England Folder (Roman Britain, Great Britain, British Empire).kmz

England Folder (Roman Britain, Great Britain, British Empire)

England
England; EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); Venerable Romanus the Martyr, Commemorated on January 5 ; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); Righteous Joseph of Arimathea; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL; RICHARD HOOKER; WILLIAM TEMPLE; Hieromartyr Gregory (Peradze) of Georgia; THOMAS TALLIS; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; ROBERT HUNT, PRIEST & FIRST CHAPLAIN AT JAMESTOWN, 1608, Commemorated April 26 ; Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26 ; Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ; JOAN OF ARC, VISIONARY, 30 May 1431; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ; ISABEL FLORENCE HAPGOOD, ECUMENIST and JOURNALIST, 1929, Commemorated June 26 ;

British Empire - England
England; EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); Venerable Romanus the Martyr, Commemorated on January 5 ; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); Righteous Joseph of Arimathea; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL; RICHARD HOOKER; WILLIAM TEMPLE; Hieromartyr Gregory (Peradze) of Georgia; THOMAS TALLIS; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; ROBERT HUNT, PRIEST & FIRST CHAPLAIN AT JAMESTOWN, 1608, Commemorated April 26 ; Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26 ; Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ; JOAN OF ARC, VISIONARY, 30 May 1431; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ; ISABEL FLORENCE HAPGOOD, ECUMENIST and JOURNALIST, 1929, Commemorated June 26 ;

England, 43-410, Roman Britain
England, 43-410, Roman Britain; England, 47, Roman Britain, Londinium, AD 47 ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Commemorated on October 31 ;

Britain, 43-410, Roman Britain
England, 43-410, Roman Britain; England, 47, Roman Britain, Londinium, AD 47 ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Commemorated on October 31 ;

England, 45-99, Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Bishop of Britain
England, 45-99, Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Bishop of Britain; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy the Bishop of Britain, Commemorated on March 16;

England, 410-1066, Anglo-Saxons
England, 410-1066, Anglo-Saxons;

England, 410-1066, Kingdom of East Anglia, Broads
England, 410-1066, Kingdom of East Anglia; Sigeberht of East Anglia, 629-634 ; Rendlesham; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG);

England, 410-461, Saint Patrick of Ireland
England, Saint, 410-461, Patrick of Ireland; PATRICK OF IRELAND, (17 MAR c461) ; St Patrick the Bishop of Armagh and Enlightener of Ireland, Commemorated on March 17;

England, 420-634, Kingdom of Bernicia, Northumbria
Kingdom of Bernicia; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated October 12 ;

England, 450-1045, Wales, Brycheiniog Kingdom
England, 450-1045, Wales, Brycheiniog Kingdom;

England, 455-871, Kingdom of Kent
England, 455-871, Kingdom of Kent ; AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605);

England, 527-825, Kingdom of Essex (East Saxons)
England, 527-825, Kingdom of Essex (East Saxons); St Eanswythe the Abbess of Folkestone, Commemorated on August 31;

England, 559-“664, Kingdom of Deira, Yorkshire (from the Huber to the Tees, aka Vale of York)
Kingdom of Deira; Vale of York St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated October 12 ; CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672) ;

England, 593-1093, House of Wessex
England, 593-1093, House of Wessex; ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899); DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ;

England, 653-954, Kingdom of Northumbria (North Anglia)
Kingdom of Northumbria, north of the Humber Estuary from the River Tees to the River Tweed; St Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5 ; AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); St Adian, the bishop of Lindisfarne, Commemorated August 31; REMIGIUS OF RHEIMS, BISHOP, APOSTLE OF THE FRANKS (1 OCTOBER 530); St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury; WILLIBRORD OF UTRECHT, ARCHBISHOP AND MISSIONARY (NOV 7, 739) ; EDMUND OF EAST ANGLIA, KING AND MARTYR (20 NOV 870); AELRED OF RIEVAULX, ABBOT (12 JANUARY 1167); CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672) ; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, 793-1066, Viking Invasions of England
England, 793-1066, Viking Invasions of England; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ;

England, 1066-1087, King of England, William the Conqueror, Norman King
England, King of England, 1066-1087, William the Conqueror, Norman King ; MARGARET, QUEEN OF SCOTLAND (16 NOV 1093); ANSELM OF CANTERBURY, MONK, ARCHBISHOP, THEOLOGIAN (21 APR 1109); WULFSTAN OF WORCESTER, BISHOP (19 JAN 1095);

England, 1093-1707, Heptarchy, Kingdom of England
England, 1093-1707, Heptarchy, Kingdom of England;

England, 1337-1453, 100 Years War, with France to control France
France, 1337-1453, 100 Years War, with England to control France;

England, 1517, Ninety Five Theses, Martin Luther, Protestant
Germany, 1517, Ninety Five Theses, Martin Luther, Protestant; Germany, 1503-1546, Martin Luther, Protestant ; Wittenberg, Germany ; Lutherhaus; MARTIN LUTHER, EDUCATOR, TRANSLATOR (18 FEB 1546); JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415;

England, 1642-1651, English Civil War
England, 1642-“1651, English Civil War; JOHN BUNYAN, WRITER, 30 August 1688;

England, 1707-1800, Kingdom of Great Britain
England, 1707-1800, Kingdom of Great Britain;

England, 1800-Present, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

England, 1894-1962, Uganda Protectorate
England, 1894-1962, Uganda Protectorate; THE MARTYRS OF UGANDA, (3 JUNE 1886);

England, 45-99, Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Bishop of Britain
England, 45-99, Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Bishop of Britain; of Britannia is a Christian saint named by Hippolytus of Rome (170-235) and Dorotheus of Gaza (505-565) as one of the Seventy Disciples mentioned in Luke 10:1–24 and as the first bishop in Roman Britain.[2] title in various languages[edit] Saint Aristibule the Old, Apostle, Martyr, and First Bishop of Britain Greek: Ἅγιος Ἀριστόβουλος, ἐπίσκοπος Βρετανίας, ἀδελφοῦ τοῦ ᾿Αποστόλου Βαρνάβα,[3] translit. Hagios Aristoboulos episkopos Brettanias, adelphos tou apostolou Barnaba, transcr. (Byzantine/Modern) Aghios Apostolos Aristovoulos, episkopos Vrettanias, adelfos tou apostolou Varnava ("The Holy Apostle Aristobulus, Bishop of Britain, brother of the Apostle Barnabas") Latin: Sanctus Aristobulus Senex, Apostolus, Martyr, Episcopus Primus Britanniae Arwystli Hen Episcob Cyntaf Prydain ("Aristibule the Old, First Bishop of Britain") lists "Aristobulus, bishop of Britain" among the seventy disciples.[2] may be mentioned in the New Testament in the Epistle to the Romans (Romans 16:10: "...Salute them which are of Aristobulus' household") although this may mean members of the household of the late Aristobulus IV.[4] According to Lionel Smithett Lewis, the writings of St Dorotheus, Bishop of Tyre AD 303, assert that he is the one saluted by Paul in the Epistle to the Romans.[5] : 118–121  tradition[edit] tradition says Aristobulus was the brother of the Apostle Barnabas, of Jewish Cypriot origin. Like Barnabas, he accompanied Saint Paul on his journeys.[6] He was one of the assistants of Saint Andrew,[7] along with Urban of Macedonia, Stachys, Ampliatus, Apelles of Heraklion and Narcissus of Athens (all of these names are mentioned together by St. Paul in Romans 16:8-11, which cannot be casual). On his missionary journey to Britain, he stopped to preach to the Celtiberians of northern Hispania.[7] Catholic tradition identifies Aristobulus with Zebedee, father of James and John.[8] preached and died in Roman Britain.[6] While some orthodox traditions say he "died in peace",[9] others say he was martyred in Wales.[7] Catholic tradition says he was martyred.[8] The Benedictine monk Serenus de Cressy (1605–1674) maintained that Aristobulus was ordained by St. Paul and died at Glastonbury Abbey in 99; but Michael Alford (author of Fides Regia Britannica Sive Annales Ecclesiae Britannicae) says that Aristobulus was the husband of "Mary" Salome, which makes this date appear too late.[5] Alford gives his death as "the second year of Nero" – 56.[10] Alford also asserts that "It is perfectly certain that, before St Paul had come to Rome, Aristobulus was away in Britain".[11][12] This is in accord with the date given by Gildas (c. 500–570 AD) that the "Light of Christ" shone in Britain in the last year of Emperor Tiberius.[13] However, George Smith points out that this a misinterpretation of Gildas, and asserts that the Gospel was not preached in Britain before the reign of Claudius,[14] whose full name was Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. tradition[edit] these traditions, it seems that Aristobulus was the founder of British Christianity. There is no evidence for any connection with Glastonbury and John Scott shows in An Early History of Glastonbury that the legend purporting that Joseph of Arimathea founded the Abbey there is of 12th or 13th-century origin and has no basis in fact. Rather, the early writings frequently centre on Aristobulus.[5] There is no mention of Joseph prior to the Conquest. For this and other reasons, Smith also considers the account of Joseph of Arimathea a "superstitious fable of comparatively modern invention".[15] Williams identifies Aristobulus with Arwystli Hen, a "man of Italy", and one of four missionaries believed to have brought Christianity to the British Isles.[16] There is a tradition linking him to one of the medieval Welsh saints Arwstyl ap Cunedda.[17] The title "Arwystli Hen"[5]: 119  may have originated through a later British tradition. parallels[edit] of Chalcis was the son of Herod of Chalcis and Mariamme, the daughter of Olympias.[18] He married Salome, the daughter of Herod II and Herodias.[19] They had three sons: Herod, Agrippa, and Aristobulus.[20] Lionel Smithett Lewis maintains that this latter Aristobulus could have been the Aristobulus of Britannia,[21] and referred to by Cressy. However, it is this man's father who was the husband of Salome, as mentioned by Alford (see previous section). 55, Nero appointed Aristobulus of Chalcis as King of Armenia Minor. He participated with his forces in the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, where he received a small portion of Armenia in exchange,[22] an area he continued to rule until 72 when Vespasian reduced the regional autonomy of some of the provinces.[23] is probable that the "Philip" (mentioned above) are those mentioned in the New Testament are Philip the Tetrarch. The matter is disputed by scholars. There is no contemporary evidence for Philip the Tetrarch's use of the name "Herod Philip" as a dynastic title, as did occur with his brothers Herod Antipas and Herod Archelaus, yet he was of the same family and the scriptural reference may be emphasising this fact, as do later scriptural commentators. Today, Herod II is sometimes called "Herod Philip I" (because the gospels call the husband of Herodias "Philip"), and then Philip the Tetrarch is called "Herod Philip II", but this is an anachronistic convention.[a][24] Kokkinos says, "The stubborn existence of many theologians in referring to Herod III as 'Herod Philip' is without any value...No illusory Herod Philip ever existed."[24][p 223-233]; [266] Philip the Tetrarch, "unlike his brothers, did not use Herod as a dynastic name."[25] Philip's half-brothers, Archelaus and Antipas, had adopted the name of Herod, "presumably" for a dynastic claim from Herod the Great.[26] the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, Aristobulus' personal feast day is 16 March.[6] He is also one of the saints commemorated on 4 January (feast of the Seventy Disciples)[27] and on 31 October (feast of the assistants of Saint Andrew).[9] In the Roman Catholic liturgical calendar, his feast is 15 March.[8] Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy the Bishop of Britain, Commemorated on March 16;

England, London History Folders (England and Great Britain)

England, 000-399, Folder, before the 5th Century, Roman Britain, Joseph of Arimathaea, Aristobulus of the Seventy

England, 000, 1st Century Folder, Joseph of Arimathaea, Aristibulus of the Seventy, Apostle Simon the Zealot

England, 1-33 Jesus' Time, Joseph of Arimathaea
England, 1-45 Jesus' Time, Joseph of Arimathaea; Righteous Joseph of Arimathea, Commemorated on July 31 ; JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA, (1 AUGUST NT);

England, 30-73 Jesus' Time, Apostle Simon the Zealot, the bridegroom at Cana, t from Britain to Black Sea
England, 30-50 Jesus' Time, Apostle Simon the Zealot; Apostle Simon the Zealot, Commemorated on May 10; traveled to many places from Britain to the Black Sea, proclaiming the Gospel of Christ. Simon was from Cana in Galilee, and was known to the Lord and His Mother. Tradition says that he was the bridegroom at the wedding where the Savior performed His first miracle. After witnessing the miracle of the water which had been turned into wine, he became a zealous follower of Christ. For this reason, he is known as Saint Simon the Zealot. Simon was one of the twelve Apostles, and received the Holy Spirit with the others on Pentecost. He traveled to many places from Britain to the Black Sea, proclaiming the Gospel of Christ. After winning many pagans to the Lord, Saint Simon suffered martyrdom by crucifixion. Demetrius of Rostov says that this Saint Simon is to be distinguished from the Apostle Simon Peter, and from the Lord’s relative Simon (Mt.13:55), who was the second Bishop of Jerusalem. Simon is also commemorated on June 30 with the other Apostles.

