanship and make the pilgrimage to Mecca. On his return he settled at an estate called ‘Kazikui near Silivri’. [3] was followed by Saadet III Giray who was removed after less than a year. The next khan, Safa Giray of Crimea, was replaced by Selim at Crimean request. Saadet failed the Turks militarily and Safa was accused of drunkenness, among other things, Reign (1692-1699)[edit] kalga was his son Devlet. His nureddin was Shahin, the son of his nephew Selyamet. His reign was dominated by three problems: fighting in the Balkans, raiding and fighting in Ukraine and the Russian capture of Azov. 1692 he was immediately called to fight in the Balkans. In September 1695 he was again called west and took part in the battle of Lippa or Lugos. (see de:Friedrich von Veterani) the Azov campaigns (1695–96) Peter the Great tried to capture Azov, the second campaign being successful. Russia held Azov until 1711. Crimeans raided Domanchov (1692), Poltava (1692,1693) and Pereiaslav (1694). In return the Cossacks raided Ochakov and Perekop. Following the Azov campaigns the Cossacks built forts near the mouth of the Don and Crimeans raided toward Lemburg (1697). Crimeans fought Poles at the Battle of Podhajce (1698). is not clear why Selim chose to leave the throne. He retired to an esate near Silivri. His departure roughly coincided with the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) which ended the Great Turkish War and the Treaty of Constantinople (1700) which ended Russian involvement in the same war. this time Selim suffered from gout and moved to various places near Istanbul in hope of a cure. Selim was followed by his son Devlet II Giray. Devlet was removed and replaced by his father (fourth reign) because of conflicts with his brothers and because of his provocative hostility to Russia. reign (1702–1704)[edit] 71-year old Selim appointed his sons Gazi and Qaplan as kalga and nureddin. In 1704 Selim warned the Porte of Russian expansionism, just as his son had done. He died in Bahçesaray, Crimea and was buried in the tomb of the mosque named after him (22 July 1704). He was followed by Gazi III Giray (1704), Qaplan I Giray (1707) and Devlet II Giray again (1709). a war hero, Selim is also known for his talent as a poet and a musician. As a poet, he wrote the zafername (book of victories) about his victories against Russians at Perekop. During his frequent stays in İstanbul, he supported musicians like Hafız Post (1630–1694). Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated on July 23; Commemoration of the Miraculous Appearance of the Mother of God at Pochaev, which saved the Monastery from the assault of the Tatars and Turks, Commemorated on July 23; of the Miraculous Appearance of the Mother of God at Pochaev, which saved the Monastery from the assault of the Tatars and Turks Pochaev Icon of the Mother of God is among the most revered sacred objects of the Orthodox Church. Located in the Dormition Cathedral at Pochaev, Ukraine, the Icon is reknowned throughout the entire Slavic world, and is venerated in Russia, Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria, and in other places. Christians of other confessions also venerate the Pochaev Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos. The wonderworking Icon has been treasured at the Pochaev Lavra for over 400 years. miracles have taken place before the holy Icon, and these are recorded in special books at the monastery. The books contain the personal testimonies of people who prayed before the Pochaev Icon and were healed of their illnesses, delivered from unclean