Belgium Folder, and Holy Roman Empire.kmz

Belgium Folder, and Holy Roman Empire

Belgium (Meuse and Scheldt Rivers, Ardennes Mts)
Belgium; THOMAS A KEMPIS, PRIEST, MONK, AND WRITER (24 JULY 1471) ; JOHN WYCLIF, TRANSLATOR AND CONTROVERSIALIST, 30 OCT. 1384 ; GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ; DAMIEN of MOLOKAI, PRIEST AND LEPER, 1889, Commemorated April 15 ; GEORGE, SOLDIER and MARTYR, 23 APRIL 303, Commemorated April 23; Martyr Barbarus the Soldier in Morea, Commemorated on May 6; ALCUIN, DEACON, SCHOLAR, AND ABBOT OF TOURS (20 MAY 804); Glorification of the Venerable Zebulon, the father of St Nino Enlightener of Georgia, Commemorated on May 20; Nicholas Copernicus of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23 ; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 26 ; JOAN OF ARC, VISIONARY, 30 May 1431; Hieromartyr Lucian the Bishop at Beauvais in France, Commemorated on June 3;

Belgium, 800-1806, Holy Roman Empire, Revived in 2009, Centered in Belgium
Belgium, 800-1806, Holy Roman Empire, Revived in 2009, Centered in Belgium; Charlemagne, a Frank, first Holy Roman Emperor (800-814); Charlemagne Building; European Union Constitution, Nov 3, 2009;

Belgium, 1195-1350, Northern Crusades, ordered by Popem, Battle of the Ice, Pskov Lake
Russia, Novgorod, 1195-1350, Northern Crusades, ordered by Pope Celestine III; Rome, 1191-1198, Pope, Celestine III; Novgorod, 1242, Great Battle of the Ice of Pskov Lake, defeat of Teutonic Knights; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Belgium, 1517, Ninety Five Theses, Martin Luther, Protestant
Germany, 1517, Ninety Five Theses, Martin Luther, Protestant; Germany, 1503-1546, Martin Luther, Protestant ; Wittenberg, Germany ; Lutherhaus; MARTIN LUTHER, EDUCATOR, TRANSLATOR (18 FEB 1546); JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415;

Belgium, 1526-1804, Holy Roman Empire, Hapsburg Empire, Austria, Germany and Spain
Belgium, Holy Roman Empire, 1526-1804, Hapsburg Empire, Austria; St John of Galesh, Commemorated on October 21; Martyr Oprea of Salistie in Romania, Commemorated on October 21;

Belgium, 1699, Treaty of Karlowitz, Ended Ottoman Contorl Central Europe, Established Hapsburg Monarchy
Austria, 1699, Treaty of Karlowitz, Ended Ottoman Contorl Central Europe, Established Hapsburg Monarchy;

Belgium, 1806, Holy Roman Empire Disolved by Francis 1 after Austerlitz Battle
Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon over Holy Roman Empire, 1805; Austria, Austrian Emperor, 1804-1835, Francis I aka Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor;

Franks, Land of the Franks (Belgium then Paris in 508)
Franks; St Ambrose the Bishop of Milan, Commemorated December 7 ; Martyr Barbarus the Soldier in Morea, Commemorated on May 6; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 26 ;

Markomannia (Land of the Franks, Belgium)
Markomia, Markomannians were Frankish from the Land of the Franks in lower and middle Rhineland; Franks; St Ambrose the Bishop of Milan, Commemorated on December 7 ;

Belgium History Folder

Belgium, 40-99, 1st Century Folder, Lucian of Beauvais

Belgium, 40-96, Saint, Lucian of Beauvais
Belgium, 40-96, Saint, Lucian of Beauvais; Hieromartyr Lucian the Bishop at Beauvais in France, Commemorated on June 3; Hieromartyr Lucian lived in Rome, and his pagan name was Lucius. He was converted to Christ by the Apostle Peter, and was baptized. After Saint Peter’s death, Saint Lucian preached the Gospel in Italy. Saint Dionysius the Areopagite (October 3), a disciple of Saint Paul, arrived in Rome at this time. At the request of Saint Clement, Pope of Rome (November 25), he agreed to preach the Gospel in the West, and gathered companions and helpers for this task. Saint Clement consecrated Saint Lucian a bishop, then sent him off with Saint Dionysius, Saints Marcellinus and Saturninus, the Presbyter Maximian, and the Deacon Julian. holy preachers sailed from Italy to Gaul (modern France). Saint Marcellinus and those accompanying him continued on to Spain. Saint Saturninus went to Gaul, and Saint Dionysius and the others went to the region of Paris. From there Saint Lucian went to Belgium with Maximian and Julian. Lucian’s preaching was very successful. By the power of his words and the example of his life, he converted a large number of pagans to Christianity. Saint Lucian was a strict ascetic, and all day long he ate only a morsel of bread and some water. Towards the converted he was kindly, always joyful and cheerful of face. Soon almost all the settlements of Belgium were converted to Christ. this period, the Roman emperor Dometian (81-96) initiated a second persecution against Christians (after that of Nero, 54-68), and he issued an edict prescribing torture and execution for anyone who refused to offer sacrifice to the pagan gods. officials were sent to Belgium to carry out the edict. The Lord revealed to Saint Lucian the ordeal facing him. He gathered the flock together, urging them not to fear threats, tortures or death, and then he gave thanks to God for granting him the possibility of joining the company of the holy martyrs. After praying, Saint Lucian and the priest Maximian and Deacon Julian withdrew to the summit of a hill, where he continued to teach the people who came with him. the soldiers of the emperor came upon the saints and led them away for trial. Saints Maximian and Julian were urged to renounce Christ and offer sacrifice to idols, but both refused and were beheaded. the judge began to interrogate Saint Lucian, accusing him of sorcery and disobedience to the emperor and Senate. The saint replied that he was not a sorcerer, but rather a servant of the true God, the Lord Jesus Christ, and he refused to offer sacrifice to idols made by human hands. saint was subjected to fierce beatings, during which he repeated, “Never will I cease to praise Christ, the Son of God, in my heart, and with my lips.â€ Then the holy martyr was beheaded. A heavenly light shone over his body, and the Voice of the Savior was heard, summoning the valiant sufferer into the heavenly Kingdom to receive the martyr’s crown. By the power of God the saint stood up, picked up his severed head, and crossed over the river. Reaching the burial spot he had chosen, he lay down upon the ground and reposed in peace. of this great miracle about 500 pagans were converted to Christ. Later, a church was built over Saint Lucian’s grave, to which the relics of the martyrs Maximian and Julian were transferred.

Belgium, 300, 4th -8th Century Folder, Francia or Frankland

Belgium, 303-323, Zebulon, Enlightener of the Franks and Gaul, Father of St Nino Enlightner of Georgia
Belgium, 303-323 (about 20 years from his relative Great-martyr George's death in 303), Zebulon, Enlightener of the Franks and Gaul, Father of St Nino Enlightner of Georgia; Francia: the Frankish Empire, the capital later (508) moved to Paris; Franks; Glorification of the Venerable Zebulon, the father of St Nino Enlightener of Georgia, Commemorated on May 20; St Germanus the Bishop of Paris, Commemorated on May 28; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 26 ; St Germanus the Bishop of Paris, Commemorated on May 28;

Belgium, 336-350, Land of the Marcomanni and Queen Fritigil, Huns
Little Hungarian Plain, 350, Land of the Marcomanni and Queen Fritigil; Sabaria (Little Hungarian Plain), where the Alpokalja (Lower Alps) mountains meet the Little Hungarian Plain; St Martin the Merciful the Bishop of Tours, Commemorated October 12 ; St Martin the Merciful the Bishop of Tours, Commemorated November 11 ; St. Ambrose the Bishop of Milan, Commemorated on December 7; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Belgium, 349, Black Plague in Belgium
Belgium, 349, Black Plague in Belgium; REMIGIUS OF RHEIMS, BISHOP, APOSTLE OF THE FRANKS (1 OCTOBER 530);

Belgium, 481-843, Frankish Empire, Belgium (Francia or Frankland)
Frankish Empire, 481-843, Belgium (Francia or Frankland): the Frankish Empire, the capital later (508) moved to Paris; Franks; Glorification of the Venerable Zebulon, the father of St Nino Enlightener of Georgia, Commemorated on May 20; St Germanus the Bishop of Paris, Commemorated on May 28; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26;

Belgium, 481-843, Frankland (Francia)
Francia: the Frankish Empire, the capital later (508) moved to Paris; Franks; Glorification of the Venerable Zebulon, the father of St Nino Enlightener of Georgia, Commemorated on May 20; St Germanus the Bishop of Paris, Commemorated on May 28; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 26 ; St Germanus the Bishop of Paris, Commemorated on May 28;

Belgium, 481-843, Francia (Frankland)
Francia: the Frankish Empire, the capital later (508) moved to Paris; Franks; Glorification of the Venerable Zebulon, the father of St Nino Enlightener of Georgia, Commemorated on May 20; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; St Germanus the Bishop of Paris, Commemorated on May 28;

Belgium, 486-511, Frankish King, Clovis I
Belgium,486-511, Frankish King, Clovis I; Frankish Empire, 481-843, Belgium (Francia or Frankland): the Frankish Empire, the capital later (508) moved to Paris; Franks;

Belgium, 496, Upper Rhine River, Land of the Alemanni, Clovis, Franks
Alemanni, 496, Upper Rhine River, Land of the Alemanni, Clovis, Franks; REMIGIUS OF RHEIMS, BISHOP, APOSTLE OF THE FRANKS (1 OCTOBER 530);

Belgium, 774, Siege of Pavia (773–74), Frankish Invasion of Italy, Charlemagne, Ended Lombard Kingdom
Rome, 774, Siege of Pavia (773–74); Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4;

Belgium, 787, Scholastic Philosophy, Scholasticism, Schools in every abby, Charlemagne
Belgium, 787, Scholastic Philosophy, Scholasticism, Schools in every abby, Charlemagne Belgium, 800-814, Holy Roman Emperor, Charlemagne, a Frank, Belgium ; Saint Anthony, Metropolitan of Chqondidi, and Saint Jacob, Elder of Chqondidi, Commemorated on October 13;

Belgium, 800, 9th-11th Century, Holy Roman Empire Folder, HRE Begins

Belgium, 800-899, 9th Century Folder, Holy Roman Empire, Charlemagne,

Belgium, 801-814, HRE Emperor, Charlemagne, a Frank, Belgium
Belgium, 800-814, Holy Roman Emperor, Charlemagne, a Frank, Belgium ; St Theophanes the Confessor and Hymnographer, Bishop of Nicea, Commemorated on October 11 ; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869); ANSKAR, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY TO DENMARK AND SWEDEN (3 FEB 865); Icon of the Mother of God "œIveron", Commemorated on February 12; St Theophylactus the Bishop of Nicomedia, Commemorated on March 8; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6; ALCUIN, DEACON, SCHOLAR, AND ABBOT OF TOURS (20 MAY 804);

Belgium, 814-840, HRE Emperor, Louis the Pious, v over muslim Barcelona, sons' civil war
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 814-840, Louis the Pious; St Theophanes the Confessor and Hymnographer, Bishop of Nicea, Commemorated on October 11 ; ANSKAR, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY TO DENMARK AND SWEDEN (3 FEB 865); Icon of the Mother of God œIveronÂ, Commemorated on February 12; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4; St Methodius, Equal of the Apostles and Archbishop of Moravia, Enlightener of the Slavs, Commemorated on April 6;

Belgium, 840-855, HRE Emperor, Lothair I, governed Bavaria, civil war led to Ger and Fra
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 840-855, Lothair I; ANSKAR, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY TO DENMARK AND SWEDEN (3 FEB 865); St Photius the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 6; Icon of the Mother of God œIveronÂ, Commemorated on February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4;

Belgium, 844-875, HRE Emperor, Louis II of Italy, Carolingian intrvnt, Bari, Benevento, Saracens
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 850-875, Louis II of Italy; ANSKAR, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY TO DENMARK AND SWEDEN (3 FEB 865); St Photius the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 6; St Anthony the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ; Venerable Joseph the Hymnographer, Commemorated on April 4;

Belgium, 875-877, HRE Emperor, Charles the Bald, heir to Gaul a
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 875-877, Charles the Bald; St Photius the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 6; St Anthony the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 12; CYRIL AND METHODIUS, MISSIONARIES TO THE SLAVS (14 FEB 869) ;

Belgium, 877-888, HRE Emperor, Charles III, Charles the Fat, L Carolingian, L Frank
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 877-888, Charles III, Charles the Fat ; St Photius the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 6; St Anthony the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 888-891 or 962, HRE Emperor, No Emperor, , Interregum
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 888-891, No Emperor St Anthony the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 891-894, HRE Emperor, Guy III of Spoleto, fought over Italy, a w Saracens, traitor
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 891-894, Guy III of Spoleto; St Anthony the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 892-898, HRE Emperor, Lambert of Italy, fought over Italy w Guy, Anwulf, and Berangar
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 892-898, Lambert of Italy; St. Clement the Bishop of Ochrid and Enlightener of the Bulgarians, Commemorated on November 25; St Anthony the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 896-901,HRE Emperor, Arnulf of Carinthia, Carolingian , Interregum
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 896-899, Arnulf of Carinthia; St Anthony the Patriarch of Constantinople, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 900-999, 10th Century Folder, Holy Roman Empire, Louis the Blind, Benegar, Ottos I II and III

Belgium, 901-915, HRE Emperor, Louis the Blind, Belgium, across Alps to d Berengar, Interregum
Holy Roman Emperor, 899-915, Louis the Blind; Louis the Blind (c. 880 – 5 June 928[2]) was the king of Provence from 11 January 887, King of Italy from 12 October 900, and briefly Holy Roman Emperor, as Louis III, between 901 and 905. He was the son of Boso, the usurper king of Provence, and Ermengard, a daughter of the Emperor Louis II.[3] Through his father, he was a Bosonid, but through his mother, a Carolingian. He was blinded after a failed invasion of Italy in 905. EARLY ABBOTS of CLUNY, 30 April 909 ;

Belgium, 915-962, HRE Emperor, Berengar I of Italy, Interregum
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 915-962, Berengar I of Italy; Right-believing Prince Wenceslaus of the Czech Lands, Commemorated on March 4;

Belgium, 962-967, HRE Emperor, Otto I, German Ottonian Dynasty, over Hungarian Magyars
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 962-967, Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor ; Martyr Luke of Jerusalem, the Georgian, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 967-996, HRE Emperor, Otto II, German Ottonian Dy, annexed Italy from Byzantium
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 967-996, Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor; Martyr Luke of Jerusalem, the Georgian, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 996-1014, HRE Emperor, Otto III, German Ottonian, first German Pope after Rmn Rebellion
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 996-1014, Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor; Icon of the Mother of God œIveronÂ, Commemorated on February 12; Martyr Nicholas Dvali in Jerusalem, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 1000-1099, 11th Century Folder, Holy Roman Empire, First Crusade in 1096

Belgium, 1014-1027, Henry II, HRE Emperor, Christian, Last Ottonian, North of Alps
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1014-1027, Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor; Martyr Nicholas Dvali in Jerusalem, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 1027-1046, Conrad II, HRE Emprr, first of 4 Salian Es; German K, Italy, Burgandy; Church Imperial Power
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1027-1046, Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor; II (c. 989/990 - 4 June 1039), also known as Conrad the Elder and Conrad the Salic, was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1027 until his death in 1039. The first of a succession of four Salian emperors, who reigned for one century until 1125, Conrad also served as King of Germany from 1024, King of Italy from 1026, and King of Burgundy (Arelat) from 1033. son of Franconian count Henry of Speyer (also Henry of Worms) and Adelaide of Metz of the Matfriding dynasty, that had ruled the Duchy of Lorraine from 959 until 972, inherited the titles of count of Speyer and Worms during childhood after his father had died around the year 990. He extended his influence beyond his inherited lands, as he came into favor of the princes of the kingdom. When the imperial dynastic line was left without a successor after Emperor Henry II's death in 1024, on 4 September an assembly of the imperial princes appointed the 34 year-old Conrad king (Rex romanorum).[1][2] II largely continued the political course, the Renovatio regni Francorum of his Ottonian predecessor Henry II regarding the role and organisation of the Church and the status and affairs of Italy. He proceeded to evolve the Proprietary church as a basis for imperial power, preferring to appoint clerics over secular lords for important offices throughout the empire. Like Henry II before him, he insisted on his feudal claim (Honor Imperii), yet granted Italy a high degree of self-governance, near complete economic autonomy and recognized and respected the political importance and influence of the city of Rome and its curia in particular.[3][4] His reign marked a high point of medieval imperial rule during a relatively peaceful period for the empire. Upon the death of the childless King Rudolph III of Burgundy in 1032, Conrad claimed dominion over the Kingdom of Burgundy, conquered it and incorporated it into the empire.[2] The three kingdoms (Germany, Italy, and Burgundy) formed the basis of the empire as the "royal triad" (regna tria). Martyr Nicholas Dvali in Jerusalem, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 1046-1056, Henry III, HRE Emperor, Salian, ended Papal scism, freed Vatican from Rome nobles
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1046-1056, Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor; III (28 October 1016 – 5 October 1056), called the Black or the Pious, was Holy Roman Emperor from 1046 until his death in 1056. A member of the Salian dynasty, he was the eldest son of Emperor Conrad II of Germany and Gisela of Swabia.[1][2][3] was raised by his father, who made him Duke of Bavaria in 1026, appointed him co-ruler in 1028 and bestowed him with the duchy of Swabia and the Kingdom of Burgundy ten years later in 1038.[4] The emperor's death the following year ended a remarkably smooth and harmonious transition process towards Henry's sovereign rule, that was rather uncharacteristic for the Ottonian and Salian monarchs.[4] Henry succeeded Conrad II as Duke of Carinthia and King of Italy and continued to pursue his father's political course on the basis of virtus et probitas (courage and honesty), which led to an unprecedented sacral exaltation of the kingship. 1046 Henry ended the papal schism, was crowned Emperor by Pope Clement II, freed the Vatican from dependence on the Roman nobility and laid the foundation for its empire-wide authority. In the duchies Henry enforced sovereign royal right of disposition, thereby ensuring tighter control. In Lorraine, this led to years of conflict from which he emerged victorious. Another sphere of defiance formed in southern Germany from 1052 to 1055. Henry III died aged only 39. Modern historians, however, identify the final years of his reign as the beginning of a crisis in the Salian monarchy.[5][6] St Yaropolk the Prince of Vladimir-Volhynia, Commemorated on October 10; Martyr Nicholas Dvali in Jerusalem, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 1056-1084, Vacant Emperor Title till Henry IV, German King from 1053
Holy Roman Emperor, 1053-1105, Henry IV; BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ABBOT, THEOLOGIAN, AND POET (20 AUGUST 1153); St Yaropolk the Prince of Vladimir-Volhynia, Commemorated on October 10; Martyr Nicholas Dvali in Jerusalem, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 1084-1105, Henry IV, HRE Emperor, German, controversial, appointed commoners, walk to C, Inv c
Roman Emperor, 1084-1105, Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor; IV (German: Heinrich IV; 11 November 1050 - 7 August 1106) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 to 1105, King of Germany from 1054 to 1105, King of Italy and Burgundy from 1056 to 1105, and Duke of Bavaria from 1052 to 1054. was the son of Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor—the second monarch of the Salian dynasty—and Agnes of Poitou. his father's death on 5 October 1056, Henry was placed under his mother's guardianship. She made grants to German aristocrats to secure their support. Unlike her late husband, she could not control the election of the popes, thus the idea of the "liberty of the Church" strengthened during her rule. Taking advantage of her weakness, Archbishop Anno II of Cologne kidnapped Henry in April 1062. He administered Germany until Henry came of age in 1065. endeavoured to recover the royal estates that had been lost during his minority. He employed low-ranking officials to carry out his new policies, causing discontent in Saxony and Thuringia. Henry crushed a riot in Saxony in 1069 and overcame the rebellion of the Saxon aristocrat Otto of Nordheim in 1071. appointment of commoners to high office offended German aristocrats, and many of them withdrew from Henry's court. insisted on his royal prerogative to appoint bishops and abbots, although the reformist clerics condemned this practice as simony (a forbidden sale of church offices). Pope Alexander II blamed Henry's advisors for his acts and excommunicated them in early 1073. Henry's conflicts with the Holy See and the German dukes weakened his position and the Saxons rose up in open rebellion in the summer of 1074. Taking advantage of a quarrel between the Saxon aristocrats and peasantry, he forced the rebels into submission in October 1075. adopted an active policy in Italy, alarming Pope Alexander II's successor, Gregory VII, who threatened him with excommunication for simony. Henry persuaded most of the German bishops to declare the Pope's election invalid on 24 January 1076. In response, the Pope excommunicated Henry and released his subjects from their allegiance. German aristocrats who were hostile to Henry called for the Pope to hold an assembly in Germany to hear Henry's case. prevent the Pope from sitting in judgement on him, Henry went to Italy as far as Canossa to meet with the Pope. His penitential "Walk to Canossa" was a success and Gregory VII had no choice but to absolve him in January 1077. Henry's German opponents ignored his absolution and elected an antiking, Rudolf of Rheinfelden, on 14 March 1077. Pope was initially neutral in the two kings' conflict, enabling Henry to consolidate his position. Henry continued to appoint high-ranking clerics, for which the Pope again excommunicated him on 7 March 1080. Most German and northern Italian bishops remained loyal to Henry and they elected the antipope Clement III. Rudolf of Rheinfelden was killed in battle and his successor, Hermann of Salm, could only exert royal authority in Saxony. From 1081, Henry launched a series of military campaigns to Italy, and Clement III crowned him emperor in Rome on 1 April 1084. of Salm died and Henry pacified Saxony with the local aristocrats' assistance in 1088. launched an invasion against the pope's principal Italian ally, Matilda of Tuscany, in 1089. She convinced Henry's elder son, Conrad II, to take up arms against his father in 1093. Her alliance with Welf I, Duke of Bavaria, prevented Henry's return to Germany until 1096 when he was reconciled with Welf. After Clement III's death, Henry did not support new antipopes, but did not make peace with Pope Paschal II. proclaimed the first Reichsfriede (imperial peace) which covered the whole territory of Germany in 1103. younger son, Henry V, forced him to abdicate on 31 December 1105. He tried to regain his throne with the assistance of Lotharingian aristocrats, but became ill and died without receiving absolution from his excommunication. preeminent role in the Investiture Controversy, his "Walk to Canossa" and his conflicts with his sons and wife established his controversial reputation, with some regarding him as the stereotype of a tyrant, and others describing him as an exemplary monarch who protected the poor. Venerable Anthony the Roman and Abbot of Novgorod, Commemorated on August 3; BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ABBOT, THEOLOGIAN, AND POET (20 AUGUST 1153); St Yaropolk the Prince of Vladimir-Volhynia, Commemorated on October 10; Martyr Nicholas Dvali in Jerusalem, Commemorated on February 12;