England, 45-99, Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Bishop of Britain, sent by Paul to B, Scotland and Ireland
England, 45-99, Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Bishop of Britain; of Britannia is a Christian saint named by Hippolytus of Rome (170-235) and Dorotheus of Gaza (505-565) as one of the Seventy Disciples mentioned in Luke 10:1–24 and as the first bishop in Roman Britain.[2] title in various languages[edit] Saint Aristibule the Old, Apostle, Martyr, and First Bishop of Britain Greek: Ἅγιος Ἀριστόβουλος, ἐπίσκοπος Βρετανίας, ἀδελφοῦ τοῦ ᾿Αποστόλου Βαρνάβα,[3] translit. Hagios Aristoboulos episkopos Brettanias, adelphos tou apostolou Barnaba, transcr. (Byzantine/Modern) Aghios Apostolos Aristovoulos, episkopos Vrettanias, adelfos tou apostolou Varnava ("The Holy Apostle Aristobulus, Bishop of Britain, brother of the Apostle Barnabas") Latin: Sanctus Aristobulus Senex, Apostolus, Martyr, Episcopus Primus Britanniae Arwystli Hen Episcob Cyntaf Prydain ("Aristibule the Old, First Bishop of Britain") lists "Aristobulus, bishop of Britain" among the seventy disciples.[2] may be mentioned in the New Testament in the Epistle to the Romans (Romans 16:10: "...Salute them which are of Aristobulus' household") although this may mean members of the household of the late Aristobulus IV.[4] According to Lionel Smithett Lewis, the writings of St Dorotheus, Bishop of Tyre AD 303, assert that he is the one saluted by Paul in the Epistle to the Romans.[5] : 118–121  tradition[edit] tradition says Aristobulus was the brother of the Apostle Barnabas, of Jewish Cypriot origin. Like Barnabas, he accompanied Saint Paul on his journeys.[6] He was one of the assistants of Saint Andrew,[7] along with Urban of Macedonia, Stachys, Ampliatus, Apelles of Heraklion and Narcissus of Athens (all of these names are mentioned together by St. Paul in Romans 16:8-11, which cannot be casual). On his missionary journey to Britain, he stopped to preach to the Celtiberians of northern Hispania.[7] Catholic tradition identifies Aristobulus with Zebedee, father of James and John.[8] preached and died in Roman Britain.[6] While some orthodox traditions say he "died in peace",[9] others say he was martyred in Wales.[7] Catholic tradition says he was martyred.[8] The Benedictine monk Serenus de Cressy (1605–1674) maintained that Aristobulus was ordained by St. Paul and died at Glastonbury Abbey in 99; but Michael Alford (author of Fides Regia Britannica Sive Annales Ecclesiae Britannicae) says that Aristobulus was the husband of "Mary" Salome, which makes this date appear too late.[5] Alford gives his death as "the second year of Nero" – 56.[10] Alford also asserts that "It is perfectly certain that, before St Paul had come to Rome, Aristobulus was away in Britain".[11][12] This is in accord with the date given by Gildas (c. 500–570 AD) that the "Light of Christ" shone in Britain in the last year of Emperor Tiberius.[13] However, George Smith points out that this a misinterpretation of Gildas, and asserts that the Gospel was not preached in Britain before the reign of Claudius,[14] whose full name was Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. tradition[edit] these traditions, it seems that Aristobulus was the founder of British Christianity. There is no evidence for any connection with Glastonbury and John Scott shows in An Early History of Glastonbury that the legend purporting that Joseph of Arimathea founded the Abbey there is of 12th or 13th-century origin and has no basis in fact. Rather, the early writings frequently centre on Aristobulus.[5] There is no mention of Joseph prior to the Conquest. For this and other reasons, Smith also considers the account of Joseph of Arimathea a "superstitious fable of comparatively modern invention".[15] Williams identifies Aristobulus with Arwystli Hen, a "man of Italy", and one of four missionaries believed to have brought Christianity to the British Isles.[16] There is a tradition linking him to one of the medieval Welsh saints Arwstyl ap Cunedda.[17] The title "Arwystli Hen"[5]: 119  may have originated through a later British tradition. parallels[edit] of Chalcis was the son of Herod of Chalcis and Mariamme, the daughter of Olympias.[18] He married Salome, the daughter of Herod II and Herodias.[19] They had three sons: Herod, Agrippa, and Aristobulus.[20] Lionel Smithett Lewis maintains that this latter Aristobulus could have been the Aristobulus of Britannia,[21] and referred to by Cressy. However, it is this man's father who was the husband of Salome, as mentioned by Alford (see previous section). 55, Nero appointed Aristobulus of Chalcis as King of Armenia Minor. He participated with his forces in the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, where he received a small portion of Armenia in exchange,[22] an area he continued to rule until 72 when Vespasian reduced the regional autonomy of some of the provinces.[23] is probable that the "Philip" (mentioned above) are those mentioned in the New Testament are Philip the Tetrarch. The matter is disputed by scholars. There is no contemporary evidence for Philip the Tetrarch's use of the name "Herod Philip" as a dynastic title, as did occur with his brothers Herod Antipas and Herod Archelaus, yet he was of the same family and the scriptural reference may be emphasising this fact, as do later scriptural commentators. Today, Herod II is sometimes called "Herod Philip I" (because the gospels call the husband of Herodias "Philip"), and then Philip the Tetrarch is called "Herod Philip II", but this is an anachronistic convention.[a][24] Kokkinos says, "The stubborn existence of many theologians in referring to Herod III as 'Herod Philip' is without any value...No illusory Herod Philip ever existed."[24][p 223-233]; [266] Philip the Tetrarch, "unlike his brothers, did not use Herod as a dynastic name."[25] Philip's half-brothers, Archelaus and Antipas, had adopted the name of Herod, "presumably" for a dynastic claim from Herod the Great.[26] the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, Aristobulus' personal feast day is 16 March.[6] He is also one of the saints commemorated on 4 January (feast of the Seventy Disciples)[27] and on 31 October (feast of the assistants of Saint Andrew).[9] In the Roman Catholic liturgical calendar, his feast is 15 March.[8] Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy the Bishop of Britain, Commemorated on March 16; Paul made Aristóboulos a bishop and sent him to preach the Gospel in Britain, Scotland, and Hibernia (Ireland), where he converted many people to Christ. He also had to endure many torments and afflictions from hostile pagans, who beat him and mocked him. Eventually, he won them over and brought them to Christ as well. Aristóboulos reposed peacefully in Britain among the people he had evangelized. Some sources say he suffered a martyr's death in Wales at an advanced age. Holy Apostle Aristóboulos of the Seventy was born on Cyprus. He and his brother, the Apostle Barnabas (June 11), accompanied Saint Paul on his missionary journeys. Saint Aristóboulos is mentioned by the Apostle Paul in his Epistle to the Romans (Romans 16:10). are several conflicting narratives about the hierarch's life before he went to Britain. Some identify him with Zebedee, the father of the Apostles James and John. Others say that he was the father-in-law of the Apostle Peter. Most of these are unreliable, however. Paul made Aristóboulos a bishop and sent him to preach the Gospel in Britain, Scotland, and Hibernia (Ireland), where he converted many people to Christ. He also had to endure many torments and afflictions from hostile pagans, who beat him and mocked him. Eventually, he won them over and brought them to Christ as well. Aristóboulos reposed peacefully in Britain among the people he had evangelized. Some sources say he suffered a martyr's death in Wales at an advanced age. Aristóboulos is also commemorated on October 31 (with Saints Stachys, Apellēs, Amplias, Urban, and Narcissus), and also on the Synaxis of the Seventy Apostles (January 4). In Greek usage he is commemorated on March 15.

England, 47, Roman Britain, Londinium, AD 47
England, 47, Roman Britain, Londinium, AD 47 ; Roman Britain; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Commemorated on October 31 ;

England, 200, 3rd Century Folder, Britain, Gaul Caesar, Constantine's Father

England, 293-306, Roman Britain and Gaul Caesar, Constantius Chlorus, Father of Constantine the Great
England, 293-306, Roman Britain and Gaul Caesar, Constantius Chlorus, Father of Constantine the Great; Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21;

England, 300, 4th Century Folder, Morgan or Pelagius (Islander)

England, 304, England's first Martyr, St Alban, Hertfordshire
St Albans; St Alban the Protomartyr of Britain, Commemorated on June 22; ALBAN, FIRST MARTYR OF BRITAIN (22 JUNE 304);

England, 380-418, Morgan or Pelagius (Islander)
England, 360-418, Morgan or Pelagius (Islander); AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (28 AUGUST 430);

England, 400-999, Folder 5th - 10th Century, Anglo Saxon Vikings

England, 400-499, 5th Century Folder, Anglo Saxons, St Patrick, King Arthur

England, 410-1066, Kingdom of East Anglia
England, 410-1066, Kingdom of East Anglia; Sigeberht of East Anglia, 629-634 ; Rendlesham; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG);

England, 410-461, Saint, Patrick of Ireland
England, Saint, 410-461, Patrick of Ireland; PATRICK OF IRELAND, (17 MAR c461) ; St Patrick the Bishop of Armagh and Enlightener of Ireland, Commemorated on March 17;

England, 430's, Coroticus of Dumbarton, Briton Chieftan (River Clyde 6)
Coroticus of Dumbarton, Scotland (River Clyde 6); Alt Clut (Dumbarton), Scotland; Epistle to Coroticus; St. Patrick the Bishop of Armagh and Enlightener of Ireland, Commemorated on March 17;

England, Wales, Kingdom of Gwynedd, 450-1216, AKA Cwynedd
Wales, Kingdom of Gwynedd, 450-1216; Wales, 625-634, King Caedwalla of Cwynedd (North Wales), 625-634, AKA Cadwallon ap Cadfan; Saint Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5;

England, Wales, Brycheiniog Kingdom, 450-1045
England, Wales, Brycheiniog Kingdom, 450-1045;

England, 450-490, Wales, Brycheiniog King, Brychan
England, Wales, Brycheiniog King, 450-490, Brychan; England, Wales, Brycheiniog Kingdom, 450-1045; St Brannock of Braunton, Commemorated on January 7; Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

England, 488-510, Wales, Brycheiniog King, Nectan of Hartland
England, Wales, Brycheiniog King, 488-510, Nectan of Hartland; England, Wales, Brycheiniog King, 450-490, Brychan; England, Wales, Brycheiniog Kingdom, 450-1045; St Brannock of Braunton, Commemorated on January 7; Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

England, 488-589 , Wales, Brycheiniog Saint, Saint David, apostle of Wales
England, Wales, Brycheiniog Saint, 500-589, Saint David; DAVID (DEWI) OF WALES, (1 MAR 544); the pagan Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries, many British Christians sought refuge in the hill country of Wales. they developed a style of Christian life devoted to learning, asceticism, and missionary fervor. Since there were no cities, the centers of culture were the monasteries, and most abbots were bishops as well. (David in English) was the founder, abbot, and bishop of the monastery of Mynyw (Menevia in English) in Pembrokeshire. was responsible for much of the spread of Christianity in Wales, and his monastery was sought out by many scholars from Ireland and elsewhere. He is commonly accounted the apostle of Wales, as Patrick is of Ireland. His tomb is in St. David's cathedral, on the site of ancient Mynyw, now called Ty-Dewi (House of David). of St. David, at St. David's CathedralThe ancient custom in Wales, as throughout Celtic Christendom, was to have bishops who were abbots of monasteries, and who had no clear territorial jurisdiction, simply traveling about as they were needed. Eventually, however, the bishops of Bangor, Llandaff, St. Asaph, and St. Davids became the heads of four territorial dioceses, to which the diocese of Monmouth and the diocese of Swansea and Brecon have been added in this century. many centuries the Church in Wales had closer ties with the Celtic Churches in Scotland, Ireland, and Brittany than with the Church in Anglo-Saxon England. However, after the Norman conquest of Britain (1066 and after), the Anglo-Norman Kings began to contemplate the conquest of Wales. William the Conqueror began with the subjugation of South Wales as far as Carmathen, but the Welsh uplands remained independent far longer, and the conquest was not complete until about 1300, under Edward I. But eventually all of Wales came under English control, and the Church in Wales was placed under the jurisdiction of Canterbury, and thus became identified in the minds of many with the English supremacy. In 1920 the Church in Wales (Eglwys yng Nghymru) became independent of outside jurisdiction (though still in communion with other Anglican Churches, in England and elsewhere) and clear of all ties with the government. It is bilingual and active in the preservation of the Welsh language and culture. by James Kiefer

England, 475-525, King Arthur, Late 5th Early 6th Century, led Britain defense against Saxons, swallowed to neck by Padarn
England, 475-525, King Arthur, Late 5th Early 6th Century; Arthur was a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of Welsh and English folklore and literary invention, and modern historians generally agree that he is unhistorical.[2][3] The sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthur's name also occurs in early poetic sources such as Y Gododdin.[4] is a central figure in the legends making up the Matter of Britain. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouth's fanciful and imaginative 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain).[5] some Welsh and Breton tales and poems that date from before this work, Arthur appears either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies or as a magical figure of folklore, sometimes associated with the Welsh otherworld Annwn.[6] How much of Geoffrey's Historia (completed in 1138) was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. the themes, events and characters of the Arthurian legend varied widely from text to text, and there is no one canonical version, Geoffrey's version of events often served as the starting point for later stories. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established a vast empire. Many elements and incidents that are now an integral part of the Arthurian story appear in Geoffrey's Historia, including Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, the magician Merlin, Arthur's wife Guinevere, the sword Excalibur, Arthur's conception at Tintagel, his final battle against Mordred at Camlann, and final rest in Avalon. 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot and the Holy Grail to the story, began the genre of Arthurian romance that became a significant strand of medieval literature. In these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a major resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the legend continues to have prominence, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics and other media. England, 524-550, St Padarm of Llanbadarn Fawr, Commemorated April 15; ( ? – c. 550 AD)[1] was an early 6th century sanctified British Christian abbot-bishop who founded St Padarn's Church in[2] Ceredigion, Wales. first bishop of Braga and Saint Paternus of Avranches in Normandy appear to be the same person. Padarn built a monastery in Vannes and is considered one of the seven founding saints of Brittany. Padarn's early vita is one of five insular and two Breton saints' lives that mention King Arthur independently of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.[3] Vita Sancti Paterni, a major source for biographical details of Padarn, may be an epitome of a previous and more extensive source. According to the Vita Sancti Paterni, Padarn is Armorican by race, born to "Petran, his father, and Guean, his mother".[1] His parents "dedicated themselves to Christ" and Petran left Letavia (modern Brittany) for Ireland. Thomas Wakeman names Padarn a nephew of Hoel of Cornouaille.[4] However, Canon G. H. Doble believes Padarn was likely Welsh, and was later confused with Breton saints of the same name.[5] the year 524 Padarn traveled to join his father in Ireland. He joined a fellowship of monks led by his cousin, St. Cadvan, who were travelling to Britannia. At this time, as in many saints' lives of the era, there appears to be an aristocratic military function in Padarn's career, for among the travellers were Padarn's cousins, who appointed him as the fourth leader of the troop, saying "you should rule over people for example of life".[4] 1878 stained glass window of St. Paternus at the Cathedral of Vannes in Morbihan. became a student at Illtud's school, Cor Tewdws.[4] Padarn later founded a monastery at Llanbadarn Fawr, near Aberystwyth, which became the seat of a new diocese, with him as its first bishop.[1] He then left it in the charge of a trusted steward and proceeded to Ireland. Padarn's spiritual countenance was sufficient to calm the armies of kings of two provinces.[6] Padarn returned to Llanbadarn Fawr, Maelgwn Gwynedd tried to cheat him out of property belonging to the monastery. Two of Maelgwn's evil heralds were undone by the trial by ordeal of boiling water; scalded and defeated, "Their souls in raven-forms fly to the riverbed, which unto this day by the name of one of them is called, to wit, Graban."[7] Maelgwn Gwynedd himself is first cursed and then cured of his sickness and blindness when he comes on bended knee to ask forgiveness, and to bestow lands on Padarn's community, which are laid out with the exactitude of a deed: "a quantity of land, that is, from the mouth of the river Rheidiol upwards until it touches at its head the limit of the river Clarach; and along the length of the same river as far as the sea is the limit prolonged."[8] the Vita Sancti Paterni Padarn travels on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem with Saint David and Saint Teilo for all three to be ordained bishops by the patriarch. Along the way they acquired the gift of tongues so that whomever they spoke to understood them in his own language.[6] The patriarch gave Paternus two gifts, a crozier and a finely woven tunic. On their return, they amicably divided Britannia into three bishoprics.[9] finally returned to Letavia, where his fame filled the region and "made peace" with the bishop Samson in Vannes, where Padarn his built a monastery and subsequently made a peace with the six bishops of Armorica, of which he now made a seventh. and Arthur[edit] sketch from Little Pictorial Lives of the Saints, by Benzinger Brothers. the most celebrated episode, King Arthur tries to steal Padarn's tunic and subsequently becomes Christian. It's too late to be reliable. But the episode was probably meant to increase Padarn's prestige and credibility as a saint by being granted credit for "Christianizing" the semi-historical leader who allegedly defeated the Anglo-Saxons with the help of Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary in the battle of Mount Badon according to the 9th century ad monk Nennius. The author also seemed to confuse this Padarn with Padarn Redcoat whose coat was one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain;[6] Padarn was in his church resting after so much labour at sea, a certain tyrant, Arthur by name, was traversing the regions on either side, who one day came to the cell of saint Padarn the bishop. And while he was addressing Padarn, he looked at the tunic, which he, being pierced with the zeal of avarice, sought for his own. The saint answering said, "This tunic is not fitting for the habit of any malign person, but for the habit of the clerical office." He went out of the monastery in a rage. And again he returns in wrath, that he might take away the tunic against the counsels of his own companions. One of the disciples of Padarn seeing him returning in fury, ran to saint Padarn and said, "The tyrant, who went out from here before, is returning. Reviling, stamping, he levels the ground with his feet". Padarn answers "Nay rather, may the earth swallow him." With the word straightway the earth opens the hollow of its depth, and swallows Arthur up to his chin. He immediately acknowledging his guilt begins to praise both God and Padarn, until, while he begs forgiveness, the earth delivered him up. From that place on bent knees he begged the saint for indulgence, whom the saint forgave. And he took Padarn as his continual patron, and so departed.[10] of Avranches[edit] British Padarn appears to be the same person as Saint Paternus of Avranches in Normandy. By tradition, it is said that he was born in Poitiers, became a monk at the Abbey of Saint-Jouin de Marnes [fr] in France, and retreated with his fellow monk, Saint Scubilion, to the forest of Scissy [fr] in the diocese of Coutances before the Bishop of Coutances made him a priest in 512.[11] day: April 16 [12] Three days were kept to honor Padern in Armorica; the Armoricans celebrate three solemnities of his, namely, that day of the Kalends of November, when he formed perpetual unity with the six chief saints of Letia, the day of his obit, and the day he received the order of the episcopate, the twelfth before the Kalends of the month of July. well as the church at Llanbadarn Fawr, there is a second church dedicated to him, in Llanberis in Gwynedd. Padarn’s Institute, located at St Michael’s Conference Centre, Llandaff, handles training for ministry in the Church in Wales.[13] AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605);