spirits, or freed from captivity. Many sinners were also brought to repentance. Feast Day in honor of the Pochaev Icon of the Mother of God was appointed to commemorate the deliverance of the Dormition Lavra from a siege by the Turks on July 20-23, 1675. the summer of 1675 during the Zbarazhsk War with the Turks, in the reign of the Polish King Jan Sobesski (1674-1696), regiments composed of Tatars under the command of Khan Nurredin via Vishnevets fell upon the Pochaev monastery, surrounding it on three sides. The weak monastery walls and its stone buildings did not offer much protection against a siege. Igoumen Joseph Dobromirsky urged the brethren and laypeople to pray to their heavenly intercessors, the Most Holy Theotokos and Saint Job of Pochaev (October 28). monks and the people prayed fervently, prostrating themselves before the wonderworking Icon of the Mother of God, and the reliquary containing the relics of Saint Job. At sunrise on the morning of July 23, as the Tatars prepared to attack the monastery, the Igoumen ordered an Akathist to the Theotokos to be sung. At the opening words, “O Queen of the Heavenly Hosts,” the Mother of God suddenly appeared over the church, in “an unfurled radiant white omaphorion,” with angels holding unsheathed swords. Saint Job stood beside the Mother of God, bowing to her and beseeching her to defend the monastery. Tatars believed that the heavenly army was a vision, and in their confusion they started shooting arrows at the Most Holy Theotokos and Saint Job, but the arrows turned backwards and wounded those who shot them. The enemy, gripped by terror, fled in panic, trampling upon and killing each other. The defenders of the monastery pursued them and took many prisoners. Later, some of the prisoners converted to the Orthodox Faith and remained at the monastery thereafter. the year 1721, Pochaev was occupied by the Uniates. Even during this difficult time for the Lavra, the monastery Chronicle lists 539 miracles of the Pochaev Icon. In the second half of the eighteenth century, a Uniate nobleman, Count Nicholas Pototski, became a benefactor of the Pochaev Lavra through the following miraculous circumstance. After accusing his coachman of overturning the carriage with runaway horses, the Count took out a pistol to shoot him. The coachman, turning towards the mountain of Pochaev, stretched out his hands and cried: "Mother of God, depicted in the Pochaev Icon, save me!” times Pototski tried to shoot the pistol, which had never failed him, but the weapon misfired and the coachman remained alive. Pototski went at once to the wonderworking Icon and resolved to devote himself and all his property to building up the monastery. With the money he contributed, the Dormition cathedral was built, as well as other buildings for the brethren. return of the Pochaev Monastery to the Orthodox Church in 1832 was marked by the miraculous healing of the blind maiden Anna Akimchukova, who had come on pilgrimage to the holy shrine along with her seventy-year-old grandmother from Kremenets-Podolsk, 200 versts away. In memory of this event, the Archbishop of Volhynia and Archimandrite Innocent of the Lavra (1832-1840) appointed that an Akathist be read on Saturdays before the wonderworking Icon. During the time of Archimandrite Agathangelus, Archbishop of Volhynia (1866-1876), a separate chapel was built in the galleries of the Holy Trinity church, which was dedicated on July 23, 1875 in memory of the victory over the Tatars. wonderworking Pochaev Icon is also commemorated on Friday of Bright Week, and on September 8.