Belgium, 1096, First Crusade, Holy Roman Empire
First Crusade, 1096 ; BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ABBOT, THEOLOGIAN, AND POET (20 AUGUST 1153); HILDEGARD OF BINGEN, VISIONARY (17 SEP 1179); GEORGE, SOLDIER and MARTYR, 23 APRIL 303, Commemorated April 23;

Belgium, 1100, 12th-14th Century, Holy Roman Empire Folder, Crusades and Avignon Papacy

Belgium, 1100-1199, 12th Century Folder, HRE, 2nd Crusade, 3rd, and Battle of the Ice Crusade

Belgium, 1101-1142, Philosopher, Peter Abelard, forerunner of Rousseau
France, 1100-1142, Philosopher, Peter Abelard; Abelard (c. 1079 - 21 April 1142) was a medieval French scholastic philosopher, leading logician, theologian, teacher, musician, composer, and poet.[4] philosophy he is celebrated for his logical solution to the problem of universals via nominalism and conceptualism and his pioneering of intent in ethics.[5] Often referred to as the "Descartes of the twelfth century", he is considered a forerunner of Rousseau, Kant, and Spinoza.[6] He is sometimes credited as a chief forerunner of modern empiricism.[7] history and popular culture, he is best known for his passionate and tragic love affair and intense philosophical exchange with his brilliant student and eventual wife, Heloise d'Argenteuil. Apologist of women and of their education, Abelard founded in 1131 the first feminine monastery, meeting point of learned women, for whom he composed music. After having sent Heloise to a convent in Brittany to protect her from her abusive uncle who did not want her to pursue this forbidden love, he was castrated by men sent by this uncle. Still considering herself as his spouse even though both retired to monasteries after this event, Heloise publicly defended him when his doctrine was condemned by Pope Innocent II and Abelard was therefore considered, at that time, as a heretic. Among these opinions, Abelard professed the innocence of a woman who commits a sin out of love.[8] Catholic theology, he is best known for his development of the concept of limbo, and his introduction of the moral influence theory of atonement. He is considered (alongside Augustine) to be the most significant forerunner of the modern self-reflective autobiographer. He paved the way and set the tone for later epistolary novels and celebrity tell-alls with his publicly distributed letter, The History of My Calamities and public correspondence. law, Abelard stressed that, because the subjective intention determines the moral value of human action, the legal consequence of an action is related to the person that commits it and not merely to the action. With this doctrine, Abelard created in the Middle Ages the idea of the individual subject central to modern law. This eventually gave to School of Notre-Dame de Paris (later the University of Paris) a recognition for its expertise in the area of Law (and later led to the creation of a faculty of law in Paris). PETER ABELARD, Abbot, Theologian, Philosopher, 21 April 1142 ; BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ABBOT, THEOLOGIAN, AND POET (20 AUGUST 1153);

Belgium, 1105-1125, Henry V, HRE Emperor (Investiture Controversy, church and state, ability to install church officers)
Belgium, 1105-1125, Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor ; V (1081 or 1086 (probably on 11 August)[1] - 23 May 1125, in Utrecht), was King of Germany (from 1099 to 1125) and Holy Roman Emperor (from 1111 to 1125), as the fourth and last ruler of the Salian dynasty. He was made co-ruler by his father, Henry IV, in 1098. Emperor Henry IV's conflicts with the imperial princes and the struggle against the reform papacy during the Investiture Controversy, young Henry V allied himself with the opponents of his father. He forced Henry IV to abdicate on 31 December 1105 and ruled for five years in compliance with the imperial princes. He tried, unsuccessfully, to withdraw the regalia from the bishops and in order to at least preserve the previous right to invest he captured Pope Paschal II and forced him to perform his imperial coronation in 1111. Once crowned emperor, Henry departed from joint rule with the princes and resorted to earlier Salian autocratic rule. After he had failed to increase control over the church, the princes in Saxony and on the Middle and Lower Rhine, in 1121 the imperial princes forced Henry V to consent with the papacy. He surrendered to the demands of the second generation of Gregorian reformers, and in 1122 he and Pope Callixtus II ended the Investiture Controversy in the Concordat of Worms. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ABBOT, THEOLOGIAN, AND POET (20 AUGUST 1153); HILDEGARD OF BINGEN, VISIONARY (17 SEP 1179);

Belgium, 1110-1153, Bernard of Clairvaux, Philosopher, Abbot, Judge, revitalization of monasticism, pope ordered crusades
Bernard of Clairvaux; of Clairvaux (Latin: Bernardus Claraevallensis; 1090 – 20 August 1153), venerated as Saint Bernard, was a Burgundian abbot and a major leader in the revitalization of Benedictine monasticism through the nascent Cistercian Order. was sent to found Clairvaux Abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen known as the Val d'Absinthe, about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) southeast of Bar-sur-Aube. In the year 1128, Bernard attended the Council of Troyes, at which he traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar,[a] which soon became an ideal of Christian nobility. the death of Pope Honorius II in 1130, a schism arose in the church. Bernard was a major proponent of Pope Innocent II, arguing effectively for his legitimacy over the Antipope Anacletus II. 1139, Bernard attended the Second Council of the Lateran and criticized Peter Abelard vocally. Bernard advocated crusades in general and convinced many to participate in the unsuccessful Second Crusade, notably through a famous sermon at Vézelay (1146). was canonized just 21 years after his death by Pope Alexander III. In 1830 Pope Pius VIII declared him a Doctor of the Church. France, 1100-1142, Philosopher, Peter Abelard; PETER ABELARD, Abbot, Theologian, Philosopher, 21 April 1142 ; BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ABBOT, THEOLOGIAN, AND POET (20 AUGUST 1153); third son of a Burgundian nobleman, was born in 1090. His brothers were trained as soldiers, but Bernard from youth was destined for scholarship. One Christmas Eve as a child he had a dream about the infant Christ in the manger; and the memory of it, and consequent devotion to the mystery of the Word made flesh, remained with him throughout his life. Bernard had good prospects of success as a secular scholar, but he began to believe that he was called to the monastic life, and after a period of prayer for guidance, he decided at age 22 to enter the monastery of Citeaux (Latin Cistercium, appearing on modern maps as Corcelles-les-Citeaux), an offshoot of the Benedictines which had adopted a much stricter rule than theirs, and became the founding house of the Cistercian (Trappist) order. (Actually, the Trappists are a reformed (i.e. stricter) offshoot of the Cistercians, who are a stricter offshoot of the Benedictines.) He persuaded four of his brothers, one uncle, and 26 other men to join him. They were the first novices that Citeaux had had for several years. After three years, the abbot ordered Bernard to take twelve monks and found a new house at La Ferte. The first year was one of great hardship. They had no stores and lived chiefly on roots and barley bread. Bernard imposed such severe discipline that his monks became discouraged, but he realized his error and became more lenient. The reputation of the monastery, known as Clairvaux (48:09 N 4:47 E), spread across Europe. Many new monks joined it, and many persons wrote letters or came in person to seek spiritual advice. By the time of his death, 60 new monasteries of the Cistercian order were established under his direction. For four years after 1130 Bernard was deeply involved with a disputed papal election, championing the claims of Innocent II against his rival Anacletus II. He travelled throughout France, Germany, and Italy mustering support for his candidate (and, it should be added, preaching sermons denouncing injustices done to Jews), and returned from one of these journeys with Peter Bernard of Paganelli as a postulant for the monastery. The future Pope Eugenius III spent the next year stoking the monastery fires. Years later, Bernard wrote a major treatise of advice to Eugenius on the spiritual temptations of spiritual power. The papal election was not the only dispute in which Bernard became involved. He was highly critical of Peter Abelard, one of the most brilliant theologians of the day (see 21 April). Bernard believed that Abelard was too rationalistic in his approach, and failed to allow sufficiently for the element of mystery in the faith. When Abelard rejected some of the ways of stating Christian doctrines to which Bernard was accustomed, Bernard concluded, perhaps too hastily, that this was equivalent to rejecting the doctrine itself. A conference was scheduled at Sens, where Abelard's views were to be examined, but soon after it began Abelard decided that he was not about to get a fair hearing, announced that he was appealing to Rome, and left. He set out for Rome and got as far as Cluny, where he stopped. Peter the Venerable, the abbot (see 30 April), was a friend of both Abelard and Bernard, and managed to reconcile them before they died. of ClairvauxOne of Bernard's most influential acts, for better or worse, was his preaching of the Second Crusade. The First Crusade had given the Christian forces control of a few areas in Palestine, including the city of Edessa. When Moslem forces captured Edessa, now called Urfa and located in eastern Turkey) in 1144, King Louis VII of France (not to be confused with St. Louis IX, also a Crusader, but more than a century later) was eager to launch a crusade to retake Edessa and prevent a Moslem recapture of Jerusalem. He asked Bernard for help, and Bernard refused. He then asked the Pope to order Bernard to preach a Crusade. The pope gave the order, and Bernard preached, with spectacular results. Whole villages were emptied of able-bodied males as Bernard preached and his listeners vowed on the spot to head for Palestine and defend the Sacred Shrines with their lives. The preaching of the Crusade had an ugly side-effect. In the Rhineland, a monk named Raoul wandered about telling crowds that if they were going to fight for the faith, the logical first step was to kill the Jews who were near at hand. There were anti-Jewish riots in Mainz, (in the Rhineland), where the archbishop sheltered the Jews, or many of them, in his palace, and sent an urgent message to Bernard to come before both he and they were killed. Bernard came. He called Raoul arrogant and without authority, a preacher of mad and heretical doctrines, a liar and a murderer. Then he got nasty. Raoul sneaked off the scene, and the riots were over. From that day to this, Bernard has been remembered among Rhineland Jews and their descendants as an outstanding example of a "righteous Gentile," and many of them (e.g. Bernard Baruch) bear his name. As for the Crusade, things went wrong from the start. The various rulers leading the movement were distrustful of one another and not disposed to work together. Of the soldiers who set out (contemporary estimates vary from 100,000 to 1,500,000), most died of disease and starvation before reaching their goal, and most of the remainder were killed or captured soon after their arrival. The impact on Bernard was devastating, and so was the impact on Europe. In 1153, Bernard journeyed to reconcile the warring provinces Metz and Lorraine. He persuaded them to peace and to an agreement drawn up under his mediation, and then, in failing health, returned home to die. Bernard in controversy was fierce and not always fair, it was partly because he was a man of intense feeling and dedication, quick to respond to any real or supposed threat to what he held sacred. It is his devotional writings, not his polemical ones, that are still read today. Among the hymns attributed to him are the Latin originals of "O Sacred Head, sore wounded," "Jesus, the very thought of Thee," "O Jesus, joy of loving hearts," "Wide open are Thy hands (to pay with more than gold the awful debt of guilt and sin, forever and of old--see the Lutheran Book of Worship et alibi)," and "O Jesus, King most wonderful." His sermons on the Song of Songs, treated as an allegory of the love of Christ, are his best-known long work. by James Kiefer

Belgium, 1118-1179, Saint Hildegard of Bingen, visions, preacher, dear Abby
Belgium, 1118-1179, Saint Hildegard of Bingen; HILDEGARD OF BINGEN, VISIONARY (17 SEP 1179); there was once a king sitting on his throne. Around him stood great and wonderfully beautiful columns ornamented with ivory, bearing the banners of the king with great honor. Then it pleased the king to raise a small feather from the ground, and he commanded it to fly. The feather flew, not because of anything in itself but because the air bore it along. Thus am I, a feather on the breath of God." of Bingen has been called by her admirers "one of the most important figures in the history of the Middle Ages," and "the greatest woman of her time." Her time was the 1100's (she was born in 1098), the century of Eleanor of Aquitaine, of Peter Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux, of the rise of the great universities and the building of Chartres cathedral. She was the daughter of a knight, and when she was eight years old she went to the Benedictine monastery at Mount St Disibode to be educated. The monastery was in the Celtic tradition, and housed both men and women (in separate quarters). When Hildegard was eighteen, she became a nun. Twenty years later, she was made the head of the female community at the monastery. Within the next four years, she had a series of visions, and devoted the ten years from 1140 to 1150 to writing them down, describing them (this included drawing pictures of what she had seen), and commenting on their interpretation and significance. During this period, Pope Eugenius III sent a commission to inquire into her work. The commission found her teaching orthodox and her insights authentic, and reported so to the Pope, who sent her a letter of approval. (He was probably encouraged to do so by his friend and former teacher, Bernard of Clairvaux.) She wrote back urging the Pope to work harder for reform of the Church. The community of nuns at Mount St. Disibode was growing rapidly, and they did not have adequate room. Hildegard accordingly moved her nuns to a location near Bingen, and founded a monastery for them completely independent of the double monastery they had left. She oversaw its construction, which included such features (not routine in her day) as water pumped in through pipes. The abbot they had left opposed their departure, and the resulting tensions took a long time to heal. Hildegard travelled throughout southern Germany and into Switzerland and as far as Paris, preaching. Her sermons deeply moved the hearers, and she was asked to provide written copies. In the last year of her life, she was briefly in trouble because she provided Christian burial for a young man who had been excommunicated. Her defense was that he had repented on his deathbed, and received the sacraments. Her convent was subjected to an interdict, but she protested eloquently, and the interdict was revoked. She died on 17 September 1179. Her surviving works include more than a hundred letters to emperors and popes, bishops, nuns, and nobility. (Many persons of all classes wrote to her, asking for advice, and one biographer calls her "the Dear Abby of the twelfth century.") She wrote 72 songs including a play set to music. Musical notation had only shortly before developed to the point where her music was recorded in a way that we can read today. Accordingly, some of her work is now available on compact disk, and presumably sounds the way she intended. My former room-mate, a non-Christian and a professional musician, is an enthusiastic admirer of her work and considers her a musical genius. Certainly her compositional style is like nothing else we have from the twelfth century. The play set to music is called the Ordo Virtutum and show us a human soul who listens to the Virtues, turns aside to follow the Devil, and finally returns to the Virtues, having found that following the Devil does not make one happy. She left us about seventy poems and nine books. Two of them are books of medical and pharmaceutical advice, dealing with the workings of the human body and the properties of various herbs. (These books are based on her observations and those of others, not on her visions.) I am told that some modern researchers are now checking her statements in the hope of finding some medicinal properties of some plant that has been overlooked till now by modern medicine. She also wrote a commentary on the Gospels and another on the Athanasian Creed. Much of her work has recently been translated into English, part in series like Classics of Western Spirituality, and part in other collections or separately. If your university library or bookstore cannot help you, try a Christian bookstore. If they do not have it, try a trendy (feminist, New Age, ecology) bookstore. Human Soul", an illumination of a manuscript of Hildegard/s Visions But her major works are three books on theology: Scivias ("Know the paths!"), Liber Vitae Meritorum (on ethics), and De Operatione Dei. They deal (or at least the first and third do) with the material of her visions. The visions, as she describes them, are often enigmatic but deeply moving, and many who have studied them believe that they have learned something from the visions that is not easily put into words. On the other hand, we have the recent best-seller, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, by Oliver Sacks, Professor of Clinical Neurology at Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and author of Migraine and various other books. Professor Sacks is concerned with the relation of the brain to the mind, and ways in which the phsical state of the nervous system can affect our ways of perceiving reality. He views the pictures in Hildegard's books of what she saw in her visions, and says, "The style of the pictures is a clear indication that the seer suffered regularly from migraine attacks. Migraine sufferers tend to see things in this manner." And indeed, it is true that Hildegard suffered throughout her life from painful attacks of what may have been migraine. Professor Sacks hastens to add that this has nothing to do with whether her visions are authentic insights into the nature of God and His relation to the Universe. & her scribeHildegard has undergone a remarkable rise in popularity in the last thirty years, since many readers have found in her visions, or read into them, themes that seem to speak to many modern concerns. For example: Although she would have rejected much of the rhetoric of women's liberation, she never hesitated to say what she thought needed to be said, or to do what she thought needed to be done, simply because she was a woman. When Pope or Emperor needed a rebuke, she rebuked them. Her writings bring science, art, and religion together. She is deeply involved in all three, and looks to each for insights that will enrich her understanding of the others. Her use of parable and metaphor, of symbols, visual imagery, and non-verbal means to communicate makes her work reach out to many who are totally deaf to more standard approaches. In particular, non-Western peoples are often accustomed to expressing their views of the world in visionary language, and find that Hildegard's use of similar language to express a Christian view of reality produces instant rapport, if not necessarily instant agreement. Hildegard wrote and spoke extensively about social justice, about freeing the downtrodden, about the duty of seeing to it that every human being, made in the image of God, has the opportunity to develop and use the talents that God has given him, and to realize his God-given potential. This strikes a chord today. Hildegard wrote explicitly about the natural world as God's creation, charged through and through with His beauty and His energy; entrusted to our care, to be used by us for our benefit, but not to be mangled or destroyed. by James Kiefer

Belgium, 1125-1137, HRE Emperor, Lothair II, German King, reign troubled by H Dukes, successful Sicily campaign
Belgium, 1125-1137, Holy Roman Emperor, Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor ; III, sometimes numbered Lothair II[a] and also known as Lothair of Supplinburg (1075 - 4 December 1137), was Holy Roman Emperor from 1133 until his death. He was appointed Duke of Saxony in 1106 and elected King of Germany in 1125 before being crowned emperor in Rome. The son of the Saxon count Gebhard of Supplinburg, his reign was troubled by the constant intriguing of the Hohenstaufens, Duke Frederick II of Swabia and Duke Conrad of Franconia. He died while returning from a successful campaign against the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ABBOT, THEOLOGIAN, AND POET (20 AUGUST 1153); HILDEGARD OF BINGEN, VISIONARY (17 SEP 1179);

Belgium, 1137-1190, HRE Emperor, Frederick 1, long reign, extraordinary org, Red Beard, Italian campgns, R of Law
Belgium, 1137-1190, Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick 1, Belgium; Barbarossa (1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I, was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death 35 years later. was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March 1152. He was crowned King of Italy on 24 April 1155 in Pavia and emperor by Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155 in Rome. Two years later, the term sacrum ("holy") first appeared in a document in connection with his empire.[1] He was later formally crowned King of Burgundy, at Arles on 30 June 1178. was named Barbarossa by the northern Italian cities which he attempted to rule: Barbarossa means "red beard" in Italian;[2] in German, he was known as Kaiser Rotbart, which has the same meaning. The prevalence of the Italian nickname, even in later German usage, reflects the centrality of the Italian campaigns to his career. his imperial election, Frederick was by inheritance Duke of Swabia (1147–1152, as Frederick III). He was the son of Duke Frederick II of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and Judith, daughter of Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria, from the rival House of Welf. therefore, descended from the two leading families in Germany, making him an acceptable choice for the Empire's prince-electors. consider him among the Holy Roman Empire's greatest medieval emperors. He combined qualities that made him appear almost superhuman to his contemporaries: his longevity, his ambition, his extraordinary skills at organization, his battlefield acumen and his political perspicacity. contributions to Central European society and culture include the reestablishment of the Corpus Juris Civilis, or the Roman rule of law, which counterbalanced the papal power that dominated the German states since the conclusion of the Investiture Controversy. died in 1190 in Asia Minor while leading an army in the Third Crusade. HILDEGARD OF BINGEN, VISIONARY (17 SEP 1179); St Balthasar of the Magi, Commemorated on December 25; St Gaspar of the Magi, Commemorated on December 25; St Melchior of the Magi, Commemorated on December 25;