England, 500-599, 6th Century Folder, Augustine of Canterbury, St Columba, Ireland called Scotland

England, 501-570, Irish Saint, St Ita of Killeady
England, Irish Saint, 500-570, St Ita of Killeady ; Ireland (then called Scotland); St Aidan the Bishop of Lindesfarne, Commemorated on August 31 ; St Ita the Hermitess of Killeady, Commemorated on January 15 ;

England, 501-589 , Wales, Brycheiniog Saint, Saint David
England, Wales, Brycheiniog Saint, 500-589, Saint David; DAVID (DEWI) OF WALES, (1 MAR 544); the pagan Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries, many British Christians sought refuge in the hill country of Wales. they developed a style of Christian life devoted to learning, asceticism, and missionary fervor. Since there were no cities, the centers of culture were the monasteries, and most abbots were bishops as well. (David in English) was the founder, abbot, and bishop of the monastery of Mynyw (Menevia in English) in Pembrokeshire. was responsible for much of the spread of Christianity in Wales, and his monastery was sought out by many scholars from Ireland and elsewhere. He is commonly accounted the apostle of Wales, as Patrick is of Ireland. His tomb is in St. David's cathedral, on the site of ancient Mynyw, now called Ty-Dewi (House of David). of St. David, at St. David's CathedralThe ancient custom in Wales, as throughout Celtic Christendom, was to have bishops who were abbots of monasteries, and who had no clear territorial jurisdiction, simply traveling about as they were needed. Eventually, however, the bishops of Bangor, Llandaff, St. Asaph, and St. Davids became the heads of four territorial dioceses, to which the diocese of Monmouth and the diocese of Swansea and Brecon have been added in this century. many centuries the Church in Wales had closer ties with the Celtic Churches in Scotland, Ireland, and Brittany than with the Church in Anglo-Saxon England. However, after the Norman conquest of Britain (1066 and after), the Anglo-Norman Kings began to contemplate the conquest of Wales. William the Conqueror began with the subjugation of South Wales as far as Carmathen, but the Welsh uplands remained independent far longer, and the conquest was not complete until about 1300, under Edward I. But eventually all of Wales came under English control, and the Church in Wales was placed under the jurisdiction of Canterbury, and thus became identified in the minds of many with the English supremacy. In 1920 the Church in Wales (Eglwys yng Nghymru) became independent of outside jurisdiction (though still in communion with other Anglican Churches, in England and elsewhere) and clear of all ties with the government. It is bilingual and active in the preservation of the Welsh language and culture. by James Kiefer

England, 501-550, St Padarn, Llanbadarn Fawr, Wales, earth opened and Arthur swallowed to his neck
St Padarm's Church, Llanbadarn Fawr; England, 524-550, St Padarm of Llanbadarn Fawr, Commemorated April 15; ( ? – c. 550 AD)[1] was an early 6th century sanctified British Christian abbot-bishop who founded St Padarn's Church in[2] Ceredigion, Wales. first bishop of Braga and Saint Paternus of Avranches in Normandy appear to be the same person. Padarn built a monastery in Vannes and is considered one of the seven founding saints of Brittany. Padarn's early vita is one of five insular and two Breton saints' lives that mention King Arthur independently of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.[3] Vita Sancti Paterni, a major source for biographical details of Padarn, may be an epitome of a previous and more extensive source. According to the Vita Sancti Paterni, Padarn is Armorican by race, born to "Petran, his father, and Guean, his mother".[1] His parents "dedicated themselves to Christ" and Petran left Letavia (modern Brittany) for Ireland. Thomas Wakeman names Padarn a nephew of Hoel of Cornouaille.[4] However, Canon G. H. Doble believes Padarn was likely Welsh, and was later confused with Breton saints of the same name.[5] the year 524 Padarn traveled to join his father in Ireland. He joined a fellowship of monks led by his cousin, St. Cadvan, who were travelling to Britannia. At this time, as in many saints' lives of the era, there appears to be an aristocratic military function in Padarn's career, for among the travellers were Padarn's cousins, who appointed him as the fourth leader of the troop, saying "you should rule over people for example of life".[4] 1878 stained glass window of St. Paternus at the Cathedral of Vannes in Morbihan. became a student at Illtud's school, Cor Tewdws.[4] Padarn later founded a monastery at Llanbadarn Fawr, near Aberystwyth, which became the seat of a new diocese, with him as its first bishop.[1] He then left it in the charge of a trusted steward and proceeded to Ireland. Padarn's spiritual countenance was sufficient to calm the armies of kings of two provinces.[6] Padarn returned to Llanbadarn Fawr, Maelgwn Gwynedd tried to cheat him out of property belonging to the monastery. Two of Maelgwn's evil heralds were undone by the trial by ordeal of boiling water; scalded and defeated, "Their souls in raven-forms fly to the riverbed, which unto this day by the name of one of them is called, to wit, Graban."[7] Maelgwn Gwynedd himself is first cursed and then cured of his sickness and blindness when he comes on bended knee to ask forgiveness, and to bestow lands on Padarn's community, which are laid out with the exactitude of a deed: "a quantity of land, that is, from the mouth of the river Rheidiol upwards until it touches at its head the limit of the river Clarach; and along the length of the same river as far as the sea is the limit prolonged."[8] the Vita Sancti Paterni Padarn travels on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem with Saint David and Saint Teilo for all three to be ordained bishops by the patriarch. Along the way they acquired the gift of tongues so that whomever they spoke to understood them in his own language.[6] The patriarch gave Paternus two gifts, a crozier and a finely woven tunic. On their return, they amicably divided Britannia into three bishoprics.[9] finally returned to Letavia, where his fame filled the region and "made peace" with the bishop Samson in Vannes, where Padarn his built a monastery and subsequently made a peace with the six bishops of Armorica, of which he now made a seventh. and Arthur[edit] sketch from Little Pictorial Lives of the Saints, by Benzinger Brothers. the most celebrated episode, King Arthur tries to steal Padarn's tunic and subsequently becomes Christian. It's too late to be reliable. But the episode was probably meant to increase Padarn's prestige and credibility as a saint by being granted credit for "Christianizing" the semi-historical leader who allegedly defeated the Anglo-Saxons with the help of Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary in the battle of Mount Badon according to the 9th century ad monk Nennius. The author also seemed to confuse this Padarn with Padarn Redcoat whose coat was one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain;[6] Padarn was in his church resting after so much labour at sea, a certain tyrant, Arthur by name, was traversing the regions on either side, who one day came to the cell of saint Padarn the bishop. And while he was addressing Padarn, he looked at the tunic, which he, being pierced with the zeal of avarice, sought for his own. The saint answering said, "This tunic is not fitting for the habit of any malign person, but for the habit of the clerical office." He went out of the monastery in a rage. And again he returns in wrath, that he might take away the tunic against the counsels of his own companions. One of the disciples of Padarn seeing him returning in fury, ran to saint Padarn and said, "The tyrant, who went out from here before, is returning. Reviling, stamping, he levels the ground with his feet". Padarn answers "Nay rather, may the earth swallow him." With the word straightway the earth opens the hollow of its depth, and swallows Arthur up to his chin. He immediately acknowledging his guilt begins to praise both God and Padarn, until, while he begs forgiveness, the earth delivered him up. From that place on bent knees he begged the saint for indulgence, whom the saint forgave. And he took Padarn as his continual patron, and so departed.[10] of Avranches[edit] British Padarn appears to be the same person as Saint Paternus of Avranches in Normandy. By tradition, it is said that he was born in Poitiers, became a monk at the Abbey of Saint-Jouin de Marnes [fr] in France, and retreated with his fellow monk, Saint Scubilion, to the forest of Scissy [fr] in the diocese of Coutances before the Bishop of Coutances made him a priest in 512.[11] day: April 16 [12] Three days were kept to honor Padern in Armorica; the Armoricans celebrate three solemnities of his, namely, that day of the Kalends of November, when he formed perpetual unity with the six chief saints of Letia, the day of his obit, and the day he received the order of the episcopate, the twelfth before the Kalends of the month of July. well as the church at Llanbadarn Fawr, there is a second church dedicated to him, in Llanberis in Gwynedd. Padarn’s Institute, located at St Michael’s Conference Centre, Llandaff, handles training for ministry in the Church in Wales.[13]

England, 527-918, Kingdom of Mercia, Pagan King Penda from 626-655
Severn Valley, Mercia; Saint Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5; Penda, King of Mercia, 626-655; Kingdom of Mercia, 527-918;

England, 541-597, Columba, Irish and Scottish Saint, abby of Iona, Celtic Christianity
England, Scottish Saint, 541-597, St Columba; or Colmcille[a] (7 December 521 – 9 June 597) was an Irish abbot and missionary evangelist credited with spreading Christianity in what is today Scotland at the start of the Hiberno-Scottish mission.[3][4] He founded the important abbey on Iona, which became a dominant religious and political institution in the region for centuries. He is the patron saint of Derry. He was highly regarded by both the Gaels of Dál Riata and the Picts, and is remembered today as a Catholic saint and one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland.[5] studied under some of Ireland's most prominent church figures and founded several monasteries in the country. Around 563 he and his twelve companions crossed to Dunaverty near Southend, Argyll, in Kintyre before settling in Iona in Scotland, then part of the Ulster kingdom of Dál Riata, where they founded a new abbey as a base for spreading Celtic Christianity among the pagan Northern Pictish kingdoms.[6][7] He remained active in Irish politics, though he spent most of the remainder of his life in Scotland. Three surviving early medieval Latin hymns may be attributed to him.[4] St Kentigern, first Bishop of Glasgow, Scotland, Commemorated on January 14;

England, 553-604, Augustine of Canterbury, Gregorian mission 595, Bertha, wife of K Aethelberht, Franc Christian, K converted
England, 553-604, Saint, Augustine of Canterbury; of Canterbury (early 6th century – probably 26 May 604) was a monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597. He is considered the "Apostle to the English" and a founder of the English Church.[4] was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission, to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha, daughter of Charibert I the King of Paris, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Before reaching Kent, the missionaries had considered turning back, but Gregory urged them on, and in 597, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury. Æthelberht converted to Christianity and allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls. Augustine was consecrated as a bishop and converted many of the king's subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597. Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native British bishops to submit to Augustine's authority failed. Roman bishops were established at London, and Rochester in 604, and a school was founded to train Anglo-Saxon priests and missionaries. Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor, Laurence of Canterbury. The archbishop probably died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint. St Augustine's Abby; GREGORY THE GREAT, BISHOP AND DOCTOR (12 MAR 604) ; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26;

England, 559-664, Kingdom of Deira, Yorkshire (from the Huber to the Tees, aka Vale of York)
Kingdom of Deira; to Simeon of Durham (writing early in the 12th century), it extended from the Humber to the Tyne, but the land was waste north of the Tees. was an area of Post-Roman Britain, and a later Anglian kingdom.[2] Deira[edit] the Roman withdrawal from Britain a number of successor kingdoms rose in northern England, reflecting pre-Roman tribal territories. The area between the Humber and River Tees was known as Deywr or Deifr corresponds to the tribal lands of the Parisi, bordered to the West and North by the Brythonic kingdoms of Elfed and Bryneich respectively, and to the East by the North Sea. Deira may have centred on Petuaria (modern Brough) and archaeological evidence shows that the town was refortified. Petuaria was a great tribal centre for the Parisi, but declined in importance from the mid-fourth century (possibly as the harbour silted up). After this period, Derventio (modern Malton) may have functioned as the region's capital.[6] is not known if Deira was ever an independent Brythonic kingdom, and no British king has been identified with the area from the surviving genealogies, poems or chronicles. However the area was subject to the same fractious inheritance traditions and changing power dynamic (following the Roman withdrawal) that allowed Elfed and Bryneich to become independent hereditary kingdoms in the early fifth century. In Welsh literature Deira is part of the Hen Ogledd (Old North) region, which was divided into many related kingdoms after the death of Coel Hen (Coel the Old).[7][8] Deira[edit] kingdom was previously inhabited by Britons and was probably created in the third quarter of the fifth century when Anglian warriors invaded the Derwent Valley.[9] Anglian Deira's territory also extended from the Humber to the Tees, and from the sea to the western edge of the Vale of York. It later merged with the kingdom of Bernicia, its northern neighbour, to form the kingdom of Northumbria. to Simeon of Durham (writing early in the 12th century), it extended from the Humber to the Tyne, but the land was waste north of the Tees. After the Brythonic kingdom centred on Eboracum, which may have been called Ebrauc, was taken by King Edwin, the city of Eboracum became its capital, and Eoforwic ("boar-place") was taken by the Angles.[10] suggests that the Anglian royal house was in place by the middle of the fifth century, but the first certainly recorded king is Ælla in the late sixth century.[11] After his death, Deira was subject to king Æthelfrith of Bernicia, who united the two kingdoms into Northumbria. Æthelfrith ruled until the accession of Ælla's son Edwin, in 616 or 617, who also ruled both kingdoms until 633.[12] the nephew of Edwin, ruled Deira after Edwin, but his son Oswine was put to death by Oswiu in 651. For a few years subsequently, Deira was governed by Æthelwald son of Oswald of Bernicia.[13] wrote of Deira in his Historia Ecclesiastica (completed in 731).[14] Vale of York St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated October 12 ; CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672) ;

England, 584-612, Kentigern Mungo, Scottish Welsh Saint, Asaph and Glaskow monasteries
England, Scottish Welsh Saint, 584-612, St Kentigern Mungo; St Kentigern, first Bishop of Glasgow, Scotland, Commemorated on January 14; Kentigern was from Lothian (in Scotland), and may have been of royal blood. He left home at an early age and was brought up by a hermit named Servan (July 1) on the Firth of Forth. It was Saint Servan who gave him the name Mungo (or dear friend). Kentigern Mungo labored in Strathclyde, and founded a monastery where the city of Glasgow stands today. He was made a bishop, taking Glasgow for his See. from Scotland by the enmity of a local ruler, Saint Kentigern went to Wales and founded the monastery of Saint Asaph. Eventually, he returned to Scotland and resumed his missionary work, baptizing many people. 584 he met Saint Columba (June 9), and exchanged croziers with him. Kentigern was a strict ascetic who traveled everywhere on foot. It is believed that he died in Glasgow around 612 at the age of eighty-five. A Gothic cathedral was built over his shrine in the thirteenth century.