Mongol, Crimea, 1675, Zbarazhsk War with the Turks, Zbarazh Castle, H R Source, Volhynia, W Ukraine
Zbarazhsk Castle; Zbarazhsk War with the Turks 1675; Commemoration of the Miraculous Appearance of the Mother of God at Pochaev, which saved the Monastery from the assault of the Tatars and Turks, Commemorated on July 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1675, Turkish siege Pochaev on July 20-23, 1675
Volynia, Turkish siege on July 20-23, 1675; Crimean-Nogai Raids; Commemoration of the Miraculous Appearance of the Mother of God at Pochaev, which saved the Monastery from the assault of the Tatars and Turks, Commemorated on July 23;

Mongol, Crimea, 1675, Pochaev Icon saves Pochaev Monastery from Tartars and Turks
Pochaev; Pochayiv Lavra; Uniates; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated on July 23; Commemoration of the Miraculous Appearance of the Mother of God at Pochaev, which saved the Monastery from the assault of the Tatars and Turks, Commemorated on July 23; of the Miraculous Appearance of the Mother of God at Pochaev, which saved the Monastery from the assault of the Tatars and Turks Pochaev Icon of the Mother of God is among the most revered sacred objects of the Orthodox Church. Located in the Dormition Cathedral at Pochaev, Ukraine, the Icon is reknowned throughout the entire Slavic world, and is venerated in Russia, Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria, and in other places. Christians of other confessions also venerate the Pochaev Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos. The wonderworking Icon has been treasured at the Pochaev Lavra for over 400 years. miracles have taken place before the holy Icon, and these are recorded in special books at the monastery. The books contain the personal testimonies of people who prayed before the Pochaev Icon and were healed of their illnesses, delivered from unclean spirits, or freed from captivity. Many sinners were also brought to repentance. Feast Day in honor of the Pochaev Icon of the Mother of God was appointed to commemorate the deliverance of the Dormition Lavra from a siege by the Turks on July 20-23, 1675. the summer of 1675 during the Zbarazhsk War with the Turks, in the reign of the Polish King Jan Sobesski (1674-1696), regiments composed of Tatars under the command of Khan Nurredin via Vishnevets fell upon the Pochaev monastery, surrounding it on three sides. The weak monastery walls and its stone buildings did not offer much protection against a siege. Igoumen Joseph Dobromirsky urged the brethren and laypeople to pray to their heavenly intercessors, the Most Holy Theotokos and Saint Job of Pochaev (October 28). monks and the people prayed fervently, prostrating themselves before the wonderworking Icon of the Mother of God, and the reliquary containing the relics of Saint Job. At sunrise on the morning of July 23, as the Tatars prepared to attack the monastery, the Igoumen ordered an Akathist to the Theotokos to be sung. At the opening words, “O Queen of the Heavenly Hosts,” the Mother of God suddenly appeared over the church, in “an unfurled radiant white omaphorion,” with angels holding unsheathed swords. Saint Job stood beside the Mother of God, bowing to her and beseeching her to defend the monastery. Tatars believed that the heavenly army was a vision, and in their confusion they started shooting arrows at the Most Holy Theotokos and Saint Job, but the arrows turned backwards and wounded those who shot them. The enemy, gripped by terror, fled in panic, trampling upon and killing each other. The defenders of the monastery pursued them and took many prisoners. Later, some of the prisoners converted to the Orthodox Faith and remained at the monastery thereafter. the year 1721, Pochaev was occupied by the Uniates. Even during this difficult time for the Lavra, the monastery Chronicle lists 539 miracles of the Pochaev Icon. In the second half of the eighteenth century, a Uniate nobleman, Count Nicholas Pototski, became a benefactor of the Pochaev Lavra through the following miraculous circumstance. After accusing his coachman of overturning the carriage with runaway horses, the Count took out a pistol to shoot him. The coachman, turning towards the mountain of Pochaev, stretched out his hands and cried: "Mother of God, depicted in the Pochaev Icon, save me!” times Pototski tried to shoot the pistol, which had never failed him, but the weapon misfired and the coachman remained alive. Pototski went at once to the wonderworking Icon and resolved to devote himself and all his property to building up the monastery. With the money he contributed, the Dormition cathedral was built, as well as other buildings for the brethren. return of the Pochaev Monastery to the Orthodox Church in 1832 was marked by the miraculous healing of the blind maiden Anna Akimchukova, who had come on pilgrimage to the holy shrine along with her seventy-year-old grandmother from Kremenets-Podolsk, 200 versts away. In memory of this event, the Archbishop of Volhynia and Archimandrite Innocent of the Lavra (1832-1840) appointed that an Akathist be read on Saturdays before the wonderworking Icon. During the time of Archimandrite Agathangelus, Archbishop of Volhynia (1866-1876), a separate chapel was built in the galleries of the Holy Trinity church, which was dedicated on July 23, 1875 in memory of the victory over the Tatars. wonderworking Pochaev Icon is also commemorated on Friday of Bright Week, and on September 8. Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Job, Abbot and Wonderworker of Pochaev, Commemorated August 28 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Pochaev, Commemorated September 8 ; Venerable Job the Abbot of Pochaev, Commemorated October 10 ; Repose of the Venerable Job, Abbot and Wonderworker of Pochaev, Commemorated on October 28;

Mongol, Crimea, 1774-1783, Independent Crimea Folder

Crimea, 1774-1776, Independent Crimea
Crimea, 1774-1776, Independent Crimea; Crimea, 1783, Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5;

Mongol, Crimea, 1783-1917, Crimea in the Russian Empire Folder

Mongol, Crimea, 1783, Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire
Crimea, 1783, Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5;

Mongol, Crimear, 1853-1856, Crimean War, East v Ottomans and West
Crimean War (1853-1856); FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE, NURSE, RENEWER OF SOCIETY (12 AUGUST 1910); Icon of the Mother of God of Gerbovets, Commemorated on October 1 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29;