Belgium, 1147-1150, Second Crusade, HRE, after fall of Edessa
Belgium, 1145-1149, Second Crusade, Holy Roman Empire ; BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, ABBOT, THEOLOGIAN, AND POET (20 AUGUST 1153); EARLY ABBOTS of CLUNY, 30 April 909 ;

Belgium, 1189-1192, Third Crusade, after Jerusalem loss, Angevin England, France and HRE
Belgium, 1189-1192, Third Crusade, Holy Roman Empire;

Belgium, 1190-1221, Saint Dominic, Founder of the Dominicans, preachers in poverty, philosophy, theology, logical argument, OP
Spain, 1190-1221, Saint Dominic, Founder of the Dominicans; DOMINIC, PREACHER, FRIAR, MISSIONARY (8 AUGUST 1221); was born in Castile, in Spain, in 1170. He entered the priesthood, and eventually became prior of the canons of the cathedral chapter (the clergy who formed the staff of the cathedral and conducted the daily worship services) at Osma (42:52 N 3:03 W). turning point of his life came in 1206, when he was chosen to accompany the bishop on a visit to southern France, to an area held by the Albigenses. These were a heretical sect more or less directly descended from the early Gnostics and Manichees. They were dualists, holding that there are two gods, one the god of goodness, light, truth, and spirit, and the other the god of evil, darkness, error, and matter. The material universe is the creation of the bad god. The good god made the souls of men, and the bad god kidnapped them and imprisoned them in bodies of flesh. their first night in Albigensian country, they stayed at an inn where the innkeeper was an Albigensian. Dominic engaged him in conversation, they sat up all night talking, and by dawn the man was ready to become an orthodox Christian. then on, Dominic knew what his calling in life was. Dominic and his bishop undertook to study the Albigensian beliefs and to engage in public debates with their opponents. They seemed to be making some progress, but in 1207 the bishop died, and in the same year the murder by Albigenses of the papal legate moved the pope to declare a crusade against the Albigenses, which lasted about five years. continued to preach and to debate where he could, and in 1215 he founded an order of preachers, who were to live in poverty, and devote themselves to studying philosophy and theology and to combatting false doctrine by logical argument rather than by the use of force. was convinced that a major obstacle to the conversion of heretics was the material wealth of some of the clergy, which made plausible the accusation that they were concerned for their purses and not for the glory of God, and made workers indisposed to hear them. He therefore determined that the brothers of his order should live lives of poverty and simplicity, being no better off materially than those they sought to convert. he was in Rome, seeking authorization for his order from the Pope, the Pope gave him a tour of the treasures of the Vatican, and remarked complacently (referring to Acts 3:6), "Peter can no longer say, 'Silver and gold have I none.'" Dominic turned and looked straight at the Pope, and said, "No, and neither can he say, 'Rise and walk.'" He got the permission he was seeking, and the order grew and flourished. Officially known as the Order of Preachers (hence the letters O.P. after the name of a member), it was informally known as the Dominicans, or the Blackfriars (from the color of their cloaks). Two of their best-known members are Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1200-1280, see 15 Nov), who was famous for his learning in numerous fields, and his pupil Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274, see 28 Jan), who wrote reconciling Christian theology with the philosophy of Aristotle, which was then being rediscovered in western Europe, and was thought by many to be a threat to Christianity. In later years, the Order forgot its commitment to "logic and persuasion, not force" as the means of bringing men to Christian truth, and many of its members were active in the Inquisition. St. Dominic & St. Catherine St. Dominic & St. Catherine was three times offered a bishopric, and refused, believing that he was called to another work. He died in 1220 in Bologna, Italy, after a preaching mission to Hungary. His emblem in art is a dog with a torch in its mouth, a pun on his name (the Dominicans are sometimes called the "Domini canes", the hounds of the Lord), and a reference to his relying on the power of preaching. by James Kiefer FRANCIS OF ASSISI, FRIAR (4 OCT 1226);

Belgium, 1191-1197, HRE Emperor, Henry VI, well educated, poet, Byzantine ransom, Sicily, d before his Crusade
Belgium, 1191-1197, Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI; VI (Heinrich VI) (November 1165 – 28 September 1197), a member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was King of Germany (King of the Romans) from 1169 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1191 until his death. From 1194 he was also King of Sicily. was the second son of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and his consort Beatrix of Burgundy. in the Latin language, as well as Roman and canon law, Henry was also a patron of poets and a skilled poet himself. 1186 he was married to Constance of Sicily, the posthumous daughter of the Norman king Roger II of Sicily. Henry, stuck in the Hohenstaufen conflict with the House of Welf until 1194, had to enforce the inheritance claims by his wife against her nephew Count Tancred of Lecce. Henry's attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Sicily failed at the siege of Naples in 1191 due to an epidemic, and following his retreat Empress Constance was captured. Based on an enormous ransom for the release and submission of King Richard I of England, he conquered Sicily in 1194; however, the intended unification with the Holy Roman Empire ultimately failed due to the opposition of the Papacy. threatened to invade the Byzantine Empire after 1194 and succeeded in extracting a ransom, the Alamanikon, from Emperor Alexios III Angelos in return for cancelling the invasion. He made the Kingdom of Cyprus and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia formal subjects of the empire and compelled Tunis and Tripolitania to pay tribute to him. 1195 and 1196, he attempted to turn the Holy Roman Empire from an elective to a hereditary monarchy, the so-called Erbreichsplan, but met strong resistance from the prince-electors and abandoned the plan. pledged to go on crusade in 1195 and began preparations. A revolt in Sicily was crushed in 1197. The Crusaders set sail for the Holy Land that same year but Henry died of illness at Messina on 28 September 1197 before he could join them. death plunged the Empire into the chaos of the German throne dispute for the next 17 years. DOMINIC, PREACHER, FRIAR, MISSIONARY (8 AUGUST 1221);

Belgium, 1195-1350, Northern Crusades, ordered by Pope Celestine III, Battle of the Ice, Pskov Lake
Russia, Novgorod, 1195-1350, Northern Crusades, ordered by Pope Celestine III; Rome, 1191-1198, Pope, Celestine III; Novgorod, 1242, Great Battle of the Ice of Pskov Lake, defeat of Teutonic Knights; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Belgium, 1200-1299, 13th Century Folder, Holy Roman Empire, 4th-9th and Northern Crusades

Belgium, 1198-1215, Holy Roman Emperor, Otto IV, excommunicated by Pope Innocent III
Belgium, 1198-1215, Holy Roman Emperor, Otto IV; IV (1175 – 19 May 1218) was one of two rival kings of Germany from 1198 on, sole king from 1208 on, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1209 until he was forced to abdicate in 1215. only German king of the Welf dynasty, he incurred the wrath of Pope Innocent III and was excommunicated in 1210. DOMINIC, PREACHER, FRIAR, MISSIONARY (8 AUGUST 1221); CLARE OF ASSISI, NUN (11 AUGUST 1253) ; FRANCIS OF ASSISI, FRIAR (4 OCT 1226);

Belgium, 1202-1204, Fourth Crusade, HRE, Sack of Constantinople
Belgium, 1122-1124, Fourth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire;

Belgium, 1200-1205, Fourth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire, to recapture Muslim Jerusalem, but sack of C
Belgium, 1200-1205, Fourth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire;

Belgium, 1204, Sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204
Constantinople, 1204, Sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade Byzantine Emperor, 1205-1215, Michael I Komnenos Doukas; Greatmartyr Marina (Margaret) of Antioch in Pisidia, Commemorated on July 17; Translation of the relics of St Hilarion the Bishop of Meglin in Bulgaria, Commemorated on October 21;

Belgium, 1204-1261, Latin Empire, Crusader State
Constantinople, 1204-1261, Latin Empire, Crusader State; The Latin Empire, also referred to as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, was a feudal Crusader state founded by the leaders of the Fourth Crusade on lands captured from the Byzantine Empire. The Latin Empire was intended to replace the Byzantine Empire as the Western-recognized Roman Empire in the east, with a Catholic emperor enthroned in place of the Eastern Orthodox Roman emperors. The Fourth Crusade had originally been called to retake the Muslim-controlled city of Jerusalem but a sequence of economic and political events culminated in the Crusader army sacking the city of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Originally, the plan had been to restore the deposed Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos, who had been usurped by Alexios III Angelos, to the throne. The crusaders had been promised financial and military aid by Isaac's son Alexios, with which they had planned to continue to Jerusalem. When the crusaders reached Constantinople the situation quickly turned volatile and while Isaac and Alexios briefly ruled, the crusaders did not receive the payment they had hoped for. In April 1204, they captured and plundered the city's enormous wealth. The crusaders selected their own emperor from among their own ranks, Baldwin of Flanders, and divided the territory of the Byzantine Empire into various new vassal crusader states. The Latin Empire's authority was immediately challenged by Byzantine rump states led by the Laskaris family (connected to the Angelos dynasty of 1185-“1204) in Nicaea and the Komnenos family (which had ruled as Byzantine Emperors 1081-“1185) in Trebizond. From 1224 to 1242 the Komnenos Doukas family, also connected to the Angeloi, challenged Latin authority from Thessalonica. The Latin Empire failed to attain political or economic dominance over the other Latin powers that had been established in former Byzantine territories in the wake of the Fourth Crusade, especially Venice, and after a short initial period of military successes it went into a steady decline due to constant war with Bulgaria to the north and the various Byzantine claimants. Eventually, the Nicaean Empire recovered Constantinople and restored the Byzantine Empire under Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261. The last Latin emperor, Baldwin II, went into exile, but the imperial title survived, with several pretenders to it, until the 14th century. Like the term "Byzantine Empire", "Latin Empire" was not a contemporary term used by the empire itself or the rest of the world. The Byzantines referred to the Latin Empire as the Frankokratia and the Latin Emperors themselves referred to the empire by various names, commonly imperium Constantinopolitanum (lit. Empire of Constantinople), but also imperium Romaniae (lit. Empire of Romania) and imperium Romanorum (lit. Empire of the Romans). The term Romania ("Land of the Romans") had been used unofficially by the population of the Byzantine Empire for their country for centuries.

Belgium, 1204-1261, Holy Roman Crusaders rule Constantinople
Constantinople, 1204-1261, Holy Roman Crusaders rule Constantinople; Constantinople, 1204, Sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade Byzantine Emperor, 1205-1215, Michael I Komnenos Doukas; Greatmartyr Marina (Margaret) of Antioch in Pisidia, Commemorated on July 17; Translation of the Image œNot-Made-By-Hands of our Lord Jesus Christ from Edessa to Constantinople, the ThirdœFeast of the Savior in August, Commemorated on August 16 Translation of the relics of St Hilarion the Bishop of Meglin in Bulgaria, Commemorated on October 21;

Belgium, 1209-1229, Sixth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire, Albigensian, near Albi, against neo Gnostics
Belgium, 1209-1229, Sixth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire; Albigensian Crusade; Albigensian Crusade or the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229; French: Croisade des albigeois, Occitan: Crosada dels albigeses) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, in southern France. Crusade was prosecuted primarily by the French crown and promptly took on a political aspect, resulting in not only a significant reduction in the number of practising Cathars, but also a realignment of the County of Toulouse in Languedoc, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown, and diminishing both Languedoc's distinct regional culture and the influence of the counts of Barcelona. Cathars originated from an anti-materialist reform movement within the Bogomil churches of the Balkans calling for what they saw as a return to the Christian message of perfection, poverty and preaching, combined with a rejection of the physical to the point of starvation. reforms were a reaction against the often perceived scandalous and dissolute lifestyles of the Catholic clergy in southern France. Their theology, neo-Gnostic in many ways, was basically dualist. Several of their practices, especially their belief in the inherent evil of the physical world, conflicted with the doctrines of the Incarnation of Christ and Catholic sacraments. led to accusations of Gnosticism and attracted the ire of the Catholic establishment. They became known as the Albigensians, because there were many adherents in the city of Albi and the surrounding area in the 12th and 13th centuries. 1022 and 1163, the Cathars were condemned by eight local church councils, the last of which, held at Tours, declared that all Albigenses should be put into prison and have their property confiscated. The Third Lateran Council of 1179 repeated the condemnation. Innocent III's diplomatic attempts to roll back Catharism were met with little success. After the murder of his legate Pierre de Castelnau in 1208, and suspecting that Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse was responsible, Innocent III declared a crusade against the Cathars. He offered the lands of the Cathar heretics to any French nobleman willing to take up arms. 1209 to 1215, the Crusaders experienced great success, capturing Cathar lands and perpetrating acts of extreme violence, often against civilians. From 1215 to 1225, a series of revolts caused many of the lands to be regained by the Cathars. A renewed crusade resulted in the recapturing of the territory and effectively drove Catharism underground by 1244. The Albigensian Crusade had a role in the creation and institutionalization of both the Dominican Order and the Medieval Inquisition. The Dominicans promulgated the message of the Church to combat alleged heresies by preaching the Church's teachings in towns and villages, while the Inquisition investigated heresies. Because of these efforts, by the middle of the 14th century, any discernible traces of the Cathar movement had been eradicated. The Albigensian Crusade is considered by many historians to be an act of genocide against the Cathars.[3][4][5]

Belgium, 1204-1226, Holy Roman Saint, Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscans
Belgium, 1204-1226, Holy Roman Saint, Francis of Assisi; of Assisi (1181 or 1182 - 3 October 1226), venerated as Saint Francis of Assisi, also known in his ministry as Francesco, was an Italian Catholic friar, deacon, mystic, and preacher.[3] He founded the men's Order of Friars Minor, the women's Order of St. Clare, the Third Order of St. Francis and the Custody of the Holy Land. Francis is one of the most venerated religious figures in Christianity.[1] Gregory IX canonized Francis on 16 July 1228. with Catherine of Siena, he was designated patron saint of Italy. later became associated with patronage of animals and the natural environment, and it became customary for churches to hold ceremonies blessing animals on or near his feast day of 4 October. 1219, he went to Egypt in an attempt to convert the Sultan to put an end to the conflict of the Crusades.[4] this point, the Franciscan Order had grown to such an extent that its primitive organizational structure was no longer sufficient. He returned to Italy to organize the order. Once his community was authorized by the Pope, he withdrew increasingly from external affairs. is known for his love of the Eucharist.[5] In 1223, Francis arranged for the first Christmas live nativity scene.[a][6][7] to Christian tradition, in 1224 he received the stigmata during the apparition of a Seraphic angel in a religious ecstasy,[8] which would make him the first person in Christian tradition to bear the wounds of Christ's Passion.[9] died during the evening hours of 3 October 1226, while listening to a reading he had requested of Psalm 142 (141). DOMINIC, PREACHER, FRIAR, MISSIONARY (8 AUGUST 1221); FRANCIS OF ASSISI, FRIAR (4 OCT 1226);

Belgium, 1214-1253, Holy Roman Saint, Clare of Assisi
Belgium, 1214-1253, Holy Roman Saint, Clare of Assisi; DOMINIC, PREACHER, FRIAR, MISSIONARY (8 AUGUST 1221); CLARE OF ASSISI, NUN (11 AUGUST 1253); FRANCIS OF ASSISI, FRIAR (4 OCT 1226);

Belgium, 1216-1250, HRE Emperor, Frederick II, 6th and Northern Crusades, King of Jrslm, pope conflicts, interregnum
Belgium, 1216-1250, Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II; DOMINIC, PREACHER, FRIAR, MISSIONARY (8 AUGUST 1221); CLARE OF ASSISI, NUN (11 AUGUST 1253) ; LOUIS IX, KING OF FRANCE (25 AUGUST 1270); FRANCIS OF ASSISI, FRIAR (4 OCT 1226); St Eupraxia, Princess of Pskov, Commemorated on October 16; ELIZABETH OF HUNGARY, PRINCESS AND PHILANTHROPIST (19 NOV 1231); THOMAS AQUINAS, PRIEST, FRIAR, AND THEOLOGIAN (28 JAN 1274);

Belgium, 1217-1221, Fifth Crusade, led by King Andrew II of Hungary, to Cairo
Hungary, 1217-1221, Fifth Crusade, led by King Andrew II of Hungary ; Hungary, 1205-1235, King, Andrew II of Hungary ; ELIZABETH OF HUNGARY, PRINCESS AND PHILANTHROPIST (19 NOV 1231) ;

Belgium, 1223-1280, Holy Roman Saint, Albertus Magnus, Dominican, greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages
Belgium, 1223-1280, Holy Roman Saint, Albertus Magnus, Dominican; Magnus[a] OP (c. 1200 - 15 November 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great or Albert of Cologne, was a German Catholic Dominican friar, philosopher and bishop. Later canonised as a Catholic saint, he was known during his lifetime as Doctor universalis and Doctor expertus and, late in his life, the sobriquet Magnus was appended to his name.[6] Scholars such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages.[7] The Catholic Church distinguishes him as one of the 36 Doctors of the Church. DOMINIC, PREACHER, FRIAR, MISSIONARY (8 AUGUST 1221);

Belgium, 1242, Northern Crusades, ordered by Pope, Battle of the Ice, Pskov Lake
Russia, Novgorod, 1195-1242, Northern Crusades, ordered by Pope Celestine III; Rome, 1191-1198, Pope, Celestine III; Novgorod, 1242, Great Battle of the Ice of Pskov Lake, defeat of Teutonic Knights; Repose of St Alexander Nevsky, Commemorated on November 23;

Belgium, 1245-1274, Thomas Aquias, Dominican, philosopher, theologian, and jurist, scholasticism (w Aristotle Logic)
Belgium, 1245-1274, Holy Roman Saint, Thomas Aquias; Aquinas (1225 - 7 March 1274) was an Italian[10][11] Dominican friar, philosopher, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. immensely influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, he is also known within the latter as the Doctor Angelicus, the Doctor Communis, and the Doctor Universalis.[a] The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio, Italy. Among other things, he was a prominent proponent of natural theology and the father of a school of thought (encompassing both theology and philosophy) known as Thomism. He argued that God is the source of both the light of natural reason and the light of faith.[12] His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory. many currents in the Catholic Church of the time,[13] Thomas embraced several ideas put forward by Aristotle—whom he called "the Philosopher"—and attempted to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with the principles of Christianity.[14] best-known works are the Disputed Questions on Truth (1256–1259), the Summa contra Gentiles (1259–1265), and the unfinished but massively influential Summa Theologica, or Summa Theologiae (1265–1274). His commentaries on Scripture and on Aristotle also form an important part of his body of work. Furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the church's liturgy.[15] The Catholic Church honors Thomas Aquinas as a saint and regards him as the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood, and indeed the highest expression of both natural reason and speculative theology. In modern times, under papal directives, the study of his works was long used as a core of the required program of study for those seeking ordination as priests or deacons, as well as for those in religious formation and for other students of the sacred disciplines (philosophy, Catholic theology, church history, liturgy, and canon law).[16] Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Church's greatest theologians and philosophers. Pope Benedict XV declared: "This (Dominican) Order ... acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the special praises of the Pontiffs, the master and patron of Catholic schools."[17] The English philosopher Anthony Kenny considers Thomas to be "one of the dozen greatest philosophers of the western world".[18] LOUIS IX, KING OF FRANCE (25 AUGUST 1270); THOMAS AQUINAS, PRIEST, FRIAR, AND THEOLOGIAN (28 JAN 1274);

Belgium, 1248-1254, Seventh Crusade, Holy Roman Empire, Louis captured, ransomed, 1259 Karyes?
Belgium, 1248-1254, Seventh Crusade, Holy Roman Empire; The Seventh Crusade was a crusade led by Louis IX of France from 1248 to 1254. Louis' Christian army was defeated by the Ayyubid army led by Fakhr al-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh and their allies, the Bahriyya Mamluks, led by Faris ad-Din Aktai, Baibars al-Bunduqdari, Qutuz, Aybak and Qalawun. Shaykh al-Shuyukh was killed in the war, and Louis was captured. Approximately 800,000 bezants were paid in ransom for his return.[3][4][5]