England, 590-616, Aethelberht of Kent, E King, first E christian king, Queen Bertha brought c from France, first German Law
England, 590-616, King of the English, King of Kent, Aethelberht of Kent ; Æthelberht (c. 550 - 24 February 616) was King of Kent from about 589 until his death. The eighth-century monk Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, lists him as the third king to hold imperium over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In the late ninth century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he is referred to as a bretwalda, or "Britain-ruler". He was the first English king to convert to Christianity. Æthelberht was the son of Eormenric, succeeding him as king, according to the Chronicle. He married Bertha, the Christian daughter of Charibert I, king of the Franks, thus building an alliance with the most powerful state in contemporary Western Europe; the marriage probably took place before he came to the throne. Bertha's influence may have led to Pope Gregory I's decision to send Augustine as a missionary from Rome. Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet in east Kent in 597. Shortly thereafter, Æthelberht converted to Christianity, churches were established, and wider-scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom. He provided the new church with land in Canterbury, thus helping to establish one of the foundation stones of English Christianity. Æthelberht's law for Kent, the earliest written code in any Germanic language, instituted a complex system of fines; the law code is preserved in the Textus Roffensis. Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the Continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade. Coinage probably began circulating in Kent during his reign for the first time since the Anglo-Saxon settlement. He later came to be regarded as a saint for his role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. His feast day was originally 24 February but was changed to 25 February. Kingdom of Kent, 455-871 ; St Eanswythe the Abbess of Folkestone, Commemorated on August 31; AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605); St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ; COLUMBA, ABBOT OF IONA AND MISSIONARY (9 JUNE 597) ;

England, 593-1093, House of Wessex
England, 593-1093, House of Wessex;

England, 593-616, Ethelred of Bernicia, E King, first B king to control Diera, over brits and irish
England, 593-616, King of the English, Ethelred of Bernicia, Ethelfirth ; Æthelfrith (died c. 616) was King of Bernicia from c. 593 until his death. Around 604 he became the first Bernician king to also rule the neighboring land of Deira, giving him an important place in the development of the later kingdom of Northumbria. He was especially notable for his successes against the Britons and his victory over the Gaels of Dál Riata. Although he was defeated and killed in battle and replaced by a dynastic rival, his line was eventually restored to power in the 630s. St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated on October 12;

England, 596, Gregorian Mission, headed by Augustine of Canterbury
England, 601, Gregorian mission ; Gregorian mission[1] or Augustinian mission[2] was a Christian mission sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 596 to convert Britain's Anglo-Saxons.[3] The mission was headed by Augustine of Canterbury. By the time of the death of the last missionary in 653, the mission had established Christianity in southern Britain. Along with the Irish and Frankish missions it converted other parts of Britain as well and influenced the Hiberno-Scottish missions to Continental Europe. the time the Roman Empire recalled its legions from the province of Britannia in 410, parts of the island had already been settled by pagan Germanic tribes who, later in the century, appear to have taken control of Kent and other coastal regions no longer defended by the Roman Empire. In the late 6th century Pope Gregory sent a group of missionaries to Kent to convert Æthelberht, King of Kent, whose wife, Bertha of Kent, was a Frankish princess and practising Christian. Augustine had been the prior of Gregory's own monastery in Rome and Gregory prepared the way for the mission by soliciting aid from the Frankish rulers along Augustine's route. In 597, the forty missionaries arrived in Kent and were permitted by Æthelberht to preach freely in his capital of Canterbury. the missionaries wrote to Gregory telling him of their success, and of the conversions taking place. The exact date of Æthelberht's conversion is unknown but it occurred before 601. A second group of monks and clergy was dispatched in 601 bearing books and other items for the new foundation. Gregory intended Augustine to be the metropolitan archbishop of the southern part of the British Isles, and gave him power over the clergy of the native Britons, but in a series of meetings with Augustine the long-established Celtic bishops refused to acknowledge his authority. Æthelberht's death in 616, a number of other bishoprics had been established. However, after that date, a pagan backlash set in and the see, or bishopric, of London was abandoned. Æthelberht's daughter, Æthelburg, married Edwin, the king of the Northumbrians, and by 627 Paulinus, the bishop who accompanied her north, had converted Edwin and a number of other Northumbrians. When Edwin died, in about 633, his widow and Paulinus were forced to flee back to Kent. Although the missionaries could not remain in all of the places they had evangelised, by the time the last of them died in 653, they had established Christianity in Kent and the surrounding countryside and contributed a Roman tradition to the practice of Christianity in Britain. England, 600-644, Paulinus of York; England, 600-671, James the Deacon; St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ;

England, 597-604, St Augustine, Archbishop of Canterbury, Gregorian Mission, Bertha, wife of k Aethelberht, christian from Franks, k converted
England, 597-604, St Augustine, Archbishop of Canterbury; of Canterbury (early 6th century – probably 26 May 604) was a monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597. He is considered the "Apostle to the English" and a founder of the English Church.[4] was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission, to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha, daughter of Charibert I the King of Paris, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Before reaching Kent, the missionaries had considered turning back, but Gregory urged them on, and in 597, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury. Æthelberht converted to Christianity and allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls. Augustine was consecrated as a bishop and converted many of the king's subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597. Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native British bishops to submit to Augustine's authority failed. Roman bishops were established at London, and Rochester in 604, and a school was founded to train Anglo-Saxon priests and missionaries. Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor, Laurence of Canterbury. The archbishop probably died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint. GREGORY THE GREAT, BISHOP AND DOCTOR (12 MAR 604); BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ;

England, 599-624, Redwald of East Anglia, English King, south of Heber, wide ruler, Christian b 605, over Edwin
England, 599-624, King of the English, Redwald of East Anglia ; (power in counsel), also written as Raedwald or Redwald, was a king of East Anglia, an Anglo-Saxon kingdom which included the present-day English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. He was the son of Tytila of East Anglia and a member of the Wuffingas dynasty (named after his grandfather, Wuffa), who were the first kings of the East Angles. Details about Rædwald's reign are scarce, primarily because the Viking invasions of the 9th century destroyed the monasteries in East Anglia where many documents would have been kept. reigned from about 599 until his death around 624, initially under the overlordship of Ethelberht of Kent. In 616, as a result of fighting the Battle of the River Idle and defeating AEthelfrith of Northumbria, he was able to install Edwin, who was acquiescent to his authority, as the new king of Northumbria. During the battle, both AEthelfrith and Rædwald's son Rægenhere were killed. around 616, Rædwald was the most powerful of the English kings south of the River Humber. According to Bede he was the fourth ruler to hold imperium over other southern Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: he was referred to in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, written centuries after his death, as a bretwalda (an Old English term meaning 'Britain-ruler' or 'wide-ruler'). He was the first king of the East Angles to become a Christian, converting at Æthelberht's court some time before 605, while also maintaining a pagan temple. He helped Christianity to survive in East Anglia during the apostasy of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Essex and Kent. Historians consider him the most likely occupant of the Sutton Hoo ship-burial, although other theories have been advanced. St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated on October 12;

England, 600-699, 7th Century Folder, Adian of Lindisfarne, Synod of Whitby

England, 601-644, Paulinus of York, Gregorian Mission, to Northumbria with Ethelburga to marry Edwin
England, 601, Gregorian mission ; England, 600-644, Paulinus of York; (died 10 October 644) was a Roman missionary and the first Bishop of York.[b] A member of the Gregorian mission sent in 601 by Pope Gregory I to Christianize the Anglo-Saxons from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism, Paulinus arrived in England by 604 with the second missionary group. Little is known of Paulinus's activities in the following two decades. some years spent in Kent, perhaps in 625, Paulinus was consecrated a bishop0. He accompanied Æthelburg of Kent, sister of King Eadbald of Kent, on her journey to Northumbria to marry King Edwin of Northumbria, and eventually succeeded in converting Edwin to Christianity. Paulinus also converted many of Edwin's subjects and built some churches. One of the women Paulinus baptised was a future saint, Hilda of Whitby. Following Edwin's death in 633, Paulinus and Æthelburg fled Northumbria, leaving behind a member of Paulinus's clergy, James the Deacon. Paulinus returned to Kent, where he became Bishop of Rochester. He received a pallium from the pope, symbolizing his appointment as Archbishop of York, but too late to be effective. After his death in 644, Paulinus was canonized as a saint and is now venerated in the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Anglican Churches. England, 600-671, James the Deacon; St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated on October 12;

England, 601-671, James the Deacon, Gregorian Mission, assisted Paulinus, hateful year 633, P left with E, G chants
England, 601, Gregorian mission ; Gregorian mission[1] or Augustinian mission[2] was a Christian mission sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 596 to convert Britain's Anglo-Saxons.[3] The mission was headed by Augustine of Canterbury. By the time of the death of the last missionary in 653, the mission had established Christianity in southern Britain. Along with the Irish and Frankish missions it converted other parts of Britain as well and influenced the Hiberno-Scottish missions to Continental Europe. the time the Roman Empire recalled its legions from the province of Britannia in 410, parts of the island had already been settled by pagan Germanic tribes who, later in the century, appear to have taken control of Kent and other coastal regions no longer defended by the Roman Empire. In the late 6th century Pope Gregory sent a group of missionaries to Kent to convert Æthelberht, King of Kent, whose wife, Bertha of Kent, was a Frankish princess and practising Christian. Augustine had been the prior of Gregory's own monastery in Rome and Gregory prepared the way for the mission by soliciting aid from the Frankish rulers along Augustine's route. In 597, the forty missionaries arrived in Kent and were permitted by Æthelberht to preach freely in his capital of Canterbury. the missionaries wrote to Gregory telling him of their success, and of the conversions taking place. The exact date of Æthelberht's conversion is unknown but it occurred before 601. A second group of monks and clergy was dispatched in 601 bearing books and other items for the new foundation. Gregory intended Augustine to be the metropolitan archbishop of the southern part of the British Isles, and gave him power over the clergy of the native Britons, but in a series of meetings with Augustine the long-established Celtic bishops refused to acknowledge his authority. Æthelberht's death in 616, a number of other bishoprics had been established. However, after that date, a pagan backlash set in and the see, or bishopric, of London was abandoned. Æthelberht's daughter, Æthelburg, married Edwin, the king of the Northumbrians, and by 627 Paulinus, the bishop who accompanied her north, had converted Edwin and a number of other Northumbrians. When Edwin died, in about 633, his widow and Paulinus were forced to flee back to Kent. Although the missionaries could not remain in all of the places they had evangelised, by the time the last of them died in 653, they had established Christianity in Kent and the surrounding countryside and contributed a Roman tradition to the practice of Christianity in Britain. England, 600-644, Paulinus of York; England, 600-671, James the Deacon; St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18 James lived in the seventh century, and assisted Saint Paulinus of York (October 10) in evangelizing the north of England. the death of Saint Edwin (October 12) in 633, the northern kingdom experienced many trials, including military defeats, famine, and plague. The year 633-634 was so fraught with misfortune that it became known as “The Hateful Year.” Saint Paulinus accompanied Saint Ethelburga (April 5) back to her native Kent after the death of her husband King Edwin, leaving Saint James behind to care for the new converts in northern England. James has been described as “faithful and undismayed,” even though the secular power which supported the Church had been overthrown. Even so, he would not abandon the people in his care, nor would he cease his missionary labors. faithful servant of the Lord established himself near the village of Catterick in Yorkshire, teaching, comforting, and encouraging his flock. Even in such difficult times, Saint James was able to win many converts to Christ. He had a talent for music, and was skilled in the Roman chants composed by Saint Gregory Dialogus (March 12) which were being used in Kent. James taught these chants to the Christians of the north. When peace returned and the churches reopened, their services were beautified with the chants which Saint James had given them. do not know exactly when Saint James died, but it is believed that he survived for at least thirty years after “The Hateful Year,” and participated in the Synod of Whitby in 664. James does not appear to have been ordained to the holy priesthood, but through his tireless labors he built up the Church in the north. Saint Bede (May 27) calls him “a man of great energy and repute in Christ’s Church” (History of the English Church and People, Book II, chapter 16).

England, 601, Gregorian Mission, pope gregory sent Augustine to convert the Anglo-Saxons
England, 601, Gregorian mission ; Gregorian mission[1] or Augustinian mission[2] was a Christian mission sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 596 to convert Britain's Anglo-Saxons.[3] The mission was headed by Augustine of Canterbury. By the time of the death of the last missionary in 653, the mission had established Christianity in southern Britain. Along with the Irish and Frankish missions it converted other parts of Britain as well and influenced the Hiberno-Scottish missions to Continental Europe. the time the Roman Empire recalled its legions from the province of Britannia in 410, parts of the island had already been settled by pagan Germanic tribes who, later in the century, appear to have taken control of Kent and other coastal regions no longer defended by the Roman Empire. In the late 6th century Pope Gregory sent a group of missionaries to Kent to convert Æthelberht, King of Kent, whose wife, Bertha of Kent, was a Frankish princess and practising Christian. Augustine had been the prior of Gregory's own monastery in Rome and Gregory prepared the way for the mission by soliciting aid from the Frankish rulers along Augustine's route. In 597, the forty missionaries arrived in Kent and were permitted by Æthelberht to preach freely in his capital of Canterbury. the missionaries wrote to Gregory telling him of their success, and of the conversions taking place. The exact date of Æthelberht's conversion is unknown but it occurred before 601. A second group of monks and clergy was dispatched in 601 bearing books and other items for the new foundation. Gregory intended Augustine to be the metropolitan archbishop of the southern part of the British Isles, and gave him power over the clergy of the native Britons, but in a series of meetings with Augustine the long-established Celtic bishops refused to acknowledge his authority. Æthelberht's death in 616, a number of other bishoprics had been established. However, after that date, a pagan backlash set in and the see, or bishopric, of London was abandoned. Æthelberht's daughter, Æthelburg, married Edwin, the king of the Northumbrians, and by 627 Paulinus, the bishop who accompanied her north, had converted Edwin and a number of other Northumbrians. When Edwin died, in about 633, his widow and Paulinus were forced to flee back to Kent. Although the missionaries could not remain in all of the places they had evangelised, by the time the last of them died in 653, they had established Christianity in Kent and the surrounding countryside and contributed a Roman tradition to the practice of Christianity in Britain. England, 600-644, Paulinus of York; England, 600-671, James the Deacon; St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18

England, 604-616, Sabert of the East Saxons, English King, first ES Christian king
England, King of the English, 604-616, King Sabert of the East Saxons; æberht, Saberht or Sæbert[1] (d. c. 616) was an Anglo-Saxon King of Essex (r. c. 604 – c. 616), in succession of his father King Sledd. He is known as the first East Saxon king to have been converted to Christianity. principal source for his reign is the early 8th-century Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum by Bede (d. 735), who claims to have derived his information about the missionary work of Mellitus among the East Saxons from Abbot Albinus of Canterbury through the London priest Nothhelm, later Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 739).[2] Other sources include the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, an East Saxon genealogy possibly of the late 9th century (British Library Add MS 23211), and a handful of genealogies and regnal lists written down by Anglo-Norman historians. St Eanswythe the Abbess of Folkestone, Commemorated on August 31;