Cherson, Mongol Crimea, Greek name
Cherson, Crimea; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; St Callinicus the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on August 23; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Venerable Theodore the Confessor the Abbot of the Studion, Commemorated on November 11 ; Hieromartyr Clement the Pope of Rome, Commemorated November 25 ; Apostle Clement of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Capiton of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Eugene of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; St Martin the Confessor the Pope of Rome, Commemorated on April 14; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Korsun, Mongol Crimea, Slavic name
Cherson, Crimea; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; St Callinicus the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on August 23; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Venerable Theodore the Confessor the Abbot of the Studion, Commemorated on November 11 ; Hieromartyr Clement the Pope of Rome, Commemorated November 25 ; Apostle Clement of the Seventy, Commemorated on January 4; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Repose of St Cyril, Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Commemorated on February 14; Hieromartyr Basil of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Capiton of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Hieromartyr Eugene of Cherson, Commemorated on March 7; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; St Martin the Confessor the Pope of Rome, Commemorated on April 14; Hieromartyr Kirion II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, Commemorated on June 27; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Azov Lands (Sea of Azov)
Sea of Azov; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15 ;

Alma River Source

Alma River 1

Alma River Mouth (Black Sea)

Alma River

Perekop Isthmus, Crimea (meaning to dig throughÂ)
Perekop Isthmus; between Crimea and Ukraine; Venerable Ephraim the Abbot of Perekop the Wonderworker of Novgorod, Commemorated on September 26; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Ephraim the Abbot of Perekop, Novgorod, Commemorated on May 16 ;

Tmutarakan, Crimea
Tmutarakan peninsula (on the eastern banks of the Kerchensk straits); Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23;

Taman Peninsula, Crimea
Taman Peninsula; Venerable Nikon the Abbot of the Kiev Far Caves, Commemorated on March 23;

Surozh, Crimea, Mongol Lands
Sudak (Surozha, Surrentium), Crimea;; Icon of the Mother of God of Novgorod; St Stephen the Confessor the Archbishop of Surozha in the Crimea, Commemorated on December 15 ;

Sudak (Surozha, Surrentium), Mongol Crimea
Sudak (Surozha, Surrentium), Crimea; St Stephen the Confessor the Archbishop of Surozha in the Crimea, Commemorated on December 15 ;

Taurida (Taurica, the Crimean Penninsula)
Taurida; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15;

Akritian, Cherson, Crimea
Akritian (Anti Moslem Frontier) Cherson; Translation of the relics of the Venerable Theodore the Abbot of Studion, Commemorated January 26 ;

Korsun, Crimea, Mongol Lands
Korsun, Crimea ; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; Icon of the Mother of God of Minsk, Commemorated on August 13 ; Repose of the New-Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal of the Apostles, Commemorated on August 24; Icon of the Mother of God of Korsun, Commemorated on October 9; St Joachim, First Bishop of Novgorod, Commemorated February 10 ; Korsun, , the Greek name for Cherson; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Methodius, Commemorated on May 11 and April 6 ; St George the Confessor the Bishop of Mitylene, Commemorated on April 7; Equal of the Apostles and Teacher of the Slavs, Cyril, Commemorated on May 11 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Equal of the Apostles Great Prince Vladimir, in Holy Baptism Basil, the Enlightener of the Russian Land, Commemorated on July 15; The Placing of the Honorable Robe of the Most Holy Mother of God at Blachernae, Commemorated on July 2;

Mount Ayu-Dag, Crimea
Mount Ayu-Dag; St John the Bishop of the Goths in the Crimea, Commemorated on June 26;

Alushta, Crimea
Alushta, Crimea; Martyrs Inna, Pinna, and Rimma, disciples of the Apostle Andrew, in Scythia, Commemorated on January 20; Holy Martyrs Inna, Pinna and Rimma were Slavs from northern Scythia (modern Bulgaria), and they were disciples of the holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called. They preached the Gospel of Christ and they baptized many barbarians who converted to the true Faith. They were seized by the local chieftain, but they would not deny Christ, nor would they offer sacrifice to idols. was wintertime, and the rivers were so frozen that not only people, but also horses with carts could travel on the ice. The chieftain had the saints tied to logs on the ice, and gradually lowered them into the freezing water. When the ice reached their necks, they surrendered their blessed souls to the Lord. Martyrs Inna, Pinna, and Rimma, disciples of Apostle Andrew in Scythia, Commemorated on June 20;

Mongol, Persia Folder, Mongolian Ilkhanate Empire

Mongol, Persia, 1256-1353, History Folder, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Empire