Belgium, 1250-1273, Holy Roman Interregnum, No Emperor, several weak kings, anti kings, Avignon Papacy
Belgium, 1250-1273, Holy Roman Interregnum, No Emperor; There were many imperial interregna in the history of the Holy Roman Empire, when there was no emperor. Interregna in which there was no emperor-elect (king of the Romans) were rarer. Among the longest periods without an emperor were between 924 and 962 (38 years), between 1245 and 1312 (67 years), and between 1378 and 1433 (55 years). The crisis of government of the Holy Roman Empire and the German kingdom thus lasted throughout the late medieval period, and ended only with the rise of the House of Habsburg on the eve of the German Reformation and the Renaissance. The term Great Interregnum is occasionally used for the period between 1250 (death of Frederick II) and 1273 (accession of Rudolf I). Great Interregnum[edit] Or three leopards sable.svg Staufen party Arms of the Holy Roman Emperor (Hohenstaufen).svg Frederick II (1245-“50) Arms of the Holy Roman Emperor (Hohenstaufen).svg Conrad IV (1245-“54) Royal Coat of Arms of the Crown of Castile (1284-1390).svg Alfonso X of Castile (1257-“75) Arms of Rudolph I of Germany.svg Rudolf of Habsburg (1273-“75) Coat of arms of the House of Welf-Brunswick (Braunschweig).svg Welf party Thuringia armor.svg Henry of Thuringia (1246-“47) Wapen graafschap Holland.svg William II of Holland (1247-“56) Richard of Cornwall Arms.svg Richard of Cornwall (1257-“72) Blason Bo Bohame.svg Ottokar II of Bohemia Result: compromise Unanimous election of Rudolf in 1273 Alfonso X of Castile renounced claim in 1275 After the deposition of Frederick II by Pope Innocent IV in 1245, Henry Raspe, Landgrave of Thuringia was set up as anti-king to Frederick's son Conrad IV (d. 1254). Henry was killed in 1247 and succeeded as anti-king by William of Holland (died 1256). After 1257, the crown was contested between Richard of Cornwall, who was supported by the Guelph party, and Alfonso X of Castile, who was recognized by the Hohenstaufen party but never set foot on German soil. After Richard's death in 1273, Rudolf I of Germany, a minor pro-Staufen count, was elected. He was the first of the Habsburgs to hold a royal title, but he was never crowned emperor. After Rudolf's death in 1291, Adolf and Albert were two further weak kings who were never crowned emperor. Albert was assassinated in 1308. Almost immediately, King Philip IV of France began aggressively seeking support for his brother, Charles of Valois, to be elected the next King of the Romans.[1] Philip thought he had the backing of the French Pope Clement V (established at Avignon in 1309), and that his prospects of bringing the empire into the orbit of the French royal house were good. He lavishly spread French money in the hope of bribing the German electors.[2] Although Charles of Valois had the backing of Henry, Archbishop of Cologne, a French supporter, many were not keen to see an expansion of French power, least of all Clement V.[2][3] The principal rival to Charles appeared to be Rudolf, the Count Palatine. Instead, Henry VII, of the House of Luxembourg, was elected with six votes at Frankfurt on 27 November 1308.[2] Given his background, although he was a vassal of king Philip,[2] Henry was bound by few national ties, an aspect of his suitability as a compromise candidate among the electors,[4] the great territorial magnates who had lived without a crowned emperor for decades, and who were unhappy with both Charles and Rudolf. Henry of Cologne's brother, Baldwin, Archbishop of Trier, won over a number of the electors, including Henry, in exchange for some substantial concessions.[2] Henry VII was crowned king at Aachen on 6 January 1309, and emperor by Pope Clement V on 29 June 1312 in Rome, ending the interregnum. LOUIS IX, KING OF FRANCE (25 AUGUST 1270); 26 Martyrs of the Zographou Monastery on Mt. Athos at the hands of the Crusaders, Commemorated on October 10; THOMAS AQUINAS, PRIEST, FRIAR, AND THEOLOGIAN (28 JAN 1274); Martyrs killed by the Latins at the Iveron Monastery on Mt. Athos, Commemorated on May 13;

Belgium, 1270, Eighth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire, Disease
Belgium, 1270, Eighth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire; The Eighth Crusade was a crusade launched by Louis IX of France against the Hafsid dynasty in 1270. The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades of Frederick II are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth. The crusade is considered a failure after Louis died shortly after arriving on the shores of Tunisia, with his disease-ridden army dispersing back to Europe shortly afterwards.[1]

Belgium, 1271-1272, Nineth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire, Lord Edward's C, clash with Baibars, Outremer territories
Belgium, 1271-1272, Nineth Crusade, Holy Roman Empire ; Edward's crusade,[1] sometimes called the Ninth Crusade,[2] was a military expedition to the Holy Land under the command of the future King Edward I of England in 1271-“1272. It was an extension of the Eighth Crusade and was the last of the Crusades to reach the Holy Land before the fall of Acre in 1291 brought an end to the permanent crusader presence there. Ninth Crusade saw Edward clash with Baibars, with both achieving limited victories. The Crusaders were ultimately forced to withdraw, since Edward had pressing concerns at home and felt unable to resolve the internal conflicts within the remnant Outremer territories. It is arguable that the Crusading spirit was nearly "extinct" by this period as well.[3] It also foreshadowed the imminent collapse of the last remaining crusader strongholds along the Mediterranean coast. Monastic Martyrs of Karyes, Commemorated on December 5 ;

Belgium, 1272, Union of Lyons, convoked 1272, convened 1274, Peace among Christians, revoked
France, 1272, Union of Lyons 1272; The Second Council of Lyon was the fourteenth ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, convoked on 31 March 1272 and convened in Lyon, Kingdom of Arles (in modern France), in 1274.[1] Pope Gregory X presided over the council, called to act on a pledge by Byzantine emperor Michael VIII to reunite the Eastern church with the West.[2] The council was attended by about 300 bishops, 60 abbots[3] and more than a thousand prelates or their procurators, among whom were the representatives of the universities. Due to the great number of attendees, those who had come to Lyon without being specifically summoned were given "leave to depart with the blessing of God" and of the Pope. Among others who attended the council were James I of Aragon, the ambassador of the Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos with members of the Greek clergy and the ambassadors of Abaqa Khan of the Ilkhanate. Thomas Aquinas had been summoned to the council, but died en route at Fossanova Abbey. Bonaventure was present at the first four sessions, but died at Lyon on 15 July 1274. As at the First Council of Lyon, Thomas Cantilupe was an English attendee and a papal chaplain.[4] In addition to Aragon, which James represented in person, representatives of the kings of Germany, England, Scotland, France, the Spains and Sicily[5] were present, with procurators also representing the kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, Hungary, Bohemia, the "realm of Dacia" and the duchy of Poland. In the procedures to be observed in the council, for the first time the nations appeared as represented elements in an ecclesiastical council, as they had already become represented in the governing of medieval universities. This innovation marks a stepping-stone towards the acknowledgment of coherent ideas of nationhood, which were in the process of creating the European nation-states. The main topics discussed at the council were the conquest of the Holy Land and the union of the Eastern and Western Churches. The first session took place on 7 May 1274 and was followed by five additional sessions on 18 May 1274, 4 or 7 June 1274, 6 July 1274, 16 July 1274, and 17 July 1274. By the end of the council, 31 constitutions were promulgated. In the second session, the fathers approved the decree Zelus fidei, which contained no juridical statutes but rather summed up constitutions about the perils of the Holy Land, the means for paying for a proposed crusade, the excommunication of pirates and corsairs and those who protected them or traded with them, a declaration of peace among Christians, a grant of an indulgence for those willing to go on crusade, restoration of communion with the Greeks, and the definition of the order and procedure to be observed in the council. The Greeks conceded on the issue of the Filioque (two words added to the Nicene Creed), and union was proclaimed, but the union was later repudiated by Andronicus II,[2] heir to Michael VIII. The council also recognized Rudolf I as Holy Roman Emperor, ending the interregnum.[2] 26 Martyrs of the Zographou Monastery on Mt. Athos at the hands of the Crusaders, Commemorated on October 10;

Belgium, 1273-1291, Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf I of Germany, first Hapsburg for Germany, Austria
Belgium, 1273-1291, Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf I of Germany; I (1 May 1218 - 15 July 1291) was the first king of Germany from the House of Habsburg. The first of the count-kings of Germany, he reigned from 1273 until his death. election marked the end of the Great Interregnum which had begun after the death of the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick II in 1250. a Swabian count, he was the first Habsburg to acquire the duchies of Austria and Styria in opposition to his mighty rival, the Premyslid king Ottokar II of Bohemia, whom he defeated in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld. territories remained under Habsburg rule for more than 600 years, forming the core of the Habsburg Monarchy and the present-day country of Austria. played a vital role in raising the comital House of Habsburg to the rank of Imperial princes. 26 Martyrs of the Zographou Monastery on Mt. Athos at the hands of the Crusaders, Commemorated on October 10; Monastic Martyrs of Karyes, Commemorated on December 5 ; THOMAS AQUINAS, PRIEST, FRIAR, AND THEOLOGIAN (28 JAN 1274); Martyrs killed by the Latins at the Iveron Monastery on Mt. Athos, Commemorated on May 13;

Belgium, 1284, Zographou Monestary, Mt Athos, Crusaders, 26 Martyrs
Zographou Monastery; 26 Monk-Martyrs of Zographou of Mt Athos, Commemorated on September 21 ; Venerable Cosmas the Bulgarian of Zographou of Mt Athos, Commemorated on September 21; Venerable Cosmas of the Zographou Monastery on Mt. Athos, Commemorated on September 22 ; Icon of the Mother of God "of the Akathist" of the Zographou Monastery, Commemorated October 10 ; 26 Martyrs of the Zographou Monastery on Mt. Athos at the hands of the Crusaders, Commemorated October 10 ; Venerable Pimen the Bulgarian of the Zographou Monastery on Mt. Athos, Commemorated November 3 ; St Hilarion the Georgian, the New, Commemorated February 14 ; Venerable Damian of Esphigmenou of Mt Athos, Commemorated February 23 ; Icon of the Mother of God œof the AkathistÂ, Commemorated on March 27; Martyrs killed by the Latins at the Iveron Monastery on Mt. Athos, Commemorated on May 13;

Belgium, 1291-1298, Holy Roman Emperor, Adolf of Germany, deposed by Albert I
Belgium, 1291-1298, Holy Roman Emperor, Adolf of Germany; (c. 1255 – 2 July 1298) was Count of Nassau from about 1276 and elected King of the Romans (King of Germany) from 1292 until his deposition by the prince-electors in 1298. was never crowned by the Pope, which would have secured him the title of Holy Roman Emperor. He was the first physically and mentally healthy ruler of the Holy Roman Empire ever to be deposed without a papal excommunication. died shortly afterwards in the Battle of Göllheim fighting against his successor Albert of Habsburg. was the second in the succession of so-called count-kings of several rivalling comital houses striving after the Roman-German royal dignity. last agnatic dynastic descendant was William IV of Luxembourg. ---------------------------------------------------------- Venerable Joasaph of Snetogorsk, Pskov, Commemorated on March 4;

Belgium, 1298-1308, Holy Roman Emperor, Albert I of Germany, assinated
Belgium, 1298-1308, Holy Roman Emperor, Albert I of Germany; I of Habsburg (German: Albrecht I.) (July 1255 - 1 May 1308), the eldest son of King Rudolf I of Germany[1] and his first wife Gertrude of Hohenberg, was a Duke of Austria and Styria from 1282 and King of Germany from 1298 until his assassination. JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415; Venerable Joasaph of Snetogorsk, Pskov, Commemorated on March 4;

Belgium, 1300-1399, 14th Century Folder, Holy Roman Empire, Avignon Papacy

Belgium, 1308-1313, Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VII of Luxembourg
Belgium, 1308-1313, Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VII of Luxembourg ; JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415;

Belgium, 1309-1377, Avignon Papacy
France, 1309-1377, Avignon Papacy; Avignon; CATHERINE OF SIENA, REFORMER AND SPIRITUAL TEACHER (29 APR 1380); EARLY ABBOTS of CLUNY, 30 April 909 ; JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415;

Belgium, 1337-1453, 100 Years War between France and England for France
Battle of Agincourt; Hundred Years War (1337-1453); THOMAS A KEMPIS, PRIEST, MONK, AND WRITER (24 JULY 1471) ; GEORGE, SOLDIER and MARTYR, 23 APRIL 303, Commemorated April 23; JOAN OF ARC, VISIONARY, 30 May 1431;

Belgium, 1353-1380, Saint, CATHERINE of SIENA
France, 1353-1380, Saint, CATHERINE of SIENA; Siena; CATHERINE OF SIENA, REFORMER AND SPIRITUAL TEACHER (29 APR 1380);

Belgium, 1355-1378, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles IV of Luxembourg
Belgium, 1355-1378, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles IV of Luxembourg; CATHERINE OF SIENA, REFORMER AND SPIRITUAL TEACHER (29 APR 1380); JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415;