England, 610-651, Aidan of Lindisfarne, Saint, Irish Monk, restored christiantiy in northumbria
Scotland, 610-651, Saint, Irish Monk, Aidan of Lindisfarne, England; AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); Gospel first came to the northern English in 627, When King Edwin of Northumbria was converted by a mission from Canterbury led by Bishop Paulinus, who established his see at York. Edwin's death in battle in 632 was followed by a severe pagan reaction. A year later, Edwin's exiled nephew Oswald gained the kingdom, and proceeded at once to restore the Christian mission. of St. Aidan at LinsifarneDuring his exile, Oswald had lived at Columba's monastery of Iona (see 9 June), where he had been converted and baptized. Hence he sent to Iona, rather than to Canterbury, for missionaries. The first monk to preach was a man named Corman, who had no success, and returned to Iona to complain that the Northumbrians were a savage and unteachable race. A young monk named Aidan responded, "Perhaps you were too harsh with them, and they might have responded better to a gentler approach." At this, Aidan found himself appointed to lead a second expedition to Northumbria. He centered his work, not at York, but in imitation of his home monastery, on Lindisfarne, an island off the northeast coast of England, now often called Holy Isle. With his fellow monks and the English youths whom he trained, Aidan restored Christianity in Northumbria, King Oswald often serving as his interpreter, and extended the mission through the midlands as far south as London. Lindisfarne Ruins of the medieval monastery at Lindisfarne [photo by author] Aidan died at the royal town of Bamburgh, 31 August, 651. The historian Bede said of him: "He neither sought nor loved anything of this world, but delighted in distributing immediately to the poor whatever was given him by kings or rich men of the world. He traversed both town and country on foot, never on horseback, unless compelled by some urgent necessity. Wherever on his way he saw any, either rich or poor, he invited them, if pagans, to embrace the mystery of the faith; or if they were believers, he sought to strengthen them in their faith and stir them up by words and actions to alms and good works." by James Kiefer

England, 616-640, Eadbald of Kent, Anglo Saxons (English), E King, Christian setback, pagan then convert late
England, 616-640, King of the English, Eadbald of Kent ; (Old English: Eadbald) was King of Kent from 616 until his death in 640. He was the son of King Æthelberht and his wife Bertha, a daughter of the Merovingian king Charibert.[1] Æthelberht made Kent the dominant force in England during his reign and became the first Anglo-Saxon king to convert to Christianity from Anglo-Saxon paganism. accession was a significant setback for the growth of the church, since he retained his people's paganism and did not convert to Christianity for at least a year, and perhaps for as much as eight years. He was ultimately converted by either Laurentius or Justus, and separated from his first wife, who had been his stepmother, at the insistence of the church. Eadbald's second wife was Emma, who may have been a Frankish princess. She bore him two sons, Eormenred and Eorcenberht, and a daughter, Eanswith. influence was less than his father's, but Kent was powerful enough to be omitted from the list of kingdoms dominated by Edwin of Northumbria. Edwin's marriage to Eadbald's sister, Æthelburg, established a good relationship between Kent and Northumbria which appears to have continued into Oswald's reign. When Æthelburg fled to Kent on Edwin's death in about 633, she sent her children to Francia for safety, fearing the intrigues of both Eadbald and Oswald. Kentish royal line made several strong diplomatic marriages over the succeeding years, including the marriage of Eanflæd, Eadbald's niece, to Oswiu, and of Eorcenberht to Seaxburh, daughter of King Anna of East Anglia. died in 640 and was buried in the Church of St Mary, which he had built in the precincts of the monastery of St Peter and St Paul in Canterbury (a church later incorporated within the Norman edifice of St Augustine's).[1] At that time, his relics were translated for reburial in the south transept ca. A.D. 1087.[2] was succeeded by Eorcenberht. Eormenred may have been his oldest son, but if he reigned at all it was only as a junior king. Kingdom of Kent, 455-871 ; St Eanswythe the Abbess of Folkestone, Commemorated on August 31; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated on October 12; St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8;

England, 616-633, Edwin of Northumbria , King of the Angles (English)(Bernecia, Deira), christian in 627
King of the English, 616-633, Edwin of Northumbria (Bernecia); (Old English: Ēadwine; c. 586 – 12 October 632/633), also known as Eadwine or Æduinus, was the King of Deira and Bernicia – which later became known as Northumbria – from about 616 until his death. He converted to Christianity and was baptised in 627; after he fell at the Battle of Hatfield Chase, he was venerated as a saint. was the son of Ælle, the first known king of Deira, and seems to have had at least two siblings. His sister Acha was married to Æthelfrith, king of neighbouring Bernicia. An otherwise unknown sibling fathered Hereric, who in turn fathered Abbess Hilda of Whitby and Hereswith, wife to Æthelric, the brother of king Anna of East Anglia.[1] AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); St Aidan the Bishop of Lindesfarne, Commemorated on August 31 ; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated on October 12; St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18; HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8;

England, 620-647, Ethelburga, Kent, E Queen, wife of Edwin, marriage triggered christianity, not E of Barking 645
England, 620-647, English Queen, Ethelburg of Kent ; Æthelburh of Kent (born 601,[1] sometimes spelled Æthelburg, Ethelburga, Æthelburga; Old English: Æþelburh, Æðelburh, Æðilburh, also known as Tate or Tata),[2][3] was an early Anglo-Saxon queen consort of Northumbria, the second wife of King Edwin. As she was a Christian from Kent, their marriage triggered the initial phase of the conversion of the pagan north of England to Christianity. Kingdom of Kent, 455-871 ; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated on October 12; St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18; HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8;

England, 624-632, Eorpwald of East Anglia, English King, baptised 627, killed, saint and martyr
England, King of the English, 624-632, Eorpwald of East Anglia; also Erpenwald or Earpwald, (reigned from c. 624, assassinated c. 627 or 632), succeeded his father Rædwald as ruler of the independent Kingdom of the East Angles. Eorpwald was a member of the East Anglian dynasty known as the Wuffingas, named after the semi-historical king Wuffa. is known of Eorpwald's life or of his short reign, as little documentary evidence about the East Anglian kingdom has survived. The primary source for Eorpwald is the Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written by Bede in the 8th century. Soon after becoming king, Eorpwald received Christian teaching and was baptised in 627 or 632. Soon after his conversion he was killed by Ricberht, a pagan noble, who may have succeeded him and ruled for three years. The motive for Eorpwald's assassination was probably political as well as religious. He was the first early English king to suffer death as a consequence of his Christian faith and was subsequently venerated by the Church as a saint and martyr. 1939, a magnificent ship-burial was discovered under a large mound at Sutton Hoo, in Suffolk. Although Rædwald is usually considered to have been buried with the ship (or commemorated by it), another possibility is Eorpwald. Alternatively, he might also have had his own ship-burial nearby. St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8;

England, 625-655, Penda, , Pagan, Mercian supremacy, defeated Edwin 633 & Oswald 642, d by Oswiu, O's b
Severn Valley, Mercia; Saint Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5; Penda, King of Mercia, 626-655; (died 15 November 655)[1] was a 7th-century King of Mercia, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in what is today the Midlands. pagan at a time when Christianity was taking hold in many of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Penda took over the Severn Valley in 628 following the Battle of Cirencester before participating in the defeat of the powerful Northumbrian king Edwin at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in 633.[2] years later, he defeated and killed Edwin's eventual successor, Oswald, at the Battle of Maserfield; from this point he was probably the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon rulers of the time, laying the foundations for the Mercian Supremacy over the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. He repeatedly defeated the East Angles and drove Cenwalh the king of Wessex into exile for three years. He continued to wage war against the Bernicians of Northumbria. Thirteen years after Maserfield, he suffered a crushing defeat by Oswald's successor and brother Oswiu, and was killed at the Battle of the Winwaed in the course of a final campaign against the Bernicians. Kingdom of Mercia, 527-918;

England, 625-634, Caedwalla, Cwynedd, K North Wales & Britain, defeated and killed Edwin, killed by Oswald
Wales, Kingdom of Gwynedd, 450-1216; Wales, 625-634, King Caedwalla of Cwynedd (North Wales), 625-634, AKA Cadwallon ap Cadfan; ap Cadfan (died 634[1]) was the King of Gwynedd from around 625 until his death in battle. The son and successor of Cadfan ap Iago, he is best remembered as the King of the Britons who invaded and conquered the Kingdom of Northumbria, defeating and killing its king, Edwin, prior to his own death in battle against Oswald of Bernicia. His conquest of Northumbria, which he held for a year or two after Edwin died, making him one of the last recorded culturally traditional Celtic Britons to hold substantial territory in eastern Britain until the rise of the Welsh House of Tudor.[2] He was thereafter remembered as a national hero by the Britons and as a tyrant by the Anglo-Saxons of Northumbria. Saint Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5;

England, 629-634, Sigeberht of East Anglia, Christian education before kingship, Alliances w C kings, left to monasticism
Sigeberht of East Anglia, 629-634 ; of East Anglia (also known as Saint Sigebert), (Old English: Sigebryht) was a saint and a king of East Anglia, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. He was the first English king to receive a Christian baptism and education before his succession and the first to abdicate in order to enter the monastic life. The principal source for Sigeberht is Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which was completed in the 730s. was probably either a younger son of Rædwald of East Anglia, or his step-son from Rædwald's marriage to a pagan princess from the kingdom of Essex. Nothing is known of his life before he was exiled to Gaul, which was possibly done in order to ensure that Rædwald's own descendants ruled the kingdom. After his step-brother Eorpwald's assassination in about 627, Sigeberht returned to East Anglia and (perhaps in the aftermath of a military campaign) became king, ruling jointly with Ecgric, who may have been either a son of Rædwald's, or his nephew. Sigeberht's reign the cause of Christianity in East Anglia was advanced greatly, even though his co-ruler Ecgric probably remained a pagan. Alliances were strengthened between the Christian kingdoms of Kent, Northumbria and East Anglia, with Sigeberht playing an important part in the establishment of the Christian faith in his kingdom: Saint Felix arrived in East Anglia to assist him in establishing his episcopal see at Dommoc, he started a school for teaching Latin and he granted the Irish monk Saint Fursey a monastery site at Cnobheresburg (possibly Burgh Castle). He eventually abdicated his power to Ecgric and retired to his monastery at Beodricesworth. At an unknown date, East Anglia was attacked by a Mercian army led by its king, Penda. Ecgric and the East Anglians appealed to Sigeberht to lead them in battle, but he refused and had to be dragged from his monastery to the battlefield. He refused to bear arms during the battle, during which both kings were slain and the East Anglian army was destroyed. Rendlesham; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG);

England, 630-640, St Eanswythe & Folkstone Abby, Eadbald d, paganism return, Laurence, Gaul, Peter, f conversion, relics
England, 630-640, St Eanswythe and her Folkstone Abby ; St Eanswy, the the Abbess of Folkestone, Commemorated August 31 ; Eanswythe was born around 614, the only daughter of King Eadbald of Kent and his wife Emma, who was a Frankish princess. At the time of Eanswythe’s birth, her father was probably a pagan, while her mother was almost certainly a Christian. Therefore, it is highly likely that Eanswythe was baptized and raised as a Christian. she was two years old, her paternal grandfather King Ethelbert of Kent (February 25) died. Saint Ethelbert had been baptized at Saint Martin’s church in Canterbury by Saint Augustine of Canterbury (May 28). It was Saint Augustine who came to England in 597 with several monks in order to re-establish Christianity, which had almost been wiped out by the pagan Anglo-Saxons. These monks carried out their missionary work under the protection of King Ethelbert. ’s father King Eadbald offered no opposition to Christianity while his father was alive. When Saint Ethelbert died, however, Eadbald’s attitude changed. Not only did he embrace idolatry, he also married his father’s second wife (Bede, ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE Book 2, ch. 1). While this practice was prohibited by Church law, it was quite common among the pagan royalty. this time, King Sabert of the East Saxons (and a convert to Christianity) passed away. His three sons were pagans, and so idolatry returned to that territory as well. Laurence of Canterbury (February 3), Saint Mellitus of London (April 24), and Saint Justus of Rochester (November 10) held a council to determine what they should do. They decided that they should not waste their time among the pagans, and to go where people would be more receptive to their preaching. Appalled by the King’s behavior and by the rise of paganism, Saints Mellitus and Justus went to Gaul. night before he was to leave Canterbury, Saint Laurence decided to sleep in the church of Saints Peter and Paul. Saint Peter appeared to him and rebuked him for even thinking of leaving his flock. He also beat Saint Laurence, who remained with his flock and even converted King Eadbald. king ended his unlawful marriage and was baptized. Within a year, Saint Justus returned to Rochester. The people of London, who lived in the realm of the East Saxons, refused to accept Saint Mellitus back to his See. Following the death of Saint Laurence in 619, Saint Mellitus succeeded him as Archbishop of Canterbury. her childhood, Saint Eanswythe showed little interest in worldly pursuits, for she desired to dedicate her virginity to God and to serve Him as a nun. Her father, on the other hand, wanted her to marry. Saint Eanswythe told him that she would not have any earthly suitor whose love for her might also be mixed with dislike. There was a high rate of mortality for children in those days, so she knew it was likely that at least some of hers would also die. All of these sorrows awaited her if she obeyed her father. The young princess told her father that she had chosen an immortal Bridegroom Who would give her unceasing love and joy, and to Whom she had dedicated herself. She went on to say that she had chosen the good portion (Luke 10:42), and she asked her father to build her a cell where she might pray. king ultimately gave in to his daughter, and built her a monastery in Folkestone in Kent. While the monastery was under construction, a pagan prince came to Kent seeking to marry Eanswythe. King Eadbald, whose sister Saint Ethelburga (April 5) married the pagan King Edwin (October 12) two or three years before, recalled that this wedding resulted in Edwin’s conversion. Perhaps he hoped that something similar would happen if Eanswythe married the Northumbrian prince. Eanswythe, however, insisted that she would not exchange heavenly blessings for the things of this world, nor would she accept the fleeting joys of this life in place of eternal bliss. the year 630, the building of the monastery was completed. This was the first women’s monastery to be founded in England. Saint Eanswythe lived there with her companions in the monastic life, and they may have been guided by some of the Roman monks who had come to England with Saint Augustine in 597. Eanswythe was not made abbess at this time, for she was only sixteen years old. We do not know of any other abbess before Saint Eanswythe, but a few experienced nuns may have been sent from Europe to teach the others the monastic way of life. A temporary Superior could have been appointed until the nuns were able to elect their own abbess. are many stories of Saint Eanswythe’s miracles before and after her death. Among other things, she gave sight to a blind man, and cast out a demon from one who had been possessed. know few details about the rest of Saint Eanswythe’s life. Following the monastic Rule, she prayed to God day and night. When she was not in church, she spent her waking hours reading spiritual books and in manual labor. This may have consisted of copying and binding manuscripts. The nuns probably wove cloth for their clothing, and also for church vestments. They cared for the sick and aged nuns of their own community, as well as for the poor and infirm from outside. Then there was the daily routine of cooking and cleaning. to Tradition, Saint Eanswythe fell asleep in the Lord on the last day of August 640 when she was only in her mid-twenties. Her father King Eadbald also died in the same year. monastery at Folkestone did not last very long after the saint’s death. Some say it was destroyed by the sea, while others say it was sacked by the Danes in 867. Saint Eanswythe’s holy relics were moved to the nearby church of Saints Peter and Paul, which was farther away from the sea. In 927 King Athelstan granted the land where the monastery had stood to the monks of Christchurch, Canterbury. time passed, the sea continued to encroach on the land. In 1138 a new monastery and church, dedicated to Saint Mary and Saint Eanswythe, were built farther inland. The relics of Saint Eanswythe were transferred once again, this time from the church of Saints Peter and Paul to the new priory church. During the Middle Ages, this second transfer of her relics was celebrated on September 12, which is the present Feast Day of the church of Saint Mary and Saint Eanswythe. November 15, 1535 the priory was seized by the officers of the King, who plundered the church of its valuables. The shrine of Saint Eanswythe was destroyed, but her relics had been hidden to protect them. June 17, 1885 workmen in the church discovered a niche in the walls which had been plastered up. Removing the plaster, they found a reliquary made of lead, about fourteen inches long, nine inches wide, and eight inches high. Judging by the ornamentation on the reliquary, it dated from the twelfth century. A number of bones were found inside, which experts said were those of a young woman. Today the niche is lined with alabaster, and is covered by a brass door and a grille. first, the holy relics were brought out for veneration every year on the parish Feast Day. This practice ended when several parishioners accused the Vicar of “worshiping” the relics. Although Saint Eanswythe’s relics are no longer offered for public veneration, candles and flowers are sometimes placed before the brass door where they are immured. Orthodox iconographer has presented the parish of Saint Mary and Saint Eanswythe with an icon of the saint.