Mongol, Persia, 1256-1353, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Empire, 1256-1353
Persia, 1256-1353, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Empire, 1256-1353; St Demetrius the Devoted, King of Georgia, Commemorated on March 16;

Mongol, Persia, 1257-1265, Ilkhan Emperor, Hulagu, civil wars, over m of western asia, Genghis gs
Persia, 1256-1265, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Hulagu Khan; Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu (c. 1215 - 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Western Asia. Son of Tolui and the Keraite princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan and brother of Ariq Böke, Möngke Khan, and Kublai Khan. army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran. Under Hulagu's leadership, the siege of Baghdad (1258) destroyed Baghdad's standing in the Islamic Golden Age and weakened Damascus, causing a shift of Islamic influence to the Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo and ended the Abbasid Dynasty. St. Prochorus of Georgia, Commemorated on February 12;

Mongol, Persia, 1265-1282, Ilkhanate Emperor, Abaqa Khan, civil wars with Mongol Empire, invaded Syria unsuccessfully
Persia, 1265-1282, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Abaqa Khan ; Khan (February 1234 - 4 April 1282, paternal uncle, also transliterated Abaġa), was the second Mongol ruler (Ilkhan) of the Ilkhanate. son of Hulagu Khan and Lady Yesünčin. He was the grandson of Tolui and reigned from 1265 to 1282 and was succeeded by his brother Ahmed Tekuder.[1] of Abaqa's reign was consumed with civil wars in the Mongol Empire, such as those between the Ilkhanate and the northern khanate of the Golden Horde. Abaqa also engaged in unsuccessful attempts at military invasion of Syria, including the Second Battle of Homs. was born in Mongolia[1] in February 1234, son of Ilkhanate founder Hulagu Khan. Abaqa was a Buddhist. A favoured son of Hulagu, he was made governor of Turkestan.[2] died from illness in 1265. Before his death, he had been negotiating with the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos to add a daughter of the Byzantine imperial family to Hulagu's number of wives. VIII had selected his illegitimate daughter Maria Palaiologina, who was dispatched in 1265, escorted by the abbot of Pantokrator monastery, Theodosius de Villehardouin.[3] Historian Steven Runciman relates how she was accompanied by the Patriarch Euthymius of Antioch.[2] Hulagu died before she arrived, she was instead married to Hulagu's son, Abaqa. He received her hand in marriage when he was installed as Ilkhan. When Hulagu's wife Doquz Khatun also died in 1265, the role of spiritual leader transferred to Maria, who was called "Despina Khatun" by the Mongols. was Abaqa who decided on the permanent location for the Ilkhanate capital, Tabriz, which was in the northwestern grasslands that the Mongols preferred.[4] took power four months after the death of his father, and then spent the next several months redistributing fiefs and governorships.[2] of the coins from Abaqa's era display the Christian cross, and bear in Arabic the Christian inscription "In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, only one God".[5] campaigns[edit] Horde[edit] Dinar of Abaqa Khan, Isfahan Mint. dirham of Abaqa Khan, struck at the Tiflis (Tbilisi) mint, dated 1265 Hulagu's reign, the Mongols of the Ilkhanate had been at war with the Mongols of the Golden Horde. This continued into Abaqa's reign, and the Golden Horde invaded the Ilkhanate in the Spring after his accession. The invasion was partly due to an alliance between the Golden Horde and the Egyptian Mamluks. As part of this alliance, the Golden Horde would attempt to distract Abaqa through an attack on his territories to keep him from invading Mamluk-held Syria.[2] hostilities continued until the death of the Golden Horde's khan Berke, in 1267. The Great Khan Kublai attempted to intervene to stop the civil war, and due to his influence, the Golden Horde's khan, Möngke Temür did not launch a major invasion into Abaqa's territory.[6] Möngke Temür still established an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluk sultan Baibars promising that he would attack Abaqa and share any conquered territories.[7] However, at the same time, Möngke Temür sent envoys to congratulate Abaqa when the Ilkhan defeated Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq.[8] In 1270, he allowed Mengu-Timur to collect his revenues from workshops in Iran.