Belgium, 1378-1437, Sigismund of Bavaria, Bohemia, Brandenburg (Berlin), Lux, Croats, Serbs, Italy, & Hungry, Crusade, Hussites
Belgium, 1378-1437, Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund of Luxembourg ; of Bohemia (15 February 1368 - 9 December 1437), also known as Sigismund of Luxembourg, was prince-elector of Brandenburg from 1378 until 1388 and from 1411 until 1415, king of Hungary and Croatia from 1387, king of Germany from 1411, king of Bohemia from 1419, king of Italy from 1431, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1433 until 1437, and the last male member of the House of Luxembourg.[1] was born in Nuremberg, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV and Elizabeth of Pomerania. He married Queen Mary of Hungary in 1385 and was crowned King of Hungary soon after. He fought to restore and maintain authority to the throne. Mary died in 1395, leaving Sigismund the sole ruler of Hungary. 1396, Sigismund led the Crusade of Nicopolis, but was decisively defeated by the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards, he founded the Order of the Dragon to fight the Turks and secured the thrones of Croatia, Germany and Bohemia. Sigismund was one of the driving forces behind the Council of Constance (1414-1418) that ended the Papal Schism, but which also led to the Hussite Wars that dominated the later period of his life. In 1433, Sigismund was crowned Holy Roman Emperor and ruled until his death in 1437. life in Nuremberg, Sigismund was the son of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles IV, and of his fourth wife, Elizabeth of Pomerania, who was the granddaughter of King Casimir III of Poland and the great-granddaughter of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Gediminas. He was named after Saint Sigismund of Burgundy, the favourite saint of Sigismund's father. From Sigismund's childhood he was nicknamed the "ginger fox" in the Crown of Bohemia, on account of his hair colour. first wife, Mary I, Queen of Hungary. Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland always had a good and close relationship with Emperor Charles IV, and Sigismund was betrothed to Louis' eldest daughter, Mary, in 1374, when he was six years old. his father's death in 1378, young Sigismund became Margrave of Brandenburg and was sent to the Hungarian court, where he soon learnt the Hungarian language and way of life, and became entirely devoted to his adopted country.[2] King Louis named him as his heir and appointed him his successor as King of Hungary. 1381, the then 13-year-old Sigismund was sent to Krakow by his eldest half-brother and guardian Wenceslaus, King of Germany and Bohemia, to learn Polish and to become acquainted with the land and its people. King Wenceslaus also gave him Neumark to facilitate communication between Brandenburg and Poland. disagreement between Polish landlords of Lesser Poland on one side and landlords of Greater Poland on the other, regarding the choice of the future King of Poland, finally ended in choosing the Lithuanian side. The support of the lords of Greater Poland was however not enough to give Prince Sigismund the Polish crown. Instead, the landlords of Lesser Poland gave it to Mary's younger sister Jadwiga I of Poland, who married Jogaila of Lithuania. of Hungary coin of Sigismund of Hungary with his coat of arms (right), the image of the King Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary (left). Standard of Hungary under the rule of Sigismund (1387–1437). the death of her father in 1382, his betrothed, Mary, became queen of Hungary and Sigismund married her in 1385 in Zolyom (today Zvolen). The next year, he was accepted as Mary's future co-ruler by the Treaty of Gyor. However, Mary was captured, together with her mother, Elizabeth of Bosnia, who had acted as regent, in 1387 by the rebellious House of Horvat, Bishop Paul Horvat of Macva, his brother John Horvat and younger brother Ladislav. Sigismund's mother-in-law was strangled, while Mary was liberated. secured the support of the nobility, Sigismund was crowned King of Hungary at Szekesfehervar on 31 March 1387.[3] Having raised money by pledging Brandenburg to his cousin Jobst, margrave of Moravia (1388), he was engaged for the next nine years in a ceaseless struggle for the possession of this unstable throne.[2] The central power was finally weakened to such an extent that only Sigismund's alliance with the powerful Czillei-Garai League could ensure his position on the throne.[4] It was not for entirely selfless reasons that one of the leagues of barons helped him to power: Sigismund had to pay for the support of the lords by transferring a sizeable part of the royal properties. (For some years, the baron's council governed the country in the name of the Holy Crown). The restoration of the authority of the central administration took decades of work. The bulk of the nation headed by the House of Garai was with him; but in the southern provinces between the Sava and the Drava, the Horvathys with the support of King Tvrtko I of Bosnia, Mary's maternal uncle, proclaimed as their king Ladislaus, king of Naples, son of the murdered Charles II of Hungary. Not until 1395 did Nicholas II Garai succeed in suppressing them.[2] Mary died heavily pregnant in 1395. ease the pressure from Hungarian nobles, Sigismund tried to employ foreign advisors, which was not popular, and he had to promise not to give land and nominations to anyone other than Hungarian nobles. However, this was not applied to Stibor of Stiboricz, who was Sigismund's closest friend and advisor. On a number of occasions, Sigismund was imprisoned by nobles, but with help of the armies of Garai and Stibor of Stiboricz, he would regain power. of Nicopolis Sigismund of Hungary during the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting by Ferenc Lohr (1896), main hall of the Castle of Vaja. 1396, Sigismund led the combined armies of Christendom against the Turks, who had taken advantage of the temporary helplessness of Hungary to extend their dominion to the banks of the Danube. This crusade, preached by Pope Boniface IX, was very popular in Hungary. The nobles flocked in their thousands to the royal standard, and were reinforced by volunteers from nearly every part of Europe. The most important contingent being that of the French led by John the Fearless, son of Philip II, Duke of Burgundy. Sigismund set out with 90,000 men and a flotilla of 70 galleys. After capturing Vidin, he camped with his Hungarian armies before the fortress of Nicopolis. Bayezid I raised the siege of Constantinople and, at the head of 140,000 men, completely defeated the Christian forces in the Battle of Nicopolis fought between the 25 and 28 September 1396.[2] returned by sea and through the realm of Zeta, where he ordained a local Montenegrin lord Durad II with the islands of Hvar and Korčula for resistance against the Turks; the islands were returned to Sigismund after Durad's death in April 1403. disaster at Nicopolis angered several Hungarian lords, leading to instability in the kingdom. Deprived of his authority in Hungary, Sigismund then turned his attention to securing the succession in Germany and Bohemia, and was recognized by his childless half-brother Wenceslaus IV as Vicar-General of the whole Empire. However, he was unable to support Wenceslaus when he was deposed in 1400, and Rupert of Germany, Elector Palatine, was elected German king in his stead.[2] of Luxembourg, official imprint. to Hungary his return to Hungary in 1401, Sigismund was imprisoned once and deposed twice. In 1401, Sigismund helped an uprising against Wenceslaus IV, during the course of which the Bohemian king was taken prisoner, and Sigismund ruled Bohemia for nineteen months. He released Wenceslaus in 1403. In the meantime, a group of Hungarian noblemen swore loyalty to the last Anjou monarch, Ladislaus of Naples, putting their hands on the relic of Saint Ladislas of Hungary in Nagyvarad (today Oradea). Ladislaus was the son of the murdered Charles II of Hungary, and thus a distant relative of the long dead King Louis I of Hungary. Ladislaus captured Zara (today Zadar) in 1403, but soon stopped any military advance. This struggle in turn led to a war with the Republic of Venice, as Ladislaus had sold the Dalmatian cities to the Venetians for 100,000 ducats[2] before leaving for his own land. In the following years Sigismund acted indirectly to thwart Ladislaus' attempts to conquer central Italy, by allying with the Italian cities resisting him and by applying diplomatic pressure on him. to his frequent absences attending to business in the other countries over which he ruled, he was obliged to consult Diets in Hungary with more frequency than his predecessors and institute the office of Palatine as chief administrator while he was away.[5] In 1404, Sigismund introduced the Placetum Regium. According to this decree, Papal bulls could not be pronounced in Hungary without the consent of the king. his long reign, the royal castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. of Croatia horn of Sigismund of Luxembourg, before 1408. about 1406, Sigismund married Mary's cousin Barbara of Celje, daughter of Count Hermann II of Celje. Hermann's mother Catherine (of the House of Kotromanic) and Mary's mother Queen Elisabeth of Bosnia were sisters, or cousins who were adoptive sisters. managed to establish control in Slavonia. He did not hesitate to use violent methods (see Bloody Sabor of Krizevci), but from the river Sava to the south his control was weak. Sigismund personally led an army of almost 50,000 "crusaders" against the Bosnians, culminating with the Battle of Dobor in 1408, a massacre of about 200 noble families. in Serbia by Ottoman expansion, king Sigismund managed to strengthen the security of southern Hungarian borders by entering into a defensive alliance with despot Stefan Lazarevic of Serbia. In 1403, Hungarian possessions in northwestern regions of Serbia (city of Belgrade and the Banate of Macso), were given to despot Stefan, who pledged his allegiance to king Sigismund, remaining the king's loyal vassal until death in 1427. Stefan's successor George Branković of Serbia also pledged his allegiance to Sigismund, returning Belgrade to the king. By maintaining close relations with Serbian rulers, Sigismund succeeded in securing southern borders of his realm.[6][7] of the Dragon founded his personal order of knights, the Order of the Dragon, after the victory at Dobor. The main goal of the order was fighting the Ottoman Empire. Members of the order were mostly his political allies and supporters. The main members of the order were Sigismund's close allies Nicholas II Garay, Hermann II of Celje, Stibor of Stiboricz, and Pippo Spano. The most important European monarchs became members of the order. He encouraged international trade by abolishing internal duties, regulating tariffs on foreign goods and standardizing weights and measures throughout the country. of the Romans the death of King Rupert of Germany in 1410, Sigismund – ignoring the claims of his half-brother Wenceslaus – was elected as successor by three of the electors on 10 September 1410, but he was opposed by his cousin Jobst of Moravia, who had been elected by four electors in a different election on 1 October. Jobst's death 18 January 1411 removed this conflict and Sigismund was again elected king on 21 July 1411. His coronation was deferred until 8 November 1414, when it took place at Aachen.[2] alliances a number of occasions, and in 1410 in particular, Sigismund allied himself with the Teutonic Knights against Władysław II of Poland. In return for 300.000 ducats he would attack Poland from the south after the truce on St. John's Day, 24 June expired. Sigismund ordered his most loyal friend Stibor of Stiboricz to set up the attack on Poland. Stibor of Stiboricz was of Polish origin and from the main line of the powerful Clan of Ostoja that had also been against choosing Jagiello as King of Poland. With the support of Sigismund, Stibor become one of the most influential men in late medieval Europe, holding titles as Duke of Transylvania and owning about 25% of modern-day Slovakia, including 31 castles of which 15 were situated around the 406 km long Váh river with surrounding land that was given to him by Sigismund. In the diplomatic struggle to prevent war between Poland-Lithuania, which was supported by the Muscovites, and the Teutonic Knights, Sigismund used Stibor's fine diplomacy to gain financially. The Polish side appointed several negotiators and most of them were also from the Clan of Ostoja, distant relations of the Stibors. However, those "family meetings" could not prevent the war and an alliance of twenty-two western states formed an army against Poland in the Battle of Grunwald in July 1410. Stibor attacked then Nowy Sącz and burned it to the ground, but after that he returned with his army back to the Beckov Castle. After the Polish-Lithuanian victory in the Battle of Grunwald, the Teutonic knights had to pay a huge sum of silver to Poland as reparation and again, through diplomacy of his friend Stibor, Sigismund was able to borrow all this silver from King Władysław II of Poland on good conditions. In the light of facts about the diplomatic work of Stibor and the Clan of Ostoja that was following the politics of King Sigismund, one can question whether Sigismund actually joined the anti-Polish alliance.[8] of Constance and Barbara of Celje at the Council of Constance. 1412 to 1423, Sigismund campaigned against the Venetians in Italy. The king took advantage of the difficulties of Antipope John XXIII to obtain a promise that a council should be called in Constance in 1414 to settle the Western Schism. He took a leading part in the deliberations of this assembly, and during the sittings made a journey to France, England and Burgundy in a vain attempt to secure the abdication of the three rival popes. council ended in 1418, solving the Schism and — of great consequence to Sigismund's future career — having the Czech religious reformer, Jan Hus, burned at the stake for heresy in July 1415. The complicity of Sigismund in the death of Hus is a matter of controversy. He had granted him a safe-conduct and protested against his imprisonment;[2] and Hus was burned during Sigismund's absence. at one point during the council a cardinal corrected Sigismund's Latin, Sigismund replied Ego sum rex Romanus et super grammaticam ("I am king of the Romans and above grammar").[9] Thomas Carlyle nicknamed Sigismund "Super Grammaticam".[10][11] alliance with England against France, and a failed attempt, owing to the hostility of the princes, to secure peace in Germany by a league of the towns,[2] were his main acts during these years. Also, Sigismund granted control of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (which he had received back after Jobst's death) to Frederick I of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg in 1415. This step made the Hohenzollern family one of the most important in Germany. began to shift his alliance from France to England after the French defeat at the Battle of Agincourt. The signing of the Treaty of Canterbury on 15 August 1416 culminated diplomatic efforts between Henry V of England and Sigismund and resulted in a defensive and offensive alliance against France. This, in turn, led the way to the resolution of the papal schism.[12] The close relationship that developed between Henry V and the Emperor resulted in Sigismund being inducted into the Order of the Garter.[13] Wars of Emperor Sigismund, painted by Albrecht Dürer after the emperor's death. 1419, the death of Wenceslaus IV left Sigismund titular King of Bohemia, but he had to wait for seventeen years before the Czech Estates would acknowledge him. Although the two dignities of King of the Romans and King of Bohemia added considerably to his importance, and indeed made him the nominal temporal head of Christendom, they conferred no increase of power and financially embarrassed him. It was only as King of Hungary that he had succeeded in establishing his authority and in doing anything for the order and good government of the land. Entrusting the government of Bohemia to Sofia of Bavaria, the widow of Wenceslaus, he hastened into Hungary.[2] Bohemians, who distrusted him as the betrayer of Hus, were soon in arms; and the flame was fanned when Sigismund declared his intention of prosecuting the war against heretics. Three campaigns against the Hussites ended in disaster although the army of his most loyal ally Stibor of Stiboricz and later his son Stibor of Beckov could hold the Hussite side away from the borders of the Kingdom. The Turks were again attacking Hungary. The king, unable to obtain support from the German princes, was powerless in Bohemia. His attempts at the diet of Nuremberg in 1422 to raise a mercenary army were foiled by the resistance of the towns; and in 1424 the electors, among whom was Sigismund's former ally, Frederick I of Hohenzollern, sought to strengthen their own authority at the expense of the king. Although the scheme failed, the danger to Germany from the Hussites led to the Union of Bingen, which virtually deprived Sigismund of the leadership of the war and the headship of Germany.[2] years 1428, Sigismund led another campaign against the Turks, but again with few results. In 1431, he went to Milan where on 25 November he received the Iron Crown as King of Italy; after which he remained for some time at Siena, negotiating for his coronation as emperor and for the recognition of the Council of Basel by Pope Eugenius IV. He was crowned emperor in Rome on 31 May 1433, and after obtaining his demands from the Pope returned to Bohemia, where he was recognized as king in 1436, though his power was little more than nominal.[2] Shortly after he was crowned, Pope Eugenius began attempts to create a new anti-Ottoman alliance.[14] This was sparked[citation needed] by an Albanian revolt against the Ottomans, which had begun in 1432. In 1435, Sigismund sent Fruzhin, a Bulgarian nobleman, to negotiate an alliance with the Albanians. He also sent Daud, a pretender to the Ottoman throne, in early 1436.[15] However, following the defeat of the rebels in 1436, plans for an anti-Ottoman alliance ended.[15] died on 9 December 1437 at Znojmo, Moravia (now Czech Republic), and as ordered in life, he was buried at Nagyvárad, Hungary (today Oradea, Romania), next to the tomb of the king Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary, who was the ideal of the perfect monarch, warrior and Christian for that time and was deeply venerated by Sigismund.[16] By his second wife, Barbara of Celje, he left an only daughter, Elisabeth of Luxembourg, who was married to Albert V, duke of Austria (later German king as Albert II) whom Sigismund named as his successor. As he left no sons, his line of the House of Luxembourg became extinct on his death.[2] and issue married twice but had little luck in securing the succession to his crowns. Each of his two marriages resulted in the birth of one child. His first-born child, probably a son, was born prematurely as a result of a horse riding accident suffered by Queen Mary of Hungary when she was well advanced in pregnancy. Mother and child both died shortly after the birth in the hills of Buda on 17 May 1395. This caused a deep succession crisis because Sigismund ruled over Hungary by right of his wife, and although he managed to keep his power, the crisis lasted until his second marriage to Barbara of Celje. Barbara's only child, born in the purple on 7 October 1409, probably in the castle of Visegrád, was Elisabeth of Luxembourg, the future queen consort of Hungary, Germany, and Bohemia. Queen Barbara was unable to give birth to any further issue. Elisabeth of Bohemia was thus the only surviving legitimate offspring of Sigismund. affiliations of arms of John Hunyadi. was known to speak fluent Hungarian, wore Hungarian-style royal clothes, and even grew his beard in the Hungarian fashion.[17] He also spent huge amounts of money during his reign to rebuild the Gothic castles of Buda and Visegrád in the Kingdom of Hungary, ordering the transportation of materials from Austria and Bohemia.[18] many affairs with women led to the birth of several legends, as the one that existed decades later during the reign of the King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. According to this, John Hunyadi was Sigismund's illegitimate son. Sigismund gave a ring to the boy's mother when he was born, but one day in the forest a raven stole it from her, and the ring was only recovered after the bird was hunted down. It is said that this incident inspired the coat of arms of the Hunyadis, and later also appeared in the coat of arms of Matthias "Corvinus".[19] adopted the Hungarian reverence for Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary, who was considered to be an ideal Christian knight at that time. He went on pilgrimage several times to his tomb in Nagyvárad. Before Sigismund died, in Znaim, Moravia, he ordered to be buried next to the king saint.[20] Sigismundi Main article: Reformatio Sigismundi Reformatio Sigismundi appeared in connection with efforts to reform the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Sigismund (1410–1437). It was presented in 1439 at the Council of Basel, published by an anonymous author, and referred to the injustice of the German rulers. It included a vision of Sigismund's about the appearance of a priest-king, Frederick, as well as plans for a wide reform of the monarchy and emperorship and the German empire. Sigismund, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, of Hungary, Bohemia, Italy, Dalmatia, Croatia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania and Bulgaria; Duke of Silesia and Luxembourg; Margrave of Moravia, Lusatia and Brandenburg.[21][failed verification – see discussion] Heraldry of Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor Coat of Arms of the King of the Romans (c.1433-1486).svg Coat of arms of Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor.svg Coat of arms as King of the Romans (1433–1437) Coat of arms as Holy Roman Emperor (1433–1437), king of Hungary and Bohemia Sigismund Arms Hungarian Czech per pale.svg Sigismund Arms.svg Arms of the House of Luxembourg-Hungary-Bohemia Coat of Arms of Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor.png Coat of arms as Knight of the Garter THOMAS A KEMPIS, PRIEST, MONK, AND WRITER (24 JULY 1471) ; Venerable Theophilus the Abbot of Omutch, Pskov, Commemorated on October 21; CATHERINE OF SIENA, REFORMER AND SPIRITUAL TEACHER (29 APR 1380); Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14; JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415 ;

Belgium, 1392-1471, Thomas A Kempis, Priest, Monk, Writer, Kempen, Germany
Germany, 1400, Thomas A Kempis, Priest, Monk, Writer, Kempen, Germany ; à Kempis (c. 1380 - 25 July 1471;[2] German: Thomas von Kempen; Dutch: Thomas van Kempen[3]) was a German-Dutch canon regular of the late medieval period and the author of The Imitation of Christ, one of the most popular and best known Christian devotional books. His name means "Thomas of Kempen", Kempen being his home town. was a member of the Modern Devotion, a spiritual movement during the late medieval period, and a follower of Geert Groote and Florens Radewyns, the founders of the Brethren of the Common Life.[4] was born in Kempen in the Rhineland.[5] His surname at birth was Hemerken (or Hammerlein), meaning the family's profession, "little hammer," Latinized into "Malleolus."[6] His father, Johann, was a blacksmith and his mother, Gertrud, was a schoolmistress.[5] 1392, Thomas followed his brother, Johann, to Deventer in the Netherlands in order to attend the noted Latin school there. While attending this school, Thomas encountered the Brethren of the Common Life, followers of Gerard Groote's Modern Devotion. He attended school in Deventer from 1392 to 1399.[5] leaving school, Thomas went to the nearby city of Zwolle to visit his brother again, after Johann had become the prior of the Monastery of Mount St. Agnes there. This community was one of the Canons Regular of the Congregation of Windesheim, founded by disciples of Groote in order to provide a way of life more in keeping with the norms of monastic life of the period. Thomas himself entered Mount St. Agnes in 1406. He was not ordained a priest, however, until almost a decade later. He became a prolific copyist and writer. Thomas received Holy Orders in 1413[7] and was made sub-prior of the monastery in 1429.[8] first tenure of office as subprior was interrupted by the exile of the community from Agnetenberg (1429). A dispute had arisen in connection with an appointment to the vacant See of Utrecht. Pope Martin V rejected the nomination of Bishop-elect Rudolf van Diepholt, and imposed an interdict. The Canons remained in exile in observance of the interdict until the question was settled (1432). During this time, Thomas was sent to Arnhem to care for his ailing brother. He remained there until his brother died in November, 1432.[7] Thomas spent his time between devotional exercises in writing and in copying manuscripts. He copied the Bible no fewer than four times,[7] one of the copies being preserved at Darmstadt, Germany, in five volumes. In its teachings he was widely read and his works abound with biblical quotations, especially from the New Testament. subprior he was charged with instructing novices, and in that capacity wrote four booklets between 1420 and 1427, later collected and named after the title of the first chapter of the first booklet: The Imitation of Christ. Thomas More said it was one of the three books everybody ought to own.[9] Thirteen translations of the Imitatio Christi and three paraphrases in English seem to have been published between 1500 and 1700.[10] died near Zwolle in 1471. Opera spirituale, 1568. Kempis's 1441 autograph manuscript of The Imitation of Christ is available in the Bibliothèque Royale in Brussels (shelfmark: MS 5455-61).[11] also wrote the biographies of New Devotion members—Gerard Groote, Floris Radewijns, Jan van de Gronde, and Jan Brinckerinck.[11] important works include a series of sermons to the novices of St. Augustine Monastery, including Prayers and Meditations on the Life of Christ, Meditations on the Incarnation of Christ, Of True Compunction of Heart, Soliloquy of the Soul, Garden of Roses, Valley of Lilies, and a Life[12] of St. Lidwina of Schiedam. The following quotes are attributed to him: "Without the Way, there is no going, Without the Truth, there is no knowing, Without the Life, there is no living." "If thou wilt receive profit, read with humility, simplicity, and faith, and seek not at any time the fame of being learned." "At the Day of Judgement we shall not be asked what we have read, but what we have done." — The Imitation of Christ, Book I, ch. 3 "For man proposes, but God disposes" — The Imitation of Christ, Book I, ch. 19 "If, however, you seek Jesus in all things, you will surely find Him. " — The Imitation of Christ, Book II, ch. 7 "In angello cum libello" (with slight variations), "In a little corner with a little book" — Shortened form of a motto often ascribed to, or associated with, Thomas a Kempis. The complete saying as reported by an early biographer is a mixture of Latin and Dutch and runs as follows: "In omnibus requiem quaesivi, sed non inveni, nisi in hoexkens ende boexkens", "I have sought everywhere for peace, but I have found it not, save in nooks and in books."[13][a] monument was dedicated to his memory in the presence of the archbishop of Utrecht in St Michael's Church, Zwolle, on November 11, 1897. In 1964, this church closed, causing his shrine to be moved to a new St. Michael's Church outside the centre of Zwolle. In 2005, this church also closed and his shrine was moved to the Onze-Lieve-Vrouw-ten-Hemelopneming kerk (Assumption of Mary church) in the centre of Zwolle.[14] Kempen, Germany (North Rhine Westphalia) ; THOMAS A KEMPIS, PRIEST, MONK, AND WRITER (24 JULY 1471) ;

Belgium, 1400, 15th-17th Century, Holy Roman Empire Folder, Protestant Cathilic Moslem Wars, Napoleon

Belgium, 1400-1499, 15th Century Folder, HRE, Agincourt, 100 Yrs War, Council of Florence, Priinting

Belgium, 1414-1418, Council of Constance (Lake Constance), ended papal scism
Council of Constance, 1414-1418 (Lake Constance); JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415;

Belgium, 1415, Holy Roman Empire, Battle of Agincourt, England V, 100 Yrs War
Battle of Agincourt; Hundred Years War (1337-1453); THOMAS A KEMPIS, PRIEST, MONK, AND WRITER (24 JULY 1471) ; GEORGE, SOLDIER and MARTYR, 23 APRIL 303, Commemorated April 23; JOAN OF ARC, VISIONARY, 30 May 1431;

Belgium, 1431-1444, Council of Florence, to curtail power and resources of the pope
Belgium, Holy Roman Empire Council, 1431-1444, Council of Florence; St Mark the Archbishop of Ephesus, Commemorated on January 19;

Belgium, 1433-1437, HRE Emperor, Sigismund, crusade leader in 1396, Order of the Dragon, CofC, Husite Wars
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1433-1437, Sigismund ; of Luxembourg (15 February 1368 - 9 December 1437) was prince-elector of Brandenburg from 1378 until 1388 and from 1411 until 1415, king of Hungary and Croatia from 1387, king of Germany from 1411, king of Bohemia from 1419, king of Italy from 1431, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1433 until 1437, and the last male member of the House of Luxembourg.[1] was born in Nuremberg, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV and Elizabeth of Pomerania. married Queen Mary of Hungary in 1385 and was crowned King of Hungary soon after. He fought to restore and maintain authority to the throne. Mary died in 1395, leaving Sigismund the sole ruler of Hungary. 1396, Sigismund led the Crusade of Nicopolis, but was decisively defeated by the Ottoman Empire. he founded the Order of the Dragon to fight the Turks and secured the thrones of Croatia, Germany and Bohemia. Sigismund was one of the driving forces behind the Council of Constance (1414-1418) that ended the Papal Schism, but which also led to the Hussite Wars that dominated the later period of his life. 1433, Sigismund was crowned Holy Roman Emperor and ruled until his death in 1437. St Theodosius (Prince Theodore of Ostrog) of the Kiev Caves, Commemorated on August 11; Venerable Theodore (In monasticism Theodosius) the Prince of Ostrog, Commemorated on October 10 ; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14;

Belgium, 1437-1493, HRE Emperor, Frederick III, first Hapsburg, reuniting Hapsburg Lands of Austria, then Hungary, Burgundy
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1437-1493, Frederick III Holy Roman Emperor; III (21 September 1415 - 19 August 1493) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1452 until his death. was the first emperor of the House of Habsburg, and the fourth member of the House of Habsburg to be elected King of Germany after Rudolf I of Germany, Albert I in the 13th century and his predecessor Albert II of Germany. He was the penultimate emperor to be crowned by the Pope, and the last to be crowned in Rome. to his imperial coronation, he was duke of the Inner Austrian lands of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola from 1424, and also acted as regent over the Duchy of Austria (as Frederick V) from 1439. He was elected and crowned King of Germany (as Frederick IV) in 1440.[1] He was the longest-reigning German monarch when in 1493, after ruling his domains for more than 53 years, he was succeeded by his son Maximilian I. his reign, Frederick concentrated on re-uniting the Habsburg "hereditary lands" of Austria and took a lesser interest in Imperial affairs. Nevertheless, by his dynastic entitlement to Hungary as well as by the Burgundian inheritance, he laid the foundations for the later Habsburg Empire. as "Arch-Sleepyhead of the Holy Roman Empire" (German: Erzschlafmütze) during his lifetime,[2] he is today increasingly seen as an effective ruler. - THOMAS A KEMPIS, PRIEST, MONK, AND WRITER (24 JULY 1471) ; Lucas Cranach of ALBRECHT DEÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GREÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553,ARTISTS, 5 August; Matthias Grunewald of ALBRECHT DEÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GREÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553, ARTISTS, 5 August ; Venerable Serapion of Spaso-Eleazar Monastery, Pskov, Commemorated September 7 ; Venerable Hilarion the Abbot of Gdov and Pskov Lake, Commemorated on October 21; St Bassian of Uglich, Commemorated on February 12; Venerable Hilarion of Pskov, Lake Gdov, Commemorated on March 28; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14;