England, 630-648, Saint Felix of Burgundy and Dunwich, he converted Sigeberht, churches, abbys, schools, Cambirdge
England, 630-648, Saint Felix of Burgundy and Dunwich; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; Felix, the Apostle of East Anglia, was born in the Burgundy region of Gaul (now France). It was he who converted King Sigebert (September 27), King of East Anglia, while he was in exile in Gaul. He was forced to flee there, in order to save himself from the intrigues of his kinsmen. Saint Sigebert (or Sigerberht, which means 'bright victory') was summoned home to claim his ancestral crown, he invited his Spiritual Father, Saint Felix, to leave Gaul to assist him in converting his idolatrous subjects to Christianity. Saint Felix was consecrated as a bishop in 631 by Archbishop Honorius of Canterbury (September 30), who sent him to preach in East Anglia. new Bishop was quite successful in his ministry. After seventeen years.he had converted almost the entire region. He established churches, monasteries, and a school for boys with the help of King Siegbert, and Saint Felix provided him with teachers from Canterbury. Because of this, some regard him as the founder of the university of Cambridge. Saint Felix also established schools at Felixstoe and at Flixton, or Felixton. after two years, King Sigebert abdicated in favor of his cousin Egric, and entered the monastery at Cnobersburgh, now Burgh Castle in Suffolk, the monastery he had founded for Saint Fursey, or Fursa (January 16), who had lived there for about ten years. In 642, after Saint Sigebert was killed in battle against King Penda of Mercia, Saint Fursey made a pilgrimage to Rome.Then he travelled to Gaul, where he established a monastery at Lagny-sur-Marne, near Paris, around the year 644. Felix reposed in 648 and was buried at Dunwich, but his relics were transferred to Ramsey Abbey in Huntingdonshire in 971. Saint Felix has given his name to Felixstowe in Suffolk, and to Felixkirk in Yorkshire. He is mentioned by Saint Bede (History of the English Church and People, Book 3, chapters 18 and 20). was once a large city, with fifty-two religious establishments, but was gradually swallowed up by the sea. The remains of the steeples may still be seen, underwater, about five miles from shore.

England, 632-636, Ecgric of East Anglia, King of the English, Sigeberht's b, joint rule, pagan, S retired 634, k by Penda
England, King of the English, 632-636, Ecgric of East Anglia; (killed c.636) was a king of East Anglia, the independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom that today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. He was a member of the ruling Wuffingas dynasty, but his relationship with other known members of the dynasty is not known with any certainty. Anna of East Anglia may have been his brother, or his cousin. It has also been suggested that he was identical with Æthelric, who married the Northumbrian princess Hereswith and was the father of Ealdwulf of East Anglia. The primary source for the little that is known about Ecgric's life is Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, written by the English Benedictine monk Bede in around 731 AD. the years that followed the reign of Rædwald and the murder of Rædwald's son and successor Eorpwald in around 627, East Anglia lost its dominance over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Three years after Eorpwald's murder at the hands of a pagan, kinsman Sigeberht returned from exile and they ruled East Anglia jointly, with Ecgric perhaps ruling the northern part of the kingdom. Sigeberht succeeded in re-establishing Christianity throughout East Anglia, but Ecgric may have remained a pagan, as Bede praises only Sigeberht for his accomplishments, and his lack of praise for his co-ruler is significant. Ecgric ruled alone after Sigeberht retired to his monastery at Beodricesworth in around 634: it has also been suggested that he was a sub-king who only became king after Sigeberht's abdication. Both Ecgric and Sigeberht were killed in battle in around 636, at an unknown location, when the East Anglians were forced to defend themselves from a Mercian military assault led by their king, Penda. Ecgric, whose grave may have been the ship burial under Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo, was succeeded by Anna. St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8;

England, 633-642, Oswald, Northumbria, E King, York, Diera, Bernicia, d Brit Cadwallon, promoted Christianity, k by Penda
King of the English, 633-642, Oswald of Northumbria; (c 604 - 5 August 641/642[1]) was King of Northumbria from 634 until his death, and is venerated as a saint,[2] of whom there was a particular cult in the Middle Ages.[3] was the son of Æthelfrith of Bernicia and came to rule after spending a period in exile. After defeating the British ruler Cadwallon ap Cadfan, Oswald brought the two Northumbrian kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira once again under a single ruler, and promoted the spread of Christianity in Northumbria. He was given a strongly positive assessment by the historian Bede, writing a little less than a century after Oswald's death, who regarded Oswald as a saintly king; it is also Bede who is the main source for present-day historical knowledge of Oswald. After eight years of rule, in which he was the most powerful ruler in Britain, Oswald was killed in the Battle of Maserfield. AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); St Aidan the Bishop of Lindesfarne, Commemorated on August 31 ; St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18; HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8;

England, 636-654, Anna of East Anglia, he, E King, after P d Ecgric, strong Christian family, converted C of Wessex, k by Penda
England, King of the English, 636-654, Queen Anna of East Anglia; (or Onna; killed 653 or 654) was king of East Anglia from the early 640s until his death. was a member of the Wuffingas family, the ruling dynasty of the East Angles, and one of the three sons of Eni who ruled the kingdom of East Anglia, succeeding some time after Ecgric was killed in battle by Penda of Mercia. Anna was praised by Bede for his devotion to Christianity and was renowned for the saintliness of his family: his son Jurmin and all his daughters – Seaxburh, Æthelthryth, Æthelburh and possibly a fourth, Wihtburh – were canonised. is known of Anna's life or his reign, as few records have survived from this period. In 631 he may have been at Exning, close to the Devil's Dyke. In 645 Cenwalh of Wessex was driven from his kingdom by Penda and, due to Anna's influence, he was converted to Christianity while living as an exile at the East Anglian court. Upon his return from exile, Cenwalh re-established Christianity in his own kingdom and the people of Wessex then remained firmly Christian. 651 the land around Ely was absorbed into East Anglia, following the marriage of Anna's daughter Æthelthryth. Anna richly endowed the coastal monastery at Cnobheresburg. In 651, in the aftermath of an attack by Penda on Cnobheresburg, Anna was forced to flee into exile, perhaps to the western kingdom of the Magonsæte. He returned to East Anglia in about 653, but soon afterwards the kingdom was attacked again by Penda and at the Battle of Bulcamp the East Anglian army, led by Anna, was defeated by the Mercians, and both Anna and his son Jurmin were killed. Anna was succeeded by his brother, Æthelhere. Botolph's monastery at Iken may have been built in commemoration of the king. After Anna's reign, East Anglia seems to have been eclipsed by its more powerful neighbour, Mercia. St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8;

England, 642-670, Oswiu, Northumbria, E King, after Oswald, k Pends 655, over Mercia, Celtic C, Abbys, S of Whitby 664
King of the English, 642-670, Oswiu of Northumbria ; also known as Oswy or Oswig (c. 612 - 15 February 670), was King of Bernicia from 642 and of Northumbria from 654 until his death. He is notable for his role at the Synod of Whitby in 664, which ultimately brought the church in Northumbria into conformity with the wider Catholic Church. of the sons of Æthelfrith of Bernicia, Oswiu became king following the death of his brother Oswald in 642. Unlike Oswald, Oswiu struggled to exert authority over Deira, the other constituent kingdom of medieval Northumbria, for much of his reign. and his brothers were raised in exile in the Irish kingdom of Dal Riata in present-day Scotland after their father's death at the hands of Edwin of Deira, only returning after Edwin's death in 633. rose to the kingship when his brother Oswald was killed in battle against Penda of Mercia. The early part of his reign was defined by struggles to assert control over Deira and his contentious relationship with Penda, his overlord.[1] 655, Oswiu's forces killed Penda in a decisive victory at the Battle of the Winwaed, establishing Oswiu as one of the most powerful rulers in Britain. He secured control of Deira, with his son Alhfrith serving as a sub-king,[2] and for three years, Oswiu's power extended over Mercia, earning him recognition as bretwalda over much of Great Britain.[3] was a devoted Christian, promoting the faith among his subjects and establishing a number of monasteries, including Gilling Abbey and Whitby Abbey.[4] He was raised in the Celtic Christian tradition of much of the Irish world, rather than the Roman tradition practiced by the southern Anglo-Saxon kingdoms as well as some members of the Deiran nobility, including Oswiu's queen Eanflæd. 664, Oswiu presided over the Synod of Whitby, where clerics debated over the two traditions, and helped resolve tension between the parties by decreeing that Northumbria would follow the Roman style.[5] Oswiu died in 670 and was succeeded by his son, Ecgfrith.[6] His feast is 15 February in the East and in the West.[7] St Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5; CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18; HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672); St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ;

England, 645-688, Ethelberga of Barking, E Saint, miracles, time of death vision and appearances, not Edwin's w 620
English Saint, 645-688, Ethelberga of Barking; Venerable Ethelburga, Commemorated on October 11; Ethelburga (Aethelburh) was born into the royal family of East Anglia in the seventh century. She was the sister of Saint Erconwald (May 13), who founded the monastery of Barking (Berecingum) in Essex. Saint Ethelburga became the first abbess of this monastery. Bede (May 27) says (History of the English Church and People, Book IV, Chapters. 6-9) that she was worthy of her holy brother in every way. She led a virtuous life and guided those who were under her. It is said that many miracles took place at the monastery during her time. before Saint Ethelburga’s death, a nun called Tortgith had a vision in which she saw a body wrapped in a shroud, and shining with a bright light. She watched as the body was drawn up to Heaven on cords which seemed brighter than gold. Sister Tortgith had no doubt that this vision signified the imminent death of one of the nuns. Not many days later, Saint Ethelburga fell asleep in the Lord. later, when the nun Tortgith was dying, Saint Ethelburga appeared to her and told her that the hour of her passing was at hand. Saint Ethelburga should not be confused with another saint of the same name (April 5), who was married to the holy martyred King Edwin of Northumbria (October 12). St James the Deacon, Commemorated on October 18;