[9] Ögedei's grandson Kaidu, Batu's grandson Mengu-Timur and Baraq of the Chagatai Khanate formed an alliance against Kublai Khan and Abaqa in Talas. They appointed Kaidu a ruler of Central Asia. The Kaidu–Kublai war lasted for a few decades. 1270, Baraq Khan of the Chagataids tried to annex Iran, which started a new war against Abaqa in the city of Herat, though Abaqa was able to launch a successful defence and, also, defeated Baraq's relative Teguder in Georgia. In the following year, he retaliated by sending an army against the Chagatai Khanate. They plundered Bukhara and surrounding areas. There were small conflicts between Abaqha and Qara'unas under Chagatayd noyans until 1280. Ismailis[edit] Main articles: Mongol campaign against the Nizaris and Gerdkuh of Syria[edit] See also: Mongol invasions of Syria relations with Christians[edit] was one in a long line of Mongol rulers who attempted to secure Western co-operation against the Muslim Mamluks. He corresponded with Pope Clement IV during 1267-1268, and reportedly sent a Mongol ambassador in 1268, trying to form a Franco-Mongol alliance between his forces, those of the West, and those of his father-in-law Michael VIII. He received responses from Rome and from James I of Aragon, though it is unclear if this was what led to James's unsuccessful expedition to Acre in 1269.[10] Abaqa is recorded as having written to the Aragonese king, saying that he was going to send his brother, Aghai, to join the Aragonese when they arrived in Cilicia. Abaqa also sent embassies to Edward I of England, and in 1274 sent a Mongol delegation to Pope Gregory X at the Second Council of Lyons, where Abaqa's secretary Rychaldus read a report to the assembly, reminding them of Hulagu's friendliness towards Christians, and assuring them that Abaqa planned to drive the Muslims from Syria.[11] But neither this diplomatic mission, nor two further embassies to Europe in 1276 and 1277, brought any tangible results. during the Ninth Crusade (1271)[edit] operations (red) under Abaqa's general Samagar during the Ninth Crusade in 1271 also: Ninth Crusade VI of Antioch, under the influence of his father-in-law Hetoum I of Armenia, had voluntarily submitted to Mongol authority in 1260,[12] while Abaqa's father Hulagu was in power, making Antioch and Tripoli vassal states of the Ilkhanate. In 1268, the Mamluk leader Baibars captured Antioch,[13] and Bohemond obtained a truce with Baibars in order to avoid losing Tripoli.[14][15] response to the fall of Antioch, Edward I of England arrived in Acre in 1271, trying to lead a new Crusade. It was ultimately considered a military failure, but Edward was able to eventually secure a truce with the Mamluks before he had to return to England. Edward arrived in Acre, he had sent an embassy to Abaqa, led by Reginald Rossel, Godefroi of Waus and John of Parker, requesting military assistance from the Mongols.[16] Abaqa was occupied by other conflicts in Turkestan but responded positively to Edward's request, sending 10,000 Mongol horsemen under general Samagar from the occupation army in Seljuk Anatolia to Syria: talking over the matter, we have on our account resolved to send to your aid Cemakar (Samagar) at the head of a mighty force; thus, when you discuss among yourselves the other plans involving the aforementioned Cemakar be sure to make explicit arrangements as to the exact month and day on which you will engage the enemy." — Letter from Abaqa to Edward I, 4 September 1271.[17] Mongols, including some auxiliary Seljukid troops, ravaged the land from Aleppo southward. Though the force was relatively small, they triggered an exodus of the Muslim population (who remembered the previous campaigns of the Mongol general Kitbuqa) as far south as Cairo.[18] Edward, for his part, was never able to muster his own forces to coordinate actions with the Mongols or even achieve any military victories, so Abaqa's forces eventually withdrew. When Baibars mounted a counter-offensive from Egypt on 12 November, the Mongols had already retreated beyond the Euphrates. of 1280–1281[edit] Mamluk leader Baibars died in 1277. In 1280–1281, Abaqa promoted new attacks against Syria. In September 1280, the Mongols occupied Baghras and Darbsak, and took Aleppo on October 20. The Mongols sent envoys to Acre to request military support for their campaign, but the Crusaders were still in a 10-year truce with the Mamluks. The Vicar of the Patriarch declined Abaqa's request, saying that the city was suffering from hunger, and that the king of Jerusalem was embroiled in another war. The King of Cyprus Hugues III and Bohemond VII also mobilized their armies, but could not intervene because the Mamluks had already positioned themselves between them and the Mongols.