Belgium, 1490-1528, Matthias Grunewald, painter of religious works, ignored classicism, antithesis to Durer
Colmar, Alsace, on the Maginot Line, France; Matthias Grunewald of ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRÜNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553, ARTISTS, 5 August, Commemorated August 5; Grunewald, (c. 1470 - August 31, 1528), was an important German Renaissance painter of religious works, who ignored Renaissance classicism to continue the expressive and intense style of late medieval Central European art into the 16th century. Only ten paintings—several consisting of many panels—and thirty-five drawings survive, all religious, although many others were lost at sea in the Baltic on their way to Sweden as war booty. His reputation was obscured until the late nineteenth century, and many of his paintings were attributed to Albrecht Dürer, who is now seen as his stylistic antithesis. His largest and most famous work is the Isenheim Altarpiece in Colmar, Alsace. (More at Wikipedia)

Belgium, 1491-1528, Albrecht Durer, painter, print maker, watercolors, woodcuts, classical motifs, math, perspective
Nuremberg; Albrecht Durer of ALBRECHT DUœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRUœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553,ARTISTS, 5 August; Durer (May 21, 1471 - April 6, 1528) was a German painter, printmaker and theorist from Nuremberg. His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Renaissance in Northern Europe ever since. His well-known works include the Apocalypse woodcuts, Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) and Melencolia I (1514), which has been the subject of extensive analysis and interpretation. His watercolors mark him as one of the first European landscape artists, while his ambitious woodcuts revolutionized the potential of that medium. Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, have secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatise which involve principles of mathematics, perspective and ideal proportions. (More at Wikipedia)

Belgium, 1492-1553, Lucas Cranch the elder, protestant, painter, printmaker, woodcut, engraving, portraits
Saxony; Lucas Cranach of ALBRECHT DuœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRuœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553,ARTISTS, 5 August; Cranach the Elder, 4 October 1472 - 16 October 1553) was a German Renaissance painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving. He was court painter to the Electors of Saxony for most of his career, and is best known for his portraits, both of German princes and those of the leaders of the Protestant Reformation, whose cause he embraced with enthusiasm, becoming a close friend of Martin Luther. He also painted religious subjects, first in the Catholic tradition, and later trying to find new ways of conveying Lutheran religious concerns in art. He continued throughout his career to paint nude subjects drawn from mythology and religion. He had a large workshop and many works exist in different versions; his son Lucas Cranach the Younger, and others, continued to produce versions of his father's works for decades after his death. (More at Wikipedia) NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10;

Belgium, 1493-1508, HRE Emperor, None
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1437-1493, Frederick III Holy Roman Emperor; III (21 September 1415 - 19 August 1493) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1452 until his death. was the first emperor of the House of Habsburg, and the fourth member of the House of Habsburg to be elected King of Germany after Rudolf I of Germany, Albert I in the 13th century and his predecessor Albert II of Germany. He was the penultimate emperor to be crowned by the Pope, and the last to be crowned in Rome. to his imperial coronation, he was duke of the Inner Austrian lands of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola from 1424, and also acted as regent over the Duchy of Austria (as Frederick V) from 1439. He was elected and crowned King of Germany (as Frederick IV) in 1440.[1] He was the longest-reigning German monarch when in 1493, after ruling his domains for more than 53 years, he was succeeded by his son Maximilian I. his reign, Frederick concentrated on re-uniting the Habsburg "hereditary lands" of Austria and took a lesser interest in Imperial affairs. Nevertheless, by his dynastic entitlement to Hungary as well as by the Burgundian inheritance, he laid the foundations for the later Habsburg Empire. as "Arch-Sleepyhead of the Holy Roman Empire" (German: Erzschlafmütze) during his lifetime,[2] he is today increasingly seen as an effective ruler. - THOMAS A KEMPIS, PRIEST, MONK, AND WRITER (24 JULY 1471) ; Lucas Cranach of ALBRECHT DEÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GREÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553,ARTISTS, 5 August; Matthias Grunewald of ALBRECHT DEÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GREÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553, ARTISTS, 5 August ; Venerable Serapion of Spaso-Eleazar Monastery, Pskov, Commemorated September 7 ; Venerable Hilarion the Abbot of Gdov and Pskov Lake, Commemorated on October 21; St Bassian of Uglich, Commemorated on February 12; Venerable Hilarion of Pskov, Lake Gdov, Commemorated on March 28; Venerable Isidore the Fool-For-Christ and Wonderworker of Rostov, Commemorated on May 14;

Belgium, 1493-1543, Polish Renaissance Man, Nicolaus Copernicus
Polish Renaissance Man, 1493-1543, Nicolaus Copernicus; Icon of the Mother of God of Vilnius, Commemorated on April 14; Nicholas Copernicus of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23;

Belgium, 1500-1599, 16th Centory Folder, HRE, Luther's 95 Theses, Hapsburg Empire,

Belgium, 1508-1519, HRE Emperor, Maximilian I, second Hapsbgh, married Burgendy, Jews cancelled, lost Swis&Italy
Holy Roman Emperor, 1486-1519, Maximilian I ; I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death. was never crowned by the Pope, as the journey to Rome was always too risky. He was instead proclaimed emperor elect by Pope Julius II at Trent, thus breaking the long tradition of requiring a Papal coronation for the adoption of the Imperial title. was the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal. He ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of the latter's reign, from c. 1483 until his father's death in 1493. expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, though he also lost his family's original lands in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy. marriage of his son Philip the Handsome to eventual queen Joanna of Castile in 1498, Maximilian helped to establish the Habsburg dynasty in Spain, which allowed his grandson Charles to hold the thrones of both Castile and Aragon.[2] 1 Background and childhood 2 Reign in Burgundy and the Netherlands 3 Reign in the Holy Roman Empire 3.1 Peaceful Recapture of Austria 3.2 Italian and Swiss wars 3.3 Banning of Jewish literature and expulsion of Jews 3.4 Reforms 4 Tu felix Austria nube 5 Succession 6 Death and legacy 7 Ancestry 8 Official style 8.1 Chivalric order 9 Marriages and offspring 10 Triumphal woodcuts 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 14 External links and childhood[edit] III and Eleanor of Portugal. was born at Wiener Neustadt on 22 March 1459. His father, Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, named him for an obscure saint, Maximilian of Tebessa, who Frederick believed had once warned him of imminent peril in a dream. his infancy, he and his parents were besieged in Vienna by Albert of Austria. One source relates that, during the siege's bleakest days, the young prince wandered about the castle garrison, begging the servants and men-at-arms for bits of bread.[3] The young prince was an excellent hunter, his favorite hobby was hunting for birds as a horse archer. the time, the dukes of Burgundy, a cadet branch of the French royal family, with their sophisticated nobility and court culture, were the rulers of substantial territories on the eastern and northern boundaries of France. The reigning duke, Charles the Bold, was the chief political opponent of Maximilian's father Frederick III. Frederick was concerned about Burgundy's expansive tendencies on the western border of his Holy Roman Empire, and, to forestall military conflict, he attempted to secure the marriage of Charles' only daughter, Mary of Burgundy, to his son Maximilian. After the Siege of Neuss (1474–75), he was successful. The wedding between Maximilian and Mary took place on 19 August 1477.[4] in Burgundy and the Netherlands[edit] hommage ceremony of the estates to the emperor (depiction from the Liber missarum of Margaret of Austria, 1515) gold-and-silver coin featuring the bust of a crowned man in armour, holding a sceptre and a sword. The bust is surrounded with the text 'Maximilianus Dei Gra Rex & Imper Augustus'. A gold-and-silver coin featuring five coats of arms, three crowned, and the chain of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The coin is surrounded by text. coin with the Burgundian Order of the Golden Fleece wife had inherited the large Burgundian domains in France and the Low Countries upon her father's death in the Battle of Nancy on 5 January 1477. Already before his coronation as the King of the Romans in 1486, Maximilian decided to secure this distant and extensive Burgundian inheritance to his family, the House of Habsburg, at all costs.[5] Duchy of Burgundy was also claimed by the French crown under Salic Law,[6] with Louis XI of France vigorously contesting the Habsburg claim to the Burgundian inheritance by means of military force. Maximilian undertook the defence of his wife's dominions from an attack by Louis XI and defeated the French forces at Guinegate, the modern Enguinegatte, on 7 August 1479.[7] and Mary's wedding contract stipulated that their children would succeed them but that the couple could not be each other's heirs. Mary tried to bypass this rule with a promise to transfer territories as a gift in case of her death, but her plans were confounded. After Mary's death in a riding accident on 27 March 1482 near the Wijnendale Castle, Maximilian's aim was now to secure the inheritance to his and Mary's son, Philip the Handsome.[5] of the Netherlander provinces were hostile to Maximilian, and, in 1482, they signed a treaty with Louis XI in Arras that forced Maximilian to give up Franche-Comté and Artois to the French crown.[6] They openly rebelled twice in the period 1482–1492, attempting to regain the autonomy they had enjoined under Mary. Flemish rebels managed to capture Philip and even Maximilian himself, but they were defeated when Frederick III intervened.[8][9] Maximilian continued to govern Mary's remaining inheritance in the name of Philip the Handsome. After the regency ended, Maximilian and Charles VIII of France exchanged these two territories for Burgundy and Picardy in the Treaty of Senlis (1493). Thus a large part of the Netherlands (known as the Seventeen Provinces) stayed in the Habsburg patrimony.[6] in the Holy Roman Empire[edit] Recapture of Austria[edit] was elected King of the Romans on 16 February 1486 in Frankfurt-am-Main at his father's initiative and crowned on 9 April 1486 in Aachen. Much of Austria was under Hungarian rule, as a result of the Austrian-Hungarian War (1477-1488). After the death of king Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, the Habsburgs were able to occupy the Austrian territories without military conflict. Maximilian entered Vienna without siege in 1490. The peaceful Habsburg annexation of Austrian territories was possible after Maximilian and the newly elected Hungarian King Vladislaus II signed the peace treaty of Pressburg. Maximilian became ruler of the Holy Roman Empire upon the death of his father in 1493. and Swiss wars[edit] of Maximilian I, c. 1490–95, by Lorenz Helmschmid, Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Golden Roof" residence in Innsbruck, Tyrol the Treaty of Senlis had resolved French differences with the Holy Roman Empire, King Louis XII of France had secured borders in the north and turned his attention to Italy, where he made claims for the Duchy of Milan. In 1499/1500 he conquered it and drove the Sforza regent Lodovico il Moro into exile.[10] This brought him into a potential conflict with Maximilian, who on 16 March 1494 had married Bianca Maria Sforza, a daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, duke of Milan.[6][10] However, Maximilian was unable to hinder the French from taking over Milan.[10] The prolonged Italian Wars resulted[6] in Maximilian joining the Holy League to counter the French. In 1513, with Henry VIII of England, Maximilian won an important victory at the battle of the Spurs against the French, stopping their advance in northern France. His campaigns in Italy were not as successful, and his progress there was quickly checked. situation in Italy was not the only problem Maximilian had at the time. The Swiss won a decisive victory against the Empire in the Battle of Dornach on 22 July 1499. Maximilian had no choice but to agree to a peace treaty signed on 22 September 1499 in Basel that granted the Swiss Confederacy independence from the Holy Roman Empire. addition, the County of Tyrol and Duchy of Bavaria went to war in the late 15th century. Bavaria demanded money from Tyrol that had been loaned on the collateral of Tyrolean lands. In 1490, the two nations demanded that Maximilian I step in to mediate the dispute. In response, he assumed control of Tyrol and its debt. Because Tyrol had no law code at this time, the nobility freely expropriated money from the populace, which caused the royal palace in Innsbruck to fester with corruption. After taking control, Maximilian instituted immediate financial reform. In order to symbolize his new wealth and power, he built the Golden Roof, a canopy overlooking the town center of Innsbruck, from which to watch the festivities celebrating his assumption of rule over Tyrol. The canopy is made entirely from golden shingles. Gaining theoretical control of Tyrol for the Habsburgs was of strategic importance because it linked the Swiss Confederacy to the Habsburg-controlled Austrian lands, which facilitated some imperial geographic continuity. of Jewish literature and expulsion of Jews[edit] 1496, Maximilian issued a decree which expelled all Jews from Styria and Wiener Neustadt.[11] Similarly, in 1509 he passed the "Imperial Confiscation Mandate" which ordered the destruction of all Jewish literature apart from the Bible.[12] However he still conducted financial business with Jews like Abraham of Bohemia. article: Imperial Reform personally led his troops at the battle of Wenzenbach in 1504. the Holy Roman Empire, Maximilian faced pressure from local rulers who believed that the King's continued wars with the French to increase the power of his own house were not in their best interests. There was also a consensus that deep reforms were needed to preserve the unity of the Empire.[13] The reforms, which had been delayed for a long time, were launched in the 1495 Reichstag at Worms. A new organ was introduced, the Reichskammergericht, that was to be largely independent from the Emperor. A new tax was launched to finance it, the Gemeine Pfennig, though its collection was never fully successful.[13] The local rulers wanted more independence from the Emperor and a strengthening of their own territorial rule. This led to Maximilian agreeing to establish an organ called the Reichsregiment, which met in Nuremberg and consisted of the deputies of the Emperor, local rulers, commoners, and the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. The new organ proved politically weak, and its power returned to Maximilian in 1502.[10] to the difficult external and internal situation he faced, Maximilian also felt it necessary to introduce reforms in the historic territories of the House of Habsburg in order to finance his army. Using Burgundian institutions as a model, he attempted to create a unified state. This was not very successful, but one of the lasting results was the creation of three different subdivisions of the Austrian lands: Lower Austria, Upper Austria, and Vorderösterreich.[10] was always troubled by financial shortcomings; his income never seemed to be enough to sustain his large-scale goals and policies. For this reason he was forced to take substantial credits from Upper German banker families, especially from the Baumgarten, Fugger and Welser families. Jörg Baumgarten even served as Maximilian's financial advisor. The Fuggers, who dominated the copper and silver mining business in Tyrol, provided a credit of almost 1 million gulden for the purpose of bribing the prince-electors to choose Maximilian's grandson Charles V as the new Emperor. At the end of Maximilian's rule, the Habsburgs' mountain of debt totalled six million gulden, corresponding to a decade's worth of tax revenues from their inherited lands. It took until the end of the 16th century to repay this debt. 1508, Maximilian, with the assent of Pope Julius II, took the title Erwählter Römischer Kaiser ("Elected Roman Emperor"), thus ending the centuries-old custom that the Holy Roman Emperor had to be crowned by the Pope. felix Austria nube[edit] Weisskunig: Maximilian on horseback in besieged town part of the Treaty of Arras, Maximilian betrothed his three-year-old daughter Margaret to the Dauphin of France (later Charles VIII), son of his adversary Louis XI. Under the terms of Margaret's betrothal, she was sent to Louis to be brought up under his guardianship. Despite Louis's death in 1483, shortly after Margaret arrived in France, she remained at the French court. The Dauphin, now Charles VIII, was still a minor, and his regent until 1491 was his sister Anne.[14][15] shortly after signing the Treaty of Le Verger, Francis II, Duke of Brittany, left his realm to his daughter Anne. In her search of alliances to protect her domain from neighboring interests, she betrothed Maximilian I in 1490. About a year later, they married by proxy.[16][17][18] Charles and his sister wanted her inheritance for France. So, when the former came of age in 1491, and taking advantage of Maximilian and his father's interest in the succession of their adversary Mathias Corvinus, King of Hungary,[19] Charles repudiated his betrothal to Margaret, invaded Brittany, forced Anne of Brittany to repudiate her unconsummated marriage to Maximilian, and married Anne of Brittany himself.[20][21][22] then remained in France as a hostage of sorts until 1493, when she was finally returned to her father with the signing of the Treaty of Senlis.[23][24] the same year, as the hostilities of the lengthy Italian Wars with France were in preparation,[25] Maximilian contracted another marriage for himself, this time to Bianca Maria Sforza, daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, with the intercession of his brother, Ludovico Sforza,[26][27][28][29] then regent of the duchy after the former's death.[30] talking to German knights (depiction from the contemporary Weisskunig) later, in order to reduce the growing pressures on the Empire brought about by treaties between the rulers of France, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and Russia, as well as to secure Bohemia and Hungary for the Habsburgs, Maximilian met with the Jagiellonian kings Ladislaus II of Hungary and Bohemia and Sigismund I of Poland at the First Congress of Vienna in 1515. There they arranged for Maximilian's granddaughter Mary to marry Louis, the son of Ladislaus, and for Anne (the sister of Louis) to marry Maximilian's grandson Ferdinand (both grandchildren being the children of Philip the Handsome, Maximilian's son, and Joanna of Castile).[31][32] The marriages arranged there brought Habsburg kingship over Hungary and Bohemia in 1526.[33][34] Both Anne and Louis were adopted by Maximilian following the death of Ladislaus.[citation needed] Maximilian through his own marriages and those of his descendants (attempted unsuccessfully and successfully alike) sought, as was current practice for dynastic states at the time, to extend his sphere of influence.[34] The marriages he arranged for both of his children more successfully fulfilled the specific goal of thwarting French interests, and after the turn of the sixteenth century, his matchmaking focused on his grandchildren, for whom he looked away from France towards the east.[34][35] These political marriages were summed up in the following Latin elegiac couplet: Bella gerant aliÄ«, tÅ« fÄ“lix Austria nÅ«be/ Nam quae Mars aliÄ«s, dat tibi regna Venus, "Let others wage war, but thou, O happy Austria, marry; for those kingdoms which Mars gives to others, Venus gives to thee."[36] policies in Italy had been unsuccessful, and after 1517 Venice reconquered the last pieces of their territory. began to focus entirely on the question of his succession. His goal was to secure the throne for a member of his house and prevent Francis I of France from gaining the throne; the resulting "election campaign" was unprecedented due to the massive use of bribery.[37] The Fugger family provided Maximilian a credit of one million gulden, which was used to bribe the prince-electors.[38] However, the bribery claims have been challenged.[39] At first, this policy seemed successful, and Maximilian managed to secure the votes from Mainz, Cologne, Brandenburg and Bohemia for his grandson Charles V. The death of Maximilian in 1519 seemed to put the succession at risk, but in a few months the election of Charles V was secured.[10] and legacy[edit] cenotaph, Hofkirche, Innsbruck 1501, Maximilian fell from his horse and badly injured his leg, causing him pain for the rest of his life. Some historians have suggested that Maximilian was "morbidly" depressed: from 1514, he travelled everywhere with his coffin.[40] Maximilian died in Wels, Upper Austria, and was succeeded as Emperor by his grandson Charles V, his son Philip the Handsome having died in 1506. For penitential reasons, Maximilian gave very specific instructions for the treatment of his body after death. He wanted his hair to be cut off and his teeth knocked out, and the body was to be whipped and covered with lime and ash, wrapped in linen, and "publicly displayed to show the perishableness of all earthly glory".[41] Although he is buried in the Castle Chapel at Wiener Neustadt, an extremely elaborate cenotaph tomb for Maximilian is in the Hofkirche, Innsbruck, where the tomb is surrounded by statues of heroes from the past.[42] Much of the work was done in his lifetime, but it was not completed until decades later.[citation needed] was a keen supporter of the arts and sciences, and he surrounded himself with scholars such as Joachim Vadian and Andreas Stoberl (Stiborius), promoting them to important court posts. Many of them were commissioned to assist him complete a series of projects, in different art forms, intended to glorify for posterity his life and deeds and those of his Habsburg ancestors.[43][44] He referred to these projects as Gedechtnus ("memorial"),[44][45] which included a series of stylised autobiographical works: the epic poems Theuerdank and Freydal, and the chivalric novel Weisskunig, both published in editions lavishly illustrated with woodcuts.[43] In this vein, he commissioned a series of three monumental woodblock prints: The Triumphal Arch (1512–18, 192 woodcut panels, 295 cm wide and 357 cm high – approximately 9'8" by 11'8½"); and a Triumphal Procession (1516–18, 137 woodcut panels, 54 m long), which is led by a Large Triumphal Carriage (1522, 8 woodcut panels, 1½' high and 8' long), created by artists including Albrecht Dürer, Albrecht Altdorfer and Hans Burgkmair.[46][47] had a great passion for armour, not only as equipment for battle or tournaments, but as an art form. The style of armour that became popular during the second half of his reign featured elaborate fluting and metalworking, and became known as Maximilian armour. It emphasized the details in the shaping of the metal itself, rather than the etched or gilded designs popular in the Milanese style. Maximilian also gave a bizarre jousting helmet as a gift to King Henry VIII – the helmet's visor features a human face, with eyes, nose and a grinning mouth, and was modelled after the appearance of Maximilian himself.[48] It also sports a pair of curled ram's horns, brass spectacles, and even etched beard stubble.[48] had appointed his daughter Margaret as both Regent of the Netherlands and the guardian and educator of his grandsons Charles and Ferdinand (their father, Philip, having predeceased Maximilian), and she fulfilled this task well. Through wars and marriages he extended the Habsburg influence in every direction: to the Netherlands, Spain, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, and Italy. This influence lasted for centuries and shaped much of European history. The Habsburg Empire survived as the Austro-Hungarian Empire until it was dissolved 3 November 1918 – 399 years 11 months and 9 days after the passing of Maximilian. Albrecht Durer of ALBRECHT DUÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRUÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553,ARTISTS, 5 August; Lucas Cranach of ALBRECHT DUÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRUÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553,ARTISTS, 5 August; Matthias Grunewald of ALBRECHT DUÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRUÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553, ARTISTS, 5 August ; St Eutychius of Nursia, Commemorated on August 23; Hieromartyr Isidore and 72 Others at Yuriev, Estonia, Commemorated on January 8; Venerable Macarius the Roman of Novgorod, Commemorated on January 19 ; St Bassian of Uglich, Commemorated on February 12; MARTIN LUTHER, EDUCATOR, TRANSLATOR (18 FEB 1546) ; OLAVUS PETRI, Priest 19 April 1552, Laurentius Petri, Archbishop of Uppsala 1573, Commemorated April 19 ; JOHN CALVIN, THEOLOGIAN, 1564, Commemorated May 28;