England, 653-954, Kingdom of Northumbria (North Anglia) north of the Humber Estuary
Kingdom of Northumbria, north of the Humber Estuary from the River Tees to the River Tweed; an early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdom in what is now Northern England and south-east Scotland. name derives from the Old English Norþan-hymbre meaning "the people or province north of the Humber",[2] as opposed to the people south of the Humber Estuary. started to consolidate into one kingdom in the early seventh century, when the two earlier core territories of Deira and Bernicia entered into a dynastic union. At its height, the kingdom extended from the Humber, Peak District and the River Mersey on the south to the Firth of Forth (now in Scotland) on the north. Northumbria ceased to be an independent kingdom in the mid-tenth century when Deira was conquered by the Danes and formed into the Kingdom of York. The rump Earldom of Bamburgh maintained control of Bernicia for a period of time, however, the area north of the Tweed was eventually absorbed into the medieval Kingdom of Scotland while the portion south of the Tweed was absorbed into the Kingdom of England and formed into the county of Northumberland and County Palatine of Durham. St Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5 ; AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); St Adian, the bishop of Lindisfarne, Commemorated August 31; REMIGIUS OF RHEIMS, BISHOP, APOSTLE OF THE FRANKS (1 OCTOBER 530); St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury; WILLIBRORD OF UTRECHT, ARCHBISHOP AND MISSIONARY (NOV 7, 739) ; EDMUND OF EAST ANGLIA, KING AND MARTYR (20 NOV 870); AELRED OF RIEVAULX, ABBOT (12 JANUARY 1167); CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672) ; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, 654-687, Cuthbert, of Britain, Melrose Abby, Wonderworker, uncorrupt relics, help from angels, bishop
England, 654-687, Saint, Cuthbert; Melrose Abbey; CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; Cuthbert, the wonderworker of Britain, was born in Northumbria around 634. Very little information has come down to us about Cuthbert’s early life, but there is a remarkable story of him when he was eight. a child, Cuthbert enjoyed games and playing with other children. He could beat anyone his own age, and even some who were older, at running, jumping, wrestling, and other exercises. One day he and some other boys were amusing themselves by standing on their heads with their feet up in the air. A little boy who was about three years old chided Cuthbert for his inappropriate behavior. “Be sensible,” he said, “and give up these foolish pranks.” and the others ignored him, but the boy began to weep so piteously that it was impossible to quiet him. When they asked him what the matter was, he shouted, “O holy bishop and priest Cuthbert, these unseemly stunts in order to show off your athletic ability do not become you or the dignity of your office.” Cuthbert immediately stopped what he was doing and attempted to comfort the boy. the way home, he pondered the meaning of those strange words. From that time forward, Cuthbert became more thoughtful and serious.This incident reveals Saint Cuthbert as God’s chosen vessel (2 Tim. 2:20-21), just like Samuel, David, Jeremiah, John the Baptist, and others who, from an early age, were destined to serve the Lord. another occasion, he was suffering from an injured knee. It was quite swollen and the muscles were so contracted that he limped and could scarcely place his foot on the ground. One day a handsome stranger of noble bearing, dressed in white, rode up on horseback to the place where Cuthbert was sitting in the sun beside the house. The stranger asked courteously if the boy would receive him as a guest. Cuthbert said that if only he were not hampered by his injuries, he would not be slow to offer hospitality to his guest. man got down from his horse and examined Cuthbert’s knee, advising him to cook up some wheat flour with milk, and to spread the warm paste on his sore knee. After the stranger had gone, it occurred to him that the man was really an angel who had been sent by God. A few days later, he was completely well. From that time forward, as Saint Cuthbert revealed in later years to a few trusted friends, he always received help from angels whenever he prayed to God in desperate situations. his prose Life of Saint Cuthbert, Saint Bede of Jarrow (May 27) reminds skeptics that it is not unknown for an angel to appear on horseback, citing 2 Maccabees 11:6-10 and 4 Maccabees 4:10. the saint was still young, he would tend his master’s sheep in the Lammermuir hills south of Edinburgh near the River Leader. One night while he was praying, he had a vision of angels taking the soul of Saint Aidan (August 31) to heaven in a fiery sphere. Cuthbert awakened the other shepherds and told them what he had seen. He said that this must have been the soul of a holy bishop or some other great person. A few days later they learned that Bishop Aidan of Lindisfarne had reposed at the very hour that Cuthbert had seen his vision. an adult, Saint Cuthbert decided to give up his life in the world and advanced to better things. He entered the monastery at Melrose in the valley of the Tweed, where he was received by the abbot Saint Boisil (February 23). Saint Cuthbert was accepted into the community and devoted himself to serving God. His fasting and vigils were so extraordinary that the other monks marveled at him. He often spent entire nights in prayer, and would not eat anything for days at a time. can describe his angelic life, his purity or his virtue? Much of this is known only to God, for Saint Cuthbert labored in secret in order to avoid the praise of men. few years later, Saint Eata (October 26) chose some monks of Melrose to live at the new monastery at Ripon. Among them was Saint Cuthbert. Both Eata and Cuthbert were expelled from Ripon and sent back to Melrose in 661 because they (and some other monks) refused to follow the Roman calculation for the date of Pascha. The Celtic Church, which followed a different, older reckoning, resisted Roman practices for a long time. However, in 664 the Synod of Whitby determined that the Roman customs were superior to those of the Celtic Church, and should be adopted by all. Saint Bede discusses this question in his HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND PEOPLE (Book III, 25). Cuthbert was chosen to be abbot of Melrose after the death of Saint Boisil, guiding the brethren by his words and by his example. He made journeys throughout the surrounding area to encourage Christians and to preach the Gospel to those who had never heard it. Sometimes he would be away from the monastery for a month at a time, teaching and preaching. He also worked many miracles, healing the sick and freeing those who were possessed by demons. 664, Cuthbert went with Saint Eata to Lindisfarne, and extended his territory to include the inhabitants of Northumberland and Durham. Soon Saint Eata appointed Cuthbert as prior of Lindisfarne (Holy Island). At that time both monasteries were under the jurisdiction of Saint Eata. While at Lindisfarne, Saint Cuthbert continued his habit of visiting the common people in order to inspire them to seek the Kingdom of Heaven. some of the monks prefered their negligent way of life to the monastic rule, Saint Cuthbert gradually brought them around to a better state of mind. At first he had to endure many arguments and insults, but eventually he brought them to obedience through his patience and gentle admonition. He had a great thirst for righteousness, and so he did not hesitate to correct those who did wrong. However, his gentleness made him quick to forgive those who repented. When people confessed to him, he often wept in sympathy with their weakness. He also showed them how to make up for their sins by doing their penances himself. Cuthbert was a true father to his monks, but his soul longed for complete solitude, so he went to live on a small island (Saint Cuthbert’s Isle), a short distance from Lindisfarne. After gaining victory over the demons through prayer and fasting, the saint decided to move even farther away from his fellow men. In 676, he retired to Inner Farne, an even more remote location. Saint Cuthbert built a small cell which could not be seen from the mainland. A few yards away, he built a guest house for visitors from Lindisfarne. Here he remained for nearly nine years. synod at Twyford, with the holy Archbishop Theodore (September 19) presiding, elected Cuthbert Bishop of Hexham in 684. Letters and messengers were sent to inform him of the synod’s decision, but he refused to leave his solitude. King Ecgfrith and Bishop Trumwine (February 10) went to him in person, entreating him in Christ’s name to accept. At last, Saint Cuthbert came forth and went with them to the synod. With great reluctance, he submitted to the will of the synod and accepted the office of bishop. Almost immediately, he exchanged Sees with Saint Eata, and became Bishop of Lindisfarne while Saint Eata went to Hexham. Cuthbert remained as humble as he had been before his consecration, avoiding finery and dressing in simple clothing. He fulfilled his office with dignity and graciousness, while continuing to live as a monk. His virtue and holiness of life only served to enhance the authority of his position. life as Bishop of Lindisfarne was quite similar to what it had been when he was prior of that monastery. He devoted himself to his flock, preaching and visiting people throughout his diocese, casting out demons, and healing all manner of diseases. He served as a bishop for only two years, however. Saint Cuthbert was invited to Carlisle to ordain seven deacons to the holy priesthood. The holy priest Hereberht was living in solitude on an island in that vicinity. Hearing that his spiritual friend Cuthbert was staying at Carlisle, he went to see him in order to discuss spiritual matters with him. Saint Cuthbert told him that he should ask him whatever he needed to ask, for they would not see one another in this life again. When he heard that Saint Cuthbert would die soon, Hereberht fell at his feet and wept. By God’s dispensation, the two men would die on the very same day. he was only in his early fifties, Saint Cuthbert felt the time of his death was approaching. He laid aside his archpastoral duties, retiring to the solitude of Inner Farne shortly after the Feast of the Lord’s Nativity in 686 to prepare himself. He was able to receive visitors from Lindisfarne at first, but gradually he weakened and was unable to walk down to the landing stage to greet them. last illness came upon him on February 27, 687. The pious priest Herefrith (later the abbot of Lindisfarne) came to visit him that morning. When he was ready to go back, he asked Saint Cuthbert for his blessing to return. The saint replied, “Do as you intend. Get into your boat and return safely home.” Cuthbert also gave Father Herefrith instructions for his burial. He asked to be laid to rest east of the cross that he himself had set up. He told him where to find a stone coffin hidden under the turf. “Put my body in it,” he said, “and wrap it in the cloth you will find there.” The cloth was a gift from Abbess Verca, but Saint Cuthbert thought it was too fine for him to wear. Out of affection for her, he kept it to be used as his winding sheet. Herefrith wanted to send some of the brethren to look after the dying bishop, but Saint Cuthbert would not permit this. “Go now, and come back at the proper time.” Herefrith asked when that time might be, Saint Cuthbert replied, “When God wishes. He will show you.” returned to Lindisfarne and told the brethren to pray for the ailing Cuthbert. Storms prevented the brethren from returning to Inner Farne for five days. When they did land there, they found the saint sitting on the beach by the guest house. He told them he had come out so that when they arrived to take care of him they would not have to go to his cell to find him. He had been sitting there for five days and nights, eating nothing but onions. He also revealed that during those five days he had been more severely assailed by demons than ever before. time, Saint Cuthbert consented to have some of the brethren attend him. One of these was his personal servant, the priest Bede. He asked particularly for the monk Walhstod to remain with him to help Bede take care of him. Father Herefrith returned to Lindisfarne and informed the brethren of Cuthbert’s wish to be buried on his island. and the others, however, wanted to bury him in their church with proper honor. Therefore, Herefrith went back to Cuthbert and asked for permission to do this. Saint Cuthbert said that he wanted to be buried there at the site of his spiritual struggles, and he pointed out that the peace of the brethren would be disturbed by the number of pilgrims who would come to Lindisfarne to venerate his tomb. insisted that they would gladly endure the inconvenience out of love for Cuthbert. Finally, the bishop agreed to be buried in the church on Lindisfarne so the monks would always have him with them, and they would also be able to decide which outsiders would be allowed to visit his tomb. Cuthbert grew weaker and weaker, so the monks carried him back into his cell. No one had ever been inside, so they paused at the door and asked that at least one of them be permitted to see to his needs. Cuthbert asked for Wahlstod to come in with him. Now Wahlstod had suffered from dysentery for a long time. Even though he was sick, he agreed to care for Cuthbert. As soon as he touched the holy bishop, his illness left him. Although he was sick and dying, Saint Cuthbert healed his servant Wahlstod. Remarkably, the holy man’s spiritual power was not impaired by his bodily weakness. About three o’clock in the afternoon Wahlstod came out and announced that the bishop wanted them to come inside. Herefrith asked Cuthbert if he had any final instructions for the monks. He spoke of peace and harmony, warning them to be on guard against those who fostered pride and discord. Although he encouraged them to welcome visitors and offer them hospitality, he also admonished them to have no dealings with heretics or with those who lived evil lives. He told them to learn the teachings of the Fathers and put them into practice, and to adhere to the monastic rule which he had taught them. passing the evening in prayer, Saint Cuthbert sat up and received Holy Communion from Father Herefrith. He surrendered his holy soul to God on March 20, 687at the time appointed for the night office years later, Saint Cuthbert’s tomb was opened and his relics were found to be incorrupt. In the ninth century, the relics were moved to Norham, then back to Lindisfarne. Because of the threat of Viking raids, Saint Cuthbert’s body was moved from place to place for seven years so that it would not be destroyed by the invaders. Cuthbert’s relics were moved to Chester-le-Street in 995. They were moved again because of another Viking invasion, and then brought to Durham for safekeeping. Around 1020 the relics of Saints Bede (May 27), Aidan (August 31), Boisil (February 23), Aebbe (August 25), Eadberht (May 6), Aethilwald (February 12), and other saints associated with Saint Cuthbert were also brought to Durham. tomb was opened again on August 24, 1104, and the incorrupt and fragrant relics were placed in the newly-completed cathedral. Relics of the other saints mentioned above were placed in various places around the church. The head of Saint Oswald of Northumbria (August 5), however, was left in Saint Cuthbert’s coffin. 1537 three commissioners of King Henry VIII came to plunder the tomb and desecrate the relics. Saint Cuthbert’s body was still incorrupt, and was later reburied. The tomb was opened again in 1827. A pile of bones was found in the outer casket, probably the relics of the various saints which had been collected seven centuries before, then replaced after the Protestant commissioners had completed their work. the inner casket was a skeleton wrapped in a linen shroud and five robes. In the vestments a gold and garnet cross was found, probably Saint Cuthbert’s pectoral cross. Also found were an ivory comb, a portable wood and silver altar, a stole (epitrachilion), pieces of a carved wooden coffin, and other items. These may be seen today in the Dean and Chapter library of Durham Cathedral. The tomb was opened again in 1899, and a scientific examination determined that the bones were those of a man in his fifties, Cuthbert’s age when he died. Saint Cuthbert’s relics (and the head of Saint Oswald) lie beneath a simple stone slab on the site of the original medieval shrine in the Chapel of the Nine Altars, and Saint Bede’s relics rest at the other end of the cathedral. The relics and the treasures in the Library make Durham an appropriate place for pilgrims to visit.

England, 663-664, Synod of Whitby, went with Rome, at Hilda's double monastery
Synod of Whitby 663-664; CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672) ; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20;

England, 665-666, Great Plague of London
England, 665-666, Great Plague of London; St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated on September 19; THEODORE OF TARSUS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (19 SEP 690);

England, 668-690, Theodore of Tarsus, 8th Archbishop of Canterbury, first E council, condemned monotheists, incorrupt r
England, 668-690, Saint Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury; St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated on September 19; Theodore was the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury (668-690), and one of England’s great saints. He was a Greek from Tarsus, the home of Saint Paul. He was a highly-educated monk living in Rome who was quickly advanced through all the clerical ranks and consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury at the age of sixty-five. Saint Adrian (January 9), an African who was the abbot of a monastery near Naples, was sent to assist Saint Theodore. Theodore arrived in Kent in 669, when he was almost seventy. In spite of his age, he was quite energetic, traveling throughout England founding churches and consecrating bishops to fill those Sees which were left vacant by an outbreak of plague. He also created new Sees and established a school in Canterbury where Greek was taught. Northumbria, Saint Theodore settled a dispute involving episcopal succession. Saint Wilfrid (October 12) had been elected Bishop of Lindisfarne (the See was later transferred to York), and he traveled to Gaul to be consecrated by a Roman bishop, because he would not accept consecration from a Celtic bishop. In the meantime, Saint Chad, or Ceadda (March 2), had been elected and uncanonically consecrated because Wilfrid remained in Gaul for three years. Although Saint Theodore deposed Saint Chad, he recognized his worthiness to be a bishop. He regularized the consecration, then sent Saint Chad to be Bishop of Mercia. Saint Wilfred was restored to his See. Theodore summoned a council of the entire English Church at Hertford in 672. Not only was this the first church council in England, it was the first assembly of any kind attended by representatives from all over the country. In 679 he convened another synod at Hatfield to maintain the purity of Orthodox doctrine and to condemn the heresy of Monothelitism. Theodore fell asleep in the Lord in 690, and his body remained incorrupt for a long time. Under his leadership, the English Church became united in a way that the various tribal kingdoms did not. The diocesean structures which he established continue to serve as the basis for church administration in England. He was respected for his administrative skills, and also for his moral and canonical decisions. THEODORE OF TARSUS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (19 SEP 690);

England, 668-690, Theodore of Tarsus, after plague, traveled throughout england, Hertford Council, incorrupt relics
Kent, England, 668-690, Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury; Theodore was the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury (668-690), and one of England’s great saints. was a Greek from Tarsus, the home of Saint Paul. was a highly-educated monk living in Rome who was quickly advanced through all the clerical ranks and consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury at the age of sixty-five. Saint Adrian (January 9), an African who was the abbot of a monastery near Naples, was sent to assist Saint Theodore. Theodore arrived in Kent in 669, when he was almost seventy. In spite of his age, he was quite energetic, traveling throughout England founding churches and consecrating bishops to fill those Sees which were left vacant by an outbreak of plague. He also created new Sees and established a school in Canterbury where Greek was taught. Northumbria, Saint Theodore settled a dispute involving episcopal succession. Saint Wilfrid (October 12) had been elected Bishop of Lindisfarne (the See was later transferred to York), and he traveled to Gaul to be consecrated by a Roman bishop, because he would not accept consecration from a Celtic bishop. In the meantime, Saint Chad, or Ceadda (March 2), had been elected and uncanonically consecrated because Wilfrid remained in Gaul for three years. Although Saint Theodore deposed Saint Chad, he recognized his worthiness to be a bishop. He regularized the consecration, then sent Saint Chad to be Bishop of Mercia. Saint Wilfred was restored to his See. Theodore summoned a council of the entire English Church at Hertford in 672. Not only was this the first church council in England, it was the first assembly of any kind attended by representatives from all over the country. In 679 he convened another synod at Hatfield to maintain the purity of Orthodox doctrine and to condemn the heresy of Monothelitism. Theodore fell asleep in the Lord in 690, and his body remained incorrupt for a long time. Under his leadership, the English Church became united in a way that the various tribal kingdoms did not. The diocesean structures which he established continue to serve as the basis for church administration in England. He was respected for his administrative skills, and also for his moral and canonical decisions.

England, 668-710, Saint Adrian of Canterbury, North African, Naples Abbot, came w Theodore, Educator
England, 668-710, Educator, Saint Adrian of Canterbury; also spelled Hadrian (born before 637, died 710), was a North African scholar in Anglo-Saxon England and the abbot of Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's in Canterbury. was a noted teacher and commentator of the Bible.[1] Adrian was born between 630 and 637.[1] According to Bede, he was "by nation an African",[2] and thus a Berber[3][4] native of North Africa, and was abbot of a monastery near Naples, called Monasterium Niridanum (perhaps a mistake for Nisidanum, as being situated on the island of Nisida). England, 668-690, Saint Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury; St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated on September 19; THEODORE OF TARSUS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (19 SEP 690);

England, 670-685, Ecgfrith of Northumbria, E King, heighth of N power, killed by Picts at N
King of the English, 670-685, Ecgfrith of Northumbria; (c. 645 - 20 May 685) was the King of Deira from 664 until 670, and then King of Northumbria from 670 until his death in 685. He ruled over Northumbria when it was at the height of its power, but his reign ended with a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Nechtansmere in which he lost his life. CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); Venerable Ethelburga, Commemorated on October 11; HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672); St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ;

England, 672, Synod of Hertford, Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, first anglo-saxon council
England, 672, Synod of Hertford, Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury ; Council of Hertford, 672; Council of Hertford was the first general council of the Anglo-Saxon Church.[1] It was convened in Anglo-Saxon Herutford, most likely modern Hertford, in 672 by Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury.[2] The Venerable Bede is the historical source for this council, as he included its text in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People.[3] council was attended by a number of bishops from across Anglo-Saxon England. Bede also records royal attendance, as King Ecgfrith of Northumbria was present.[4] The Council of Hertford acted as a milestone in the organisation of the Anglo-Saxon Church, as the decrees passed by its delegates focused on issues of authority and structure within the church.[5] The council helped achieve unification in the English Church. St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated on September 19; THEODORE OF TARSUS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (19 SEP 690);

England, 673-735, Saint Bede, Historian
English Saint, 673-735, Bede ; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735) ; Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ; BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754);