[19] and Leo III urged the Franks to start a new Crusade, but only the Hospitallers and Edward I (who could not come for lack of funds) responded favourably.[20] The Hospitallers of Marqab made combined raids into the Buqaia, and won several engagements against the Sultan,[21] raiding as far as the Krak des Chevaliers in October 1280, and defeating the Mamluk army of the Krak in February 1281.[19] Mongols finally retreated, pledging to come back for the winter of 1281. They informed the Franks that they would bring 50,000 Mongol horsemen and 50,000 Mongol infantry, but the request apparently remained without a response.[21] of Autumn 1281[edit] of the Mongols (left) at the 1281 Battle of Homs. Egyptian Muslims had respected a 10-year truce with the Crusaders which began in 1271. On 3 May 1281, the new Muslim sultan Qalawun signed a new 10-year truce with the Barons of Acre and a second 10-year truce with Bohemond VII of Tripoli, on 16 July 1281.[22] announced Mongol invasion started in September 1281. They were joined by the Armenians under Leo III, and by about 200 Hospitalier knights from the fortress of Marqab,[23][24] who considered they were not bound by the truce with the Mamluks.[25] 30 October 1281, 50,000 Mongol troops, together with 30,000 Armenians, Georgians, Greeks, and the Hospitalier Knights of Marqab fought against the Muslim leader Qalawun at the Second Battle of Homs, but were beaten back.[25] and succession[edit] died at Hamadan on 4 April 1282, probably in a state of delirium tremens. This illness was probably caused by too much consumption of alcohol, a habit common to many Mongol leaders. However, in 1285, his minister of finance Shams ad-Din Juvayni was accused of having had him poisoned.[26] Abaqa's death, his widow Maria fled back to Constantinople where her father, apparently wishing to spare his capital the fate that befell Baghdad, tried to marry her off again to another Mongol khan. Maria would not accept the offer, became a nun, and founded the church of Panagia Mouchliotissa around 1285. was succeeded by his brother Tekuder, who despite his earlier conflicts with the Egyptian Mamluks, had converted to Islam. Tekuder reversed Abaqa's pro-Christian policies and proposed an alliance with the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun, who resumed attacks on Frankish territory, capturing the northern fortress of Margat in 1285, Lattakia in 1287, and Tripoli in 1289.[27] In 1284, Abaqa's son Arghun led a successful revolt, backed by Kublai. Arghun had his uncle Tekuder executed and took power himself, returning to the pro-Christian policies of Abaqa. younger son, Gaykhatu, assumed the throne in 1291.[28][29][30] Martyr Salome the Georgian, Commemorated on July 20; little information has come down to us about the holy martyr Salome of Jerusalem and Kartli, who lived in the XIII century at a women’s monastery in Jerusalem. She was arrested by the Persian Moslems because of her outspoken defense of Christ. Synaxarion of the Monastery of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem, where she was martyred, tells us that at first, she gave in to the threats of the Persians and denied Christ. Later, however, she repented and publicly confessed Christ as the Son of God and the Savior of the world. Salome was tortured by the Persians because of her faith in Christ. Finally, she was beheaded and her holy relics were thrown into the fire. is believed that she was executed after the martyrdom of Saint Luka of Jerusalem, which occurred on February 12, 1277. St Demetrius the Devoted, King of Georgia, Commemorated on March 16; St Pimen of Salosi the Enlightener of Dagestan and the North Caucasus People, Commemorated on March 16;

Mongol, Persia, 1282-1284, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Tekuder
Persia, 1282-1284, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Tekuder; St Demetrius the Devoted, King of Georgia, Commemorated on March 16; St Pimen of Salosi the Enlightener of Dagestan and the North Caucasus People, Commemorated on March 16;

Mongol, Persia, 1284-1291, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Arghun
Persia, 1284-1291, Persian Mongolian Ilkhanate Emperor, Arghun; St Demetrius the Devoted, King of Georgia, Commemorated on March 16; St Pimen of Salosi the Enlightener of Dagestan and the North Caucasus People, Commemorated on March 16;