Belgium, 1516-1556, HRE Emperor Charles V, inherited Hapsburg d's, divided Spanish Austrian d's, Gold Silver inflation
Spanish King, 1516-1556. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles I of Spain ; V[a][b] (24 February 1500 - 21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria from 1519 to 1556, King of Spain (Castile and Aragon) from 1516 to 1556, and Lord of the Netherlands as titular Duke of Burgundy from 1506 to 1555. he was head of the rising House of Habsburg during the first half of the 16th century, his dominions in Europe included the Holy Roman Empire, extending from Germany to northern Italy with direct rule over the Austrian hereditary lands and the Burgundian Low Countries, and a unified Spain with its southern Italian kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Furthermore, his reign encompassed both the long-lasting Spanish and the short-lived German colonizations of the Americas. personal union of the European and American territories of Charles V was the first collection of realms labelled "the empire on which the Sun never sets".[1] was born in the County of Flanders to Philip the Handsome of the Austrian House of Habsburg (son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Mary of Burgundy) and Joanna of Castile of the Spanish House of Trastámara (daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon). The ultimate heir of his four grandparents, he inherited all of his family dominions at a young age. the death of Philip in 1506, he inherited the Burgundian Netherlands, originally held by his paternal grandmother Mary.[2] In 1516, he became co-monarch of Spain with his mother Joanna, and as such he was the first king of Spain to inherit the country as dynastically unified by the Catholic Monarchs, his maternal grandparents.[3] The Spanish possessions at his accession also included the Castilian West Indies and the Aragonese Kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. At the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian in 1519, he inherited Austria and was elected to succeed him as Holy Roman Emperor. He adopted the Imperial name of Charles V as his main title, and styled himself as a new Charlemagne.[4] V revitalized the medieval concept of the universal monarchy and spent most of his life defending the integrity of the Holy Roman Empire from the Protestant Reformation, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, and a series of wars with France.[5] no fixed capital city, he made 40 journeys, travelling from country to country; he spent a quarter of his reign on the road.[6] The imperial wars were fought by German Landsknechte, Spanish tercios, Burgundian knights, and Italian condottieri. V borrowed money from German and Italian bankers and, in order to repay such loans, he relied on the proto-capitalist economy of the Low Countries and on the flows of gold and especially silver from South America to Spain, which caused widespread inflation. ratified the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires by the Spanish Conquistadores Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, as well as the establishment of Klein-Venedig by the German Welser family in search of the legendary El Dorado. order to consolidate power in his early reign, Charles suppressed two Spanish insurrections (Comuneros' Revolt and Brotherhoods' Revolt) and two German rebellions (Knights' Revolt and Great Peasants' Revolt). King in Germany, Charles sided with Pope Leo X and declared Martin Luther an outlaw at the Diet of Worms (1521).[7] same year Francis I of France, surrounded by the Habsburg possessions, started a conflict in Lombardy that lasted until the Battle of Pavia (1525) led to his temporary imprisonment. Protestant affair re-emerged in 1527 as Rome was sacked by an army of Charles's mutinous soldiers, largely of Lutheran faith. After his forces left the Papal States, Charles V defended Vienna from the Turks and obtained the coronation as King in Italy by Pope Clement VII. 1535, he annexed the vacant Duchy of Milan and captured Tunis. Nevertheless, the loss of Buda during the struggle for Hungary and the Algiers expedition in the early 40s frustrated his anti-Ottoman policies. Charles V had come to an agreement with Pope Paul III for the organisation of the Council of Trent (1545). The refusal of the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League to recognize the council's validity led to a war, won by Charles V with the imprisonment of the Protestant princes. However, Henry II of France offered new support to the Lutheran cause and strengthened a close alliance with the sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the ruler of the Ottoman Empire since 1520. Charles V conceded the Peace of Augsburg and abandoned his multi-national project with a series of abdications in 1556 that divided his hereditary and imperial domains between the Spanish Habsburgs headed by his son Philip II of Spain and the Austrian Habsburgs headed by his brother Ferdinand, who was Archduke of Austria in Charles's name since 1521 and the designated successor as emperor since 1531.[8][9][10] The Duchy of Milan and the Habsburg Netherlands were left in personal union to the King of Spain, but remained part of the Holy Roman Empire. The two Habsburg dynasties remained allied until the extinction of the Spanish line in 1700. In 1557, Charles retired to the Monastery of Yuste in Extremadura and died there a year later. NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10; JOHN CALVIN, THEOLOGIAN, 1564, commemorated May 28;

Belgium, 1519-1556, HRE Emperor, Charles V from Ghent, Belgium, no fixed capital, travelled 40 times
Holy Roman Emperor, 1519-1556, Charles V from Ghent, Belgium; V[a][b] (24 February 1500 - 21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria from 1519 to 1556, King of Spain (Castile and Aragon) from 1516 to 1556, and Lord of the Netherlands as titular Duke of Burgundy from 1506 to 1555. he was head of the rising House of Habsburg during the first half of the 16th century, his dominions in Europe included the Holy Roman Empire, extending from Germany to northern Italy with direct rule over the Austrian hereditary lands and the Burgundian Low Countries, and a unified Spain with its southern Italian kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Furthermore, his reign encompassed both the long-lasting Spanish and the short-lived German colonizations of the Americas. personal union of the European and American territories of Charles V was the first collection of realms labelled "the empire on which the Sun never sets".[1] was born in the County of Flanders to Philip the Handsome of the Austrian House of Habsburg (son of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Mary of Burgundy) and Joanna of Castile of the Spanish House of Trastámara (daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon). The ultimate heir of his four grandparents, he inherited all of his family dominions at a young age. the death of Philip in 1506, he inherited the Burgundian Netherlands, originally held by his paternal grandmother Mary.[2] In 1516, he became co-monarch of Spain with his mother Joanna, and as such he was the first king of Spain to inherit the country as dynastically unified by the Catholic Monarchs, his maternal grandparents.[3] The Spanish possessions at his accession also included the Castilian West Indies and the Aragonese Kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. At the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian in 1519, he inherited Austria and was elected to succeed him as Holy Roman Emperor. He adopted the Imperial name of Charles V as his main title, and styled himself as a new Charlemagne.[4] V revitalized the medieval concept of the universal monarchy and spent most of his life defending the integrity of the Holy Roman Empire from the Protestant Reformation, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, and a series of wars with France.[5] no fixed capital city, he made 40 journeys, travelling from country to country; he spent a quarter of his reign on the road.[6] The imperial wars were fought by German Landsknechte, Spanish tercios, Burgundian knights, and Italian condottieri. V borrowed money from German and Italian bankers and, in order to repay such loans, he relied on the proto-capitalist economy of the Low Countries and on the flows of gold and especially silver from South America to Spain, which caused widespread inflation. ratified the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires by the Spanish Conquistadores Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, as well as the establishment of Klein-Venedig by the German Welser family in search of the legendary El Dorado. order to consolidate power in his early reign, Charles suppressed two Spanish insurrections (Comuneros' Revolt and Brotherhoods' Revolt) and two German rebellions (Knights' Revolt and Great Peasants' Revolt). King in Germany, Charles sided with Pope Leo X and declared Martin Luther an outlaw at the Diet of Worms (1521).[7] same year Francis I of France, surrounded by the Habsburg possessions, started a conflict in Lombardy that lasted until the Battle of Pavia (1525) led to his temporary imprisonment. Protestant affair re-emerged in 1527 as Rome was sacked by an army of Charles's mutinous soldiers, largely of Lutheran faith. After his forces left the Papal States, Charles V defended Vienna from the Turks and obtained the coronation as King in Italy by Pope Clement VII. 1535, he annexed the vacant Duchy of Milan and captured Tunis. Nevertheless, the loss of Buda during the struggle for Hungary and the Algiers expedition in the early 40s frustrated his anti-Ottoman policies. Charles V had come to an agreement with Pope Paul III for the organisation of the Council of Trent (1545). The refusal of the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League to recognize the council's validity led to a war, won by Charles V with the imprisonment of the Protestant princes. However, Henry II of France offered new support to the Lutheran cause and strengthened a close alliance with the sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the ruler of the Ottoman Empire since 1520. Charles V conceded the Peace of Augsburg and abandoned his multi-national project with a series of abdications in 1556 that divided his hereditary and imperial domains between the Spanish Habsburgs headed by his son Philip II of Spain and the Austrian Habsburgs headed by his brother Ferdinand, who was Archduke of Austria in Charles's name since 1521 and the designated successor as emperor since 1531.[8][9][10] The Duchy of Milan and the Habsburg Netherlands were left in personal union to the King of Spain, but remained part of the Holy Roman Empire. The two Habsburg dynasties remained allied until the extinction of the Spanish line in 1700. In 1557, Charles retired to the Monastery of Yuste in Extremadura and died there a year later. IGNATIUS LOYOLA, MYSTIC, EDUCATOR, PREACHER, AND FOUNDER OF THE JESUITS (31 JULY 1556); Albrecht Durer of ALBRECHT DUÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRUÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553,ARTISTS, 5 August; Lucas Cranach of ALBRECHT DUÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRUÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553,ARTISTS, 5 August; Matthias Grunewald of ALBRECHT DUÂœRER, 1528, MATTHIAS GRUÂœNEWALD, 1529, LUCAS CRANACH the ELDER, 1553, ARTISTS, 5 August ; St Macarius the Roman, Commemorated on August 15; TERESA OF AVILA, REFORMER AND CONTEMPLATIVE (15 OCT 1582); Venerable Macarius the Roman of Novgorod, Commemorated on January 19 ; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; MARTIN LUTHER, EDUCATOR, TRANSLATOR (18 FEB 1546) ; Beheading of the Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated on February 20; OLAVUS PETRI, Priest 19 April 1552, Laurentius Petri, Archbishop of Uppsala 1573, Commemorated April 19 ; St Basil the Bishop of Ostrog in Montenegro, Serbia, Commemorated on April 29; St Zosimas II of Kumurdo, Commemorated on May 1; Nicholas Copernicus of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23 ; JOHN CALVIN, THEOLOGIAN, 1564, commemorated May 28;

Belgium, 1526-1804, Holy Roman Empire, Hapsburg Empire, Austria
Belgium, Holy Roman Empire, 1526-1804, Hapsburg Empire, Austria; St John of Galesh, Commemorated on October 21; Martyr Oprea of Salistie in Romania, Commemorated on October 21;

Belgium, 1534-1549, Pope, Paul III, Jesuits
Pope, 1534-1549, Paul III ; IGNATIUS LOYOLA, MYSTIC, EDUCATOR, PREACHER, AND FOUNDER OF THE JESUITS (31 JULY 1556) ; 1537 the Jesuits (now ten in number) gathered in Venice and (having found that renewed war in Palestine made journeying there impossible) offered their services to Pope Paul III. Ignatius and some of the others were ordained to the priesthood, and they were assigned various tasks. 1540 they became a formal organization, with the usual monastic vows, plus a fourth vow of personal obedience to the Pope. In order to have more time for preaching and study the order abolished the practice (followed by almost all previous orders) of reciting the monastic Hours in community. Its chief goals were: (a) renewal of the Roman Catholic Church through extensive education and the encouragement of frequent use of the sacraments, (b) extensive missionary work in non-Christian countries, and (c) a suitable response to the growing challenge of Protestantism. St Zosimas II of Kumurdo, Commemorated on May 1; St Macarius the Roman, Commemorated on August 15;

Brussels-“Scheldt Maritime Canal (est. 1550)
Brussels-“Scheldt Maritime Canal ;

Belgium, 1556-1564, HRE Emperor, Ferdinand I, Spaniard, Bohemian, German, wars w M's and P's
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1556-1564, Ferdinand I; I (Spanish: Fernando I) (10 March 1503-“ 25 July 1564) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1556, King of Bohemia, Hungary, and Croatia from 1527, and Archduke of Austria from 1521 until his death in 1564.[1][2] Before his accession, he ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs in the name of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Also, he often served as Charles' representative in Germany and developed encouraging relationships with German princes. The key events during his reign were the contest with the Ottoman Empire, which in the 1520s began a great advance into Central Europe, and the Protestant Reformation, which resulted in several wars of religion. Ferdinand was able to defend his realm and make it somewhat more cohesive, but he could not conquer the major part of Hungary. His flexible approach to Imperial problems, mainly religious, finally brought more result than the more confrontational attitude of his brother.[3] Ferdinand's motto was Fiat iustitia, et pereat mundus: "Let justice be done, though the world perish".[4] Icon of the Mother of God of Narva, Commemorated on August 14; TERESA OF AVILA, REFORMER AND CONTEMPLATIVE (15 OCT 1582); Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Beheading of the Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated on February 20; JOHN CALVIN, THEOLOGIAN, 1564, commemorated May 28;

Belgium, 1564-1576, HRE Emperor, Maximilian II, H AUS, Bohemian, GER, C unity, wars with H Spain and Ms
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1564-1576, Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor; II (31 July 1527 -“ 12 October 1576), a member of the Austrian House of Habsburg, was Holy Roman Emperor from 1564 until his death. He was crowned King of Bohemia in Prague on 14 May 1562 and elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) on 24 November 1562. On 8 September 1563 he was crowned King of Hungary and Croatia in the Hungarian capital Pressburg (Pozsony in Hungarian; now Bratislava, Slovakia). On 25 July 1564 he succeeded his father Ferdinand I as ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.[1][2] rule was shaped by the confessionalization process after the 1555 Peace of Augsburg. Though a Habsburg and a Catholic, he approached the Lutheran Imperial estates with a view to overcome the denominational schism,[further explanation needed] which ultimately failed. He also was faced with the ongoing Ottoman-“Habsburg wars and rising conflicts with his Habsburg Spain cousins. According to Fichtner, Maximilian failed to achieve his three major aims: rationalizing the government structure, unifying Christianity, and evicting the Turks from Hungary.[3] TERESA OF AVILA, REFORMER AND CONTEMPLATIVE (15 OCT 1582); Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Beheading of the Venerable Cornelius the Abbot of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated on February 20;

Belgium, 1576-1612, HRE Emperor, Rudolf II, SPN, Vienna, Prague, B, 30Y war, Art, occult, science
Holy Roman Emperor, 1576-1612, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor; II (18 July 1552 -“ 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576-1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572-“1608), King of Bohemia (1575-“1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576-“1608). He was a member of the House of Habsburg. legacy has traditionally been viewed in three ways:[1] an ineffectual ruler whose mistakes led directly to the Thirty Years' War; a great and influential patron of Northern Mannerist art; and an intellectual devotee of occult arts and learning which helped seed what would be called the scientific revolution. life[edit] Rudolf, aged 15, painted by Alonso Sinchez Coello. was born in Vienna on 18 July 1552. He was the eldest son and successor of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, and King of Hungary and Croatia; his mother was Maria of Spain, a daughter of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. He was the elder brother of Matthias who was to succeed him as king of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor. spent eight formative years, from age 11 to 19 (1563-“1571), in Spain, at the court of his maternal uncle Philip II, together with his younger brother Ernest, future governor of the Low Countries.[2] After his return to Vienna, his father was concerned about Rudolf's aloof and stiff manner, typical of the more conservative Spanish court, rather than the more relaxed and open Austrian court; but his Spanish mother saw in him courtliness and refinement.[3] In the years following his return to Vienna, Rudolf was crowned King of Hungary (1572), King of Bohemia and King of the Romans (1575)[4] when his father was still alive. would remain for the rest of his life reserved, secretive, and largely a recluse who did not like to travel or even partake in the daily affairs of state.[3] He was more intrigued by occult learning such as astrology and alchemy, which was mainstream in the Renaissance period, and had a wide variety of personal hobbies such as horses, clocks, collecting rarities, and being a patron of the arts. He suffered from periodic bouts of "melancholy" (depression), which was common in the Habsburg line. These became worse with age, and were manifested by a withdrawal from the world and its affairs into his private interests. life[edit] portrait bust of Rudolf II in the collection of the Antwerp City Hall, Belgium by Martino Rota. Elizabeth I of England (who was born 19 years before he was), Rudolf dangled himself as a prize in a string of diplomatic negotiations for marriages, but never in fact married. During his periods of self-imposed isolation, Rudolf reportedly had affairs with his court chamberlain, Wolfgang von Rumpf, and a series of valets. One of these, Philip Lang, ruled him for years and was hated by those seeking favour with the emperor.[5] addition, Rudolf was known to have had a succession of affairs with women, some of whom claimed to have been impregnated by him.[3] He had several illegitimate children with his mistress Catherina Strada. Their eldest son, Don Julius Caesar d'Austria, was likely born between 1584 and 1586 and received an education and opportunities for political and social prominence from his father.[6] In 1607, Rudolf sent Julius to live at Krumlov in Bohemia (in what is now the Czech Republic), a castle which Rudolf purchased from Peter Vok/Wok von Rosenberg, the last of the House of Rosenberg, after he fell into financial ruin. Julius lived at Krumlov when in 1608 he reportedly abused and murdered the daughter of a local barber, who had been living in the castle, and then disfigured her body. Rudolf condemned his son's act and suggested that he should be imprisoned for the rest of his life. However, Julius died in 1609 after showing signs of schizophrenia, refusing to bathe, and living in squalor; his death was apparently caused by an ulcer that ruptured.[6] artworks commissioned by Rudolf are unusually erotic.[7] The emperor was the subject of a whispering campaign by his enemies in his family and the Catholic Church in the years before he was deposed. Sexual allegations may well have formed a part of the campaign against him.[8] succeeded his father Maximilian II on 12 October 1576.[4] In 1583 he moved the court to Prague.[9] have traditionally blamed Rudolf's preoccupation with the arts, occult sciences, and other personal interests as the reason for the political disasters of his reign.[1] More recently historians have re-evaluated this view and see his patronage of the arts and occult sciences as a triumph and key part of the Renaissance, while his political failures are seen as a legitimate attempt to create a unified Christian empire, which was undermined by the realities of religious, political and intellectual disintegrations of the time.[1] by Aegidius Sadeler (1603). of Rudolf II as a young man by Martino Rota. raised in his uncle's Catholic court in Spain, Rudolf was tolerant of Protestantism and other religions including Judaism.[3] He largely withdrew from Catholic observances, even in death refusing the last sacramental rites. He had little attachment to Protestants either, except as counter-weight to papal policies. He put his primary support behind conciliarists, irenicists and humanists. When the papacy instigated the Counter-Reformation, using agents sent to his court, Rudolf backed those whom he thought were the most neutral in the debate, not taking a side or trying to effect restraint, thus leading to political chaos and threatening to provoke civil war.[1] conflict with the Ottoman Empire was the final cause of his undoing. Unwilling to compromise with the Turks, and stubbornly determined that he could unify all of Christendom with a new Crusade, he started a long and indecisive war with the Turks in 1593.[10] This war lasted till 1606, and was known as "The Long War".[1] By 1604 his Hungarian subjects were exhausted by the war and revolted, led by Stephen Bocskay (Bocskai Uprising). In 1605 Rudolf was forced by his other family members to cede control of Hungarian affairs to his younger brother Archduke Matthias. By 1606 Matthias forged a difficult peace with the Hungarian rebels (Peace of Vienna) and the Turks (Peace of Zsitvatorok). Rudolf was angry with his brother's concessions, which he saw as giving away too much in order to further Matthias' hold on power. So Rudolf prepared to start a new war with the Turks. But Matthias rallied support from the disaffected Hungarians and forced Rudolf to cede the crowns of Hungary, Austria, and Moravia to him. At the same time, seeing a moment of royal weakness, Bohemian Protestants demanded greater religious liberty, which Rudolf granted in the Letter of Majesty in 1609. The Bohemians continued to press for further freedoms, and Rudolf used his army to repress them. The Bohemian Protestants then appealed to Matthias for help; Matthias' army then held Rudolf prisoner in his castle in Prague until 1611, when Rudolf ceded the crown of Bohemia to his brother. Crown of Rudolf II later became the imperial crown of the Austrian Empire. scepter and globus cruciger of Rudolf II. died in 1612, nine months after he had been stripped of all effective power by his younger brother, except the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor, to which Matthias was elected five months later. In May 1618 with the event known as the Defenestration of Prague, the Protestant Bohemians, in defence of the rights granted them in the Letter of Majesty, threw imperial officials out of the window and thus the Thirty Years' War (1618-“1648) started. collecting and patronage[edit] moved the Habsburg capital from Vienna to Prague in 1583. Rudolf loved collecting paintings, and was often reported to sit and stare in rapture at a new work for hours on end.[3] He spared no expense in acquiring great past masterworks, such as those of Durer and Brueghel. He was also patron to some of the best contemporary artists, who mainly produced new works in the Northern Mannerist style, such as Bartholomeus Spranger, Hans von Aachen, Giambologna, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Aegidius Sadeler, Roelant Savery, and Adrian de Vries, as well as commissioning works from Italians like Veronese. Rudolf's collections were the most impressive in the Europe of his day, and the greatest collection of Northern Mannerist art ever assembled.[1] The adjective Rudolfine, as in "Rudolfine Mannerism" is often used in art history to describe the style of the art he patronized. love of collecting went far beyond paintings and sculptures. He commissioned decorative objects of all kinds and in particular mechanical moving devices. Ceremonial swords and musical instruments, clocks, water works, astrolabes, compasses, telescopes and other scientific instruments, were all produced for him by some of the best craftsmen in Europe. patronized natural philosophers such as the botanist Charles de l'Ecluse, and the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler both attended his court. Tycho Brahe developed the Rudolphine Tables (finished by Kepler, after Brahe's death), the first comprehensive table of data of the movements of the planets. As mentioned before, Rudolf also attracted some of the best scientific instrument makers of the time, such as Jost Burgi, Erasmus Habermel and Hans Christoph Schissler. They had direct contact with the court astronomers and, through the financial support of the court, they were economically independent to develop scientific instruments and manufacturing techniques.[11] painted as Vertumnus, Roman God of the seasons, by Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1590-“91). Rudolf greatly appreciated the work. poet Elizabeth Jane Weston, a writer of Renaissance Latin poetry, was also part of his court and wrote numerous odes to him. kept a menagerie of exotic animals, botanical gardens, and Europe's most extensive "cabinet of curiosities"[3] (Kunstkammer) incorporating "the three kingdoms of nature and the works of man". It was housed at Prague Castle, where between 1587 and 1605 he built the northern wing to house his growing collections.[12] A lion and a tiger were allowed to roam the castle, documented by the account books which record compensation paid to survivors of attacks, or to family members of victims.[13] was even alleged by one person to have owned the Voynich manuscript, a codex whose author and purpose, as well as the language and script and posited cipher remain unidentified to this day. According to hearsay passed on in a letter written by Johannes Marcus Marci in 1665, Rudolf was said to have acquired the manuscript at some unspecified time for 600 gold ducats. No evidence in support of this single piece of hearsay has ever been discovered. The Codex Gigas was also in his possessions. was typical of the time, Rudolf II had a portrait painted in the studio of the renowned Alonso Sanchez Coello. Completed in 1567, the portrait depicted Rudolf II at the age of 15. This painting can be seen at the Lobkowicz Palace in the Rozmberk room. ornamented celestial globe with clockwork, made for the Kunstkammer of Rudolf II, 1579 1597, the collection occupied three rooms of the incomplete northern wing. When building was completed in 1605, the collection was moved to the dedicated Kunstkammer. Naturalia (minerals and gemstones) were arranged in a 37 cabinet display that had three vaulted chambers in front, each about 5.5 metres wide by 3 metres high and 60 metres long, connected to a main chamber 33 metres long. Large uncut gemstones were held in strong boxes.[14] Kunstkammer was not a typical "cabinet of curiosities" “ a haphazard collection of unrelated specimens. Rather, the Rudolfine Kunstkammer was systematically arranged in an encyclopaedic fashion. In addition, Rudolf II employed his polyglot court physician, Anselmus Boetius de Boodt, to curate the collection. Anselmus was an avid mineral collector and travelled widely on collecting trips to the mining regions of Germany, Bohemia and Silesia, often accompanied by his Bohemian naturalist friend, Thaddaeus Hagecius. Between 1607 and 1611, Anselmus catalogued the Kunstkammer, and in 1609 he published Gemmarum et Lapidum, one of the finest mineralogical treatises of the 17th century.[14] Castle in 1595 by Joris Hoefnagel. was customary at the time, the collection was private, but friends of the Emperor, artists, and professional scholars were allowed to study it. The collection became an invaluable research tool during the flowering of 17th-century European philosophy, the "Age of Reason". successors did not appreciate the collection and the Kunstkammer gradually fell into disarray. Some 50 years after its establishment, most of the collection was packed into wooden crates and moved to Vienna. The collection remaining at Prague was looted during the last year of the Thirty Years War, by Swedish troops who sacked Prague Castle on 26 July 1648, also taking the best of the paintings, many of which later passed to the Orleans Collection after the death of Christina of Sweden. In 1782, the remainder of the collection was sold piecemeal to private parties by Joseph II. One of the surviving items from the Kunstkammer is a "fine chair" looted by the Swedes in 1648 and now owned by the Earl of Radnor at Longford Castle in England;[15] others survive in museums.[16][17] sciences[edit] coat of arms, 1605 and alchemy were regarded as mainstream scientific fields in Renaissance Prague, and Rudolf was a firm devotee of both. His lifelong quest was to find the Philosopher's Stone and Rudolf spared no expense in bringing Europe's best alchemists to court, such as Edward Kelley and John Dee. Rudolf even performed his own experiments in a private alchemy laboratory.[3] When Rudolf was a prince, Nostradamus prepared a horoscope which was dedicated to him as 'Prince and King'. In the 1590s Sendivogius was active at Rudolph's court.[18] gave Prague a mystical reputation that persists in part to this day, with Alchemists' Alley on the grounds of Prague Castle a popular visiting place and tourist attraction. is also the ruler in many of the legends of the Golem of Prague, either because of, or simply adding to, his occult reputation. Martin De Porres of MARTIN DE PORRES, ROSA DE LIMA, 23 August 16 1639, 1617 ; Johannes Kepler of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23; TERESA OF AVILA, REFORMER AND CONTEMPLATIVE (15 OCT 1582); Commemoration of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance from the Poles, Commemorated on October 22; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Hieromartyr Hermogenes the Patriarch of Moscow and Wonderworker of All Russia, Commemorated on February 17; Venerable Polycarp of Briansk, Commemorated on February 23; Johannes Kepler of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23; Venerable Therapon the Abbot of Monza, Commemorated on May 27;

Belgium, 1591-1630, Johannes Kepler, Scientist, laws of planetary motion
Austria, 1591-1630, Johannes Kepler, Scientist Kepler ([3][4] 27 December 1571 - 15 November 1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer. is a key figure in the 17th-century scientific revolution, best known for his laws of planetary motion, and his books Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae. These works also provided one of the foundations for Newton's theory of universal gravitation. was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. also taught mathematics in Linz, and was an adviser to General Wallenstein. he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting (or Keplerian) telescope, and was mentioned in the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei. He was a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome.[5] lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.[6] described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",[7] as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[8] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[9] transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.[10] Johannes Kepler of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23;;

Belgium, 1600-1699, 17th Century Folder, HRE, 30 Yrs War, Karlowitz Treaty ending Ottoman Control Hungary, Balkans

Belgium, 1612-1619, HRE Emperor, Matthias, from Protestant Prague
Holy Roman Emperor, 1612-1619, Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor ; (24 February 1557 - 20 March 1619) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1612 to 1619, Archduke of Austria from 1608 to 1619, King of Hungary and Croatia from 1608 to 1618, and King of Bohemia from 1611 to 1617. His personal motto was Concordia lumine maior (Unity is stronger than light).[2][3] played a significant role in the familial opposition of the Habsburgs against his brother Emperor Rudolf II. After gaining power, he showed little political initiative of his own. The course of his politics was determined by Cardinal Klesl until his fall in 1618. As a consequence of his failed religious and administrative policies the Bohemian Revolt, the initial theatre of the Thirty Years War set off during the final year of his reign.[4] Martin De Porres of MARTIN DE PORRES, ROSA DE LIMA, 23 August 16 1639, 1617 ; Commemoration of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance from the Poles, Commemorated on October 22; Venerable Polycarp of Briansk, Commemorated on February 23; Johannes Kepler of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23; Johannes Kepler of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23;

Belgium, 1618-1648, Holy Roman Empire, Thirty Year's War, Protestant Catholic
Belgium, Holy Roman Empire, 1618-1648, Thirty Year's War, Protestant Catholic ;

Belgium, 1619-1637, HRE Emperor, Ferdinand II, devout Catholic
Holy Roman Emperor, 1619-1637, Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor; Martin De Porres of MARTIN DE PORRES, ROSA DE LIMA, 23 August 16 1639, 1617; Venerable Polycarp of Briansk, Commemorated on February 23; Venerable Polycarp of Briansk, Commemorated on February 23; Johannes Kepler of NICHOLAS COPERNICUS and JOHANNES KEPLER, ASTRONOMERS, 1543 & 1630, Commemorated May 23;

Belgium, 1637-1657, HRE Emperor, Ferdinand III, divine right departure to end 30 yr war, weakened his authority
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1637-1657, Ferdinand III; III (Ferdinand Ernest; 13 July 1608 in Graz – 2 April 1657 in Vienna) was from 1621 Archduke of Austria, King of Hungary from 1625, King of Croatia and Bohemia from 1627 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1637 until his death in 1657. ascended the throne at the beginning of the last decade of the Thirty Years' War and introduced lenient policies to depart from old ideas of divine rights under his father, as he had wished to end the war quickly. As the numerous battles had not resulted in sufficient military containment of the Protestant enemies and confronted with decaying imperial power Ferdinand was compelled to abandon the political stances of his Habsburg predecessors in many respects in order to open the long road towards the much delayed peace treaty. Although his authority among the princes would weaken after the war, in Bohemia, Hungary and the Austrias, however, Ferdinand's position as sovereign was uncontested.[3][4] was the first Habsburg monarch to be recognized as a musical composer.[5] Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Job, Abbot and Wonderworker of Pochaev, Commemorated on August 28; St Gabriel I the Patriarch, Commemorated on August 30;

Belgium, 1658-1705, HRE Emperor, Leopold I, long rule, G Turkish War, recovered Hungary, French wars
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1658-1705, Leopold I ; I ( 9 June 1640 - 5 May 1705) was Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary, Croatia, and Bohemia. The second son of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, by his first wife, Maria Anna of Spain, Leopold became heir apparent in 1654 by the death of his elder brother Ferdinand IV. Elected in 1658, Leopold ruled the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1705, becoming the longest-ruling Habsburg emperor (46 years and 9 months). reign is known for conflicts with the Ottoman Empire in the Great Turkish War (1683-1699) and rivalry with Louis XIV, a contemporary and first cousin, in the west. After more than a decade of warfare, Leopold emerged victorious in the east thanks to the military talents of Prince Eugene of Savoy. By the Treaty of Karlowitz, Leopold recovered almost all of the Kingdom of Hungary, which had fallen under Turkish power in the years after the 1526 Battle of Mohács. fought three wars against France: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years' War, and the War of the Spanish Succession. In this last, Leopold sought to give his younger son Charles the entire Spanish inheritance, disregarding the will of the late Charles II. Leopold started a war that soon engulfed much of Europe. The early years of the war went fairly well for Austria, with victories at Schellenberg and Blenheim, but the war would drag on until 1714, nine years after Leopold's death, which barely had an effect on the warring nations. When peace returned with the Treaty of Rastatt, Austria could not be said to have emerged as triumphant as it had from the war against the Turks.[1] Uncovering of the relics of the Venerable Job, Abbot and Wonderworker of Pochaev, Commemorated on August 28; St Gabriel I the Patriarch, Commemorated on August 30; Icon of the Mother of God of Lesna, Commemorated on September 14 ; Terebovlya Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God, Commemorated on October 1; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24;

Belgium, 1700, 18th-21st Century, HRE Folder, Napoleon, HRE Disolved then Revived 2009

Belgium, 1700-1799, 18th Century Folder, Holy Roman Empire, Bach, Handel, French Revolution

Belgium, 1705-1711, Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1705-1711, Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor; Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel of of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695, Commemorated July 28;

Belgium, 1711-1740, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI
Holy Roman Emperor, 1711-1740, Charles VI; Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel of of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695, Commemorated July 28; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated on October 21; NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ;

Belgium, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive
Switzerland, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive; Rousseau; 28 June 1712 - 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the development of modern political, economic and educational thought.[1] Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. Rousseau's sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise (1761) was important to the development of preromanticism and romanticism in fiction.[2][3] His Emile, or On Education (1762) is an educational treatise on the place of the individual in society. Rousseau's autobiographical writings—the posthumously published Confessions (composed in 1769), which initiated the modern autobiography, and the unfinished Reveries of the Solitary Walker (composed 1776–1778)—exemplified the late-18th-century "Age of Sensibility", and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern writing. befriended fellow philosopher Denis Diderot in 1742, and would later write about Diderot's romantic troubles in his Confessions. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophers among members of the Jacobin Club. He was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, 16 years after his death. Absolved From Being Good-Mannered: The Romantic Totalitarianism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, May 20, 2021 ;

Belgium, 1740-1745, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VII, German House of Wittelsbach
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1740-1745, Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor ; Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel of of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695, Commemorated July 28; NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ;

Belgium, 1745-1765, Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I
Holy Roman Emperor, 1745-1765, Francis I; Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel of of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695, Commemorated July 28; HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 1787; St John of Galesh, Commemorated on October 21; St Moses (Macinic), Martyr and Confessor, Commemorated on October 21; St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania, Commemorated on October 21; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated on October 21; NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ;

Belgium, 1745-1765, Holy Roman Emperess, Maria Theresa, War of Austrian Succession
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperess, 1745-1765, Maria Theresa; Holy Roman Emperor, 1745-1765, Francis I; HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 1787; Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel of of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695, Commemorated July 28; St John of Galesh, Commemorated on October 21; St Moses (Macinic), Martyr and Confessor, Commemorated on October 21; St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania, Commemorated on October 21; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated on October 21; NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ;

Belgium, 1765-1790, Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph II, Francis and Theresa's son, enlightened absolutism
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1765-1790, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor; HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 1787; Martyr Oprea of Salistie in Romania, Commemorated on October 21; NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ;

Belgium, 1790-1792, Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold II, brother of Joseph II, enlightened absolutism, no capital punishment
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1790-1792, Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor;

Belgium, 1792-1806, Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II, Last HRE, attacked and lost to Napoleon
Belgium, Holy Roman Emperor, 1792-1806, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor; Translation of a Particle of the Life Giving Cross from Malta to Gatchina, Commemorated on October 12; Translation of the relic of the Right Hand of John the Baptist, Commemorated on October 12; Martyr Avakum the Deacon of Serbia, Commemorated on December 17; St Paisius, Commemorated on December 17; Damien of DAMIEN and MARIANNE of MOLOKAI, PRIEST AND LEPER, 1889; RELIGIOUS 1918, Commemorated April 15;

Belgium, 1800-1899, 19th Centory Folder, Napoleon, Austerlitz, HRE Disolved

Belgium, 1806-1830, First French Republic and Netherlands
Belgium, 1806-1830, First French Republic, and Netherlands;

Belgium, 1804-1835, Austrian Emperor, Francis I aka Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
Austria, Austrian Emperor, 1804-1835, Francis I aka Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor; Martyr Avakum the Deacon of Serbia, Commemorated on December 17; St Paisius, Commemorated on December 17;

Belgium, 1830, Belgium Revolution, Independent Belgium

Belgium, 1860-1889, Damien of Molokai
Belgium, 1860-1889, Damien of Molokai; Damien of DAMIEN and MARIANNE of MOLOKAI, PRIEST AND LEPER, 1889; RELIGIOUS 1918, Commemorated April 15;

Belgium, 1900-1999, 20th Century Folder, WWI Battles Verdun, Messines Ridge, HRE Revived in 2009

Belgium, Battle of Verdun, 1916 (on the road to Paris)
Battle of Verdun (on the road to Paris);

Belgium, 1917, Messines Ridge (Battle in 1917), Belgium
Messines Ridge (Battle in 1917); GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, aka Woodbine Willie, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ;

Belgium, Holy Roman Empire Revived, Nov 3, 2009, Centered in Belgium
Holy Roman Empire Revived, Nov 3, 2009, Centered in Belgium; European Union Constitution, Nov 3, 2009; Charlemagne Building;

Belgium, West Belgium, Scheldt River Folder

Scheldt River

Scheldt River Source (Gouy, France)
Scheldt River;

Scheldt River 1

Scheldt River 2

Scheldt River 3

Scheldt River 6 (Gaunt, Lys River Mouth)

Belgium, Scheldt River 6, Lys River Folder (France and Belgium)

Lys River

Lys River Source (Pas de Calais, near Agincourt, France)
Lys River;

Lys River 1

Lys River 2 (Western Front WWI)

Lys River 3 (Messines Ridge)

Messines Ridge, Belgium (Lys River 3)
Messines Ridge (Battle in 1917); GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, aka Woodbine Willie, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ;

Lys River 4

Lys River 5

Lys River Mouth (Gaunt, Belgium, Scheldt River 6)

Gaunt (Ghent), Belgium (Lys River Mouth, Scheldt River 6
Gaunt; England, 1360-1399, John of Gaunt, nobleman, soldier, statesman and prince JOHN WYCLIF, Commemorated October 30 ;

Scheldt River 7 (Antwerp)

Antwerp, Belgium (Scheldt River 7)
WILLIAM TYNDALE [AND MILES COVERDALE] TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569);

Scheldt River Mouth (North Sea)

Belgium, North Central Belgium, Brussels-Scheldt Canal Folder

Brussels-Scheldt Canal

Brussels, Belgium (Scheldt Canal)
Brussels; JOHN WYCLIF, TRANSLATOR AND CONTROVERSIALIST, 30 OCT. 1384 ;

Leuven, Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium, 1425
Leuven, Catholic University of Leuven, 1425; Miles Coverdale of WILLIAM TYNDALE and MILES CLOVERDALE, TRANSLATOR OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569);

University of Louvain, Belgium, 1817
University of Louvain; Hieromartyr Gregory (Peradze) of Georgia, Commemorated November 23 ;

Belgium, East Belgium, Muse River Folder (France, Belgium, Germany and Netherlands)

Meuse River

Meuse River Mouth at North Sea

Meuse River Source (Langres plateau, France)
Langres plateau; The Meuse rises in Pouilly-en-Bassigny, commune of Le ChÃƒÂƒÃ‚ÂƒÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â¢telet-sur-Meuse on the Langres plateau in France from where it flows northwards past Sedan (the head of navigation) and Charleville-MÃƒÂƒÃ‚ÂƒÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â©ziÃƒÂƒÃ‚ÂƒÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â¨res into Belgium.[3] At Namur it is joined by the River Sambre. Beyond Namur the Meuse winds eastwards, skirting the Ardennes, and passes LiÃƒÂƒÃ‚ÂƒÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â¨ge before turning north. The river then forms part of the Belgian-Dutch border, except that at Maastricht the border lies further to the west. In the Netherlands it continues northwards through Venlo closely along the border to Germany, then turns towards the west, where it runs parallel to the Waal river and forms part of the extensive RhineÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â“MeuseÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â“Scheldt delta, together with the Scheldt river in its south and the Rhine river in the north. The river has been divided near Heusden into the Afgedamde Maas on the right and the Bergse Maas on the left. The Bergse Maas continues under the name of Amer, which is part of the Biesbosch. The Afgedamde Maas joins the Waal, the main stem of the Rhine at Woudrichem, and then flows under the name of Boven Merwede to Hardinxveld-Giessendam, where it splits into Nieuwe Merwede and Beneden Merwede. Near Lage Zwaluwe, the Nieuwe Merwede joins the Amer, forming the Hollands Diep, which splits into Grevelingen and Haringvliet, before finally flowing into the North Sea.

Ardennes Forest, Belgium (Meuse River)
Ardennes Forest ;

Ardennes Department, Belgium (Meuse River)
Ardennes Department;

Meuse River (Leige, Belgium)

Aachen, Belgium (Charlemagne's Capital, a spa town, near Meuse River)
Aachen; ALCUIN, DEACON, SCHOLAR, AND ABBOT OF TOURS (20 MAY 804);

Meuse River (Roermond, Netherlands)
Roermond; Meuse River;

Meuse River Mouth (North Sea, Netherlands)