England, 675-693, Earconwald, London bishop, converted E Saxon King, established abbys, sister Aethelburga, K Ine's law code
England, English Saint, 675-693, Earconwald, Bishop of London; or Erkenwald[a] (died 693) was Bishop of London between 675 and 693. was born at Lindsey in Lincolnshire,[1] and was supposedly of royal ancestry.[2] Earconwald gave up his share of family money[citation needed] to help establish two Benedictine abbeys, Chertsey Abbey in Surrey[3] in 666 for men, and Barking Abbey for women.[1][4] His sister, Æthelburg, was Abbess of Barking,[1][5] while he served as Abbot of Chertsey.[6] 675, Earconwald became the Bishop of London, after Wine.[7] He was the choice of Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury.[6] While bishop, he contributed to King Ine of Wessex's law code, and is mentioned specifically in the code as a contributor.[8] He is also reputed to have converted Sebba, King of the East Saxons to Christianity in 677.[citation needed] Current historical scholarship credits Earconwald with a large role in the evolution of Anglo-Saxon charters, and it is possible that he drafted the charter of Caedwalla to Farnham.[5] King Ine of Wessex named Earconwald as an advisor on his laws.[9] died in 693[7] and his remains were buried at Old St Paul's Cathedral. His grave was a popular place of pilgrimage in the Middle Ages, and was destroyed together with a number of other tombs in the cathedral during the Reformation.[10] feast day is 30 April, with translations being celebrated on 1 February and 13 May.[2] He is a patron saint of London.[11] Venerable Ethelburga, Commemorated on October 11;

England, 678-739, WILLIBRORD OF UTRECHT, from Northumbria, Missionary to pagans of Friesia (Netherlands+)
Scotland, 610-651, Saint, Irish Monk, Aidan of Lindisfarne, England; AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); WILLIBRORD OF UTRECHT, ARCHBISHOP AND MISSIONARY (NOV 7, 739); first Archbishop of Utrecht, is one of the missionaries sent out by the Anglo-Saxon Christians about a century after they had themselves been Christianized by missionaries in the south and east of England from Rome and the Continent, and in the north and west from the Celtic peoples of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Our information about Willibrord comes to us from the Venerable Bede (History of the English Church and People, v. 10-11) and from a biography by his younger kinsman Alcuin (see 20 May), Minister of Education under the Emperor Charlemagne. was born in Northumbria in England about 658, and studied in France and Ireland. In 690 he set out with 12 companions to preach to the pagans of Frisia (a region roughly coextensive with the province of Friesland in the Netherlands, including some adjacent territories and the Frisian islands in the North Sea). His work was interrupted several times by wars, and he left for a while to preach to the Danes instead. He died 7 November 739. Willibrord is a symbol of ties between the Christians of England and those of Holland. Today the historic See of Utrecht is in full communion with the Church of England. by James Kiefer

England, 679, Synod of Hatfield, Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, condemned monotheism
England, 679, Synod of Hatfield, Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury; St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated on September 19; Theodore was the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury (668-690), and one of England’s great saints. He was a Greek from Tarsus, the home of Saint Paul. He was a highly-educated monk living in Rome who was quickly advanced through all the clerical ranks and consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury at the age of sixty-five. Saint Adrian (January 9), an African who was the abbot of a monastery near Naples, was sent to assist Saint Theodore. Theodore arrived in Kent in 669, when he was almost seventy. In spite of his age, he was quite energetic, traveling throughout England founding churches and consecrating bishops to fill those Sees which were left vacant by an outbreak of plague. He also created new Sees and established a school in Canterbury where Greek was taught. Northumbria, Saint Theodore settled a dispute involving episcopal succession. Saint Wilfrid (October 12) had been elected Bishop of Lindisfarne (the See was later transferred to York), and he traveled to Gaul to be consecrated by a Roman bishop, because he would not accept consecration from a Celtic bishop. In the meantime, Saint Chad, or Ceadda (March 2), had been elected and uncanonically consecrated because Wilfrid remained in Gaul for three years. Although Saint Theodore deposed Saint Chad, he recognized his worthiness to be a bishop. He regularized the consecration, then sent Saint Chad to be Bishop of Mercia. Saint Wilfred was restored to his See. Theodore summoned a council of the entire English Church at Hertford in 672. Not only was this the first church council in England, it was the first assembly of any kind attended by representatives from all over the country. In 679 he convened another synod at Hatfield to maintain the purity of Orthodox doctrine and to condemn the heresy of Monothelitism. Theodore fell asleep in the Lord in 690, and his body remained incorrupt for a long time. Under his leadership, the English Church became united in a way that the various tribal kingdoms did not. The diocesean structures which he established continue to serve as the basis for church administration in England. He was respected for his administrative skills, and also for his moral and canonical decisions. THEODORE OF TARSUS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (19 SEP 690);

England, 685-705, Aldfrith, Northumbria, E King, recalled from Iona, succeded b Ecgfrith, who d in Picts v, restored kingdom
England, 685-705, King of the English, Aldfrith of Northumbria; (died 14 December 704 or 705) was king of Northumbria from 685 until his death. He is described by early writers such as Bede, Alcuin and Stephen of Ripon as a man of great learning. Some of his works and some letters written to him survive. His reign was relatively peaceful, marred only by disputes with Bishop Wilfrid, a major figure in the early Northumbrian church. was born on an uncertain date to Oswiu of Northumbria and an Irish princess named Fín. Oswiu later became King of Northumbria; he died in 670 and was succeeded by his son Ecgfrith. was educated for a career in the church and became a scholar. in 685, when Ecgfrith was killed at the battle of Nechtansmere, Aldfrith was recalled to Northumbria, reportedly from the Hebridean island of Iona, and became king. his early-8th-century account of Aldfrith's reign, Bede states that he "ably restored the shattered fortunes of the kingdom, though within smaller boundaries".[2] His reign saw the creation of works of Hiberno-Saxon art such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Codex Amiatinus, and is often seen as the start of Northumbria's golden age. WILLIBRORD OF UTRECHT, ARCHBISHOP AND MISSIONARY (NOV 7, 739); CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672); BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ; BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754);

England, 700-799, 8th Century Folder, Anglo Saxons, Viking Invasions

England, 701-754, Boniface, Sacred Oak at Geismar, from Cornwall, evangelized Netherlands, France, and West Germany
BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754); nicknamed Boniface ("good deeds"), was born around 680 near Crediton in Devonshire, England. he was five, he listened to some monks who were staying at his father's house. They had returned from a mission to the pagans on the continent, and Boniface was so impressed by them that he resolved to follow their example. Although his father had intended him for a secular career, he gave way to his son's entreaties and sent him at the age of seven to a monastery school. eventually became director of the school at Nursling, in Winchester, where he wrote the first Latin grammar in England, and gave lectures that were widely copied and circulated. illumination showing Bonface baptizing, and his martyrdom thirty, he was ordained and set out to preach in Friesland (overlaps with modern Holland), whence he was soon expelled because of war between its heathen king and Charles Martel of France. after a brief withdrawal, went into Hesse and Bavaria, having secured the support of the Pope and of Charles Martel for his work there. Hesse, in the presence of a large crowd of pagans, he cut down the Sacred Oak of Geismar, a tree of immense age and girth, sacred to the god Thor. It is said that after only a few blows of his axe, the tree tottered and crashed to the ground, breaking into four pieces and revealing itself to be rotted away within. was the beginning of a highly successful missionary effort, and the planting of a vigorous Christian church in Germany, where Boniface was eventually consecrated bishop. He asked the Christian Saxons of England to support his work among their kinsmen on the continent, and they responded with money, books, supplies, and above all, with a steady supply of monks to assist him in teaching and preaching. felling the oak, from an old German book of Saints did not confine his attentions to Germany. He worked to establish cooperation between the Pope and others in Italy on the one hand and Charles and his successors in France on the other. He persuaded Carloman and Pepin, the sons of Charles, to call synods for the reform of the church in their territories, where under previous rulers bishoprics had often been sold to the highest bidder. never forgot his initial failure in Friesland, and in old age resigned his bishopric and returned to work there. Many Frisians had been converted earlier by Willibrord (another Saxon missionary from England--see 7 Nov), but had lapsed after his death. Boniface preached among them with considerable success. On June 5, the eve of Pentecost, 754, he was preparing a group of Frisians for confirmation when they were attacked and killed by heathen warriors. historian Christopher Dawson estimates that he has had a greater influence on the history of Europe than any other Englishman. Sacred Oak of Thor at Geismar;

England, 709-716, King of the English, Ceolred of Mercia
England, King of the English, 709-716, Ceolred of Mercia ; WILLIBRORD OF UTRECHT, ARCHBISHOP AND MISSIONARY (NOV 7, 739); BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ; BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754);

England, 716-757, King of the English, Aethelbald of Mercia
England, King of the English, 716-757, Aethelbald of Mercia; BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ; BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754);

England, 755-804, Alcuin, Scholar and Theologian for Charlemagne
England, 755-804, Alcuin, Scholar and Theologian for Charlemagne; York; WILLIBRORD OF UTRECHT, ARCHBISHOP AND MISSIONARY (NOV 7, 739); ALCUIN, DEACON, SCHOLAR, AND ABBOT OF TOURS (20 MAY 804); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ;

England, 757-796, King of the English, Offa of Mercia
England, King of the English, 757-796, Offa of Mercia; ALCUIN, DEACON, SCHOLAR, AND ABBOT OF TOURS (20 MAY 804);

England, 800-899, 9th Century Folder, Viking Invasions, Alfred the Great, Battle of Edington

England, 855-870, King of the English, Edmund of East Anglia (Edmund the Martyr)
England, King of the English, 855-870, Edmund of East Anglia (Edmund the Martyr) ; EDMUND OF EAST ANGLIA, KING AND MARTYR (20 NOV 870);

England, 869-899, Alfred the Great, Alfred's victory in 878
Wessex, 869-899, Alfred the Great King Alfred's Victory, 878; Great Heathen Army (Old English: mycel hæþen here; Danish: Store Hedenske Hær), also known as the Viking Great Army,[1] was a coalition of Scandinavian warriors, mainly Danes, who invaded England in 865 AD. Since the late 8th century, the Vikings[a] had been engaging in raids on centres of wealth such as monasteries. The Great Heathen Army was much larger and aimed to occupy and conquer the four kingdoms of East Anglia, Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex. The name Great Heathen Army is derived from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 865. Legend has it that the force was led by three of the five sons of Ragnar Lodbrok, including Halfdan Ragnarsson, Ivar the Boneless and Ubba.[b] The campaign of invasion and conquest against the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms lasted 14 years. Surviving sources give no firm indication of its numbers, but it was amongst the largest forces of its kind. The invaders initially landed in East Anglia, where the king provided them with horses for their campaign in return for peace. They spent the winter of 865–66 at Thetford, before marching north to capture York in November 866. York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and revived as the Anglo-Saxon trading port of Eoforwic. During 867, the army marched deep into Mercia and wintered in Nottingham. The Mercians agreed to terms with the Viking army, which moved back to York for the winter of 868–69. In 869, the Great Army returned to East Anglia, conquering it and killing its king. The army moved to winter quarters in Thetford. In 871, the Vikings moved on to Wessex, where Alfred the Great paid them to leave. The army then marched to London to overwinter in 871–72. The following campaigning season the army first moved to York, where it gathered reinforcements. This force campaigned in northeastern Mercia, after which it spent the winter at Torksey, on the Trent close to the Humber.[1] The following campaigning season it seems to have subdued much of Mercia. Burgred, the king of Mercia, fled overseas and Coelwulf, described in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as "a foolish king's thegn" was imposed in his place. The army spent the following winter at Repton on the middle Trent, after which the army seems to have divided. One group seems to have returned to Northumbria, where they settled in the area, while another group seems to have turned to invade Wessex.[5] By this time, only the kingdom of Wessex had not been conquered. In May of 878 Alfred the Great defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington, and a treaty was agreed whereby the Vikings were able to remain in control of much of northern and eastern England. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle does not mention the reason for this invasion, perhaps because Viking raids were fairly common during that period of time. The Tale of Ragnar's Sons,[6] on the other hand, mentions that the invasion of England by the Great Heathen Army was aimed at avenging the death of Ragnar Lodbrok, a legendary Viking ruler of Sweden and Denmark.[c] In the Viking saga, Ragnar is said to have conducted a raid on Northumbria during the reign of King Ælla. The Vikings were defeated and Ragnar was captured by the Northumbrians. Ælla then had Ragnar executed by throwing him into a pit of venomous snakes. When the sons of Ragnar received news of their father's death, they decided to avenge him.[7][8] Contents Background[edit] Viking[d] raids began in England in the late 8th century, primarily on monasteries.[10] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for AD 787[e] reports the first confrontation with the Vikings[a] in England.[11][12] AD 787 – This year king Bertric took to wife Eadburga, king Offa's daughter; and in his days first came three ships of Northmen, out of Hæretha-land [Denmark]. And then the reeve rode to the place, and would have driven them to the king's town, because he knew not who they were: and they there slew him. These were the first ships of Danishmen which sought the land of the English nation. This incident is regarded, by some, as the first raid on England.[13] Æthelweard's version of the Chronicle, known as the Chronicon Æthelweardi, has a slightly different version of events, saying that the reeve, a certain Beaduheard, had spoken to the visitors in an "authoritative tone" and this is why they killed him.[13] The designation of these "Hæretha-landers" as Danes is somewhat problematic. Sara María Pons-Sanz states, in "Analysis of the Scandinavian Loanwords in the Aldredian Glosses to the Lindisfarne Gospels", that they were either men from Harthæsysæl (Hardsyssel) in Jutland, so actually Danes, or from Hörthaland in Norway, so that in the last case the word "Danish" refers to all Scandinavian people.[14] The first monastery to be raided was in 793 at Lindisfarne, off the northeast coast; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described the Vikings as "heathen men".[15] Monasteries and minster churches were popular targets as they were wealthy and had valuable, portable objects.[16] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 840 says that Æthelwulf of Wessex was defeated at Carhampton, Somerset, after 35 Viking ships had landed in the area.[17] The Annals of St. Bertin also reported the incident, stating: The Northmen launched a major attack; in three days, the Northmen emerged the winners – plundering, looting, slaughtering, and controlling the land.[f] Despite this, Æthelwulf had some success against the Vikings. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has repeated references during his reign of victories won by ealdormen with the men of their shires.[19] However, the raiding of England continued on and off until the 860s, when instead of raiding, the Vikings changed their tactics and sent a great army to invade England. This army was described by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as a "Great Heathen Army" (OE: mycel hæþen here or mycel heathen here).[20][21][22][23] The size of the army[edit] A reconstruction of a Viking from Repton in Mercia. This model is now in Derby Museum.[g] Historians provide varying estimates for the size of the Great Heathen Army.[24] According to the 'minimalist' scholars, such as Pete Sawyer, the army may have been smaller than traditionally thought.[25][26] Sawyer notes that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 865 referred to the Viking force as a Heathen Army, or in Old English "hæþen here".[25][22] The law code of King Ine of Wessex, issued in about 694, provides a definition of here (pronounced /ˈheːre/) as "an invading army or raiding party containing more than thirty five men", thus differentiating between the term for the invading Viking army and the Anglo-Saxon army that was referred to as the fyrd.[25][27] The scribes who wrote the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle used the term here to describe the Viking forces. The historian Richard Abels suggested that this was to differentiate between the Viking war bands and those of military forces organised by the state or the crown. However, by the late 10th and early 11th century, here was used more generally as the term for army, whether it was Viking or not.[24] Sawyer produced a table of Viking ship numbers, as documented in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and assumes that each Viking ship could carry no more than 32 men[h] leading to his conclusion that the army would have consisted of no more than 1,000 men.[25] Other scholars give higher estimates. For example, Laurent Mazet-Harhoff observes that many thousands of men were involved in the invasions of the Seine area. However, Mazet-Harhoff does say that the military bases that would accommodate these large armies have yet to be rediscovered.[29][30] Guy Halsall reported that, in the 1990s, several historians suggested that the Great Heathen Army would have numbered in the low thousands; however, Halsall advises that there "clearly is still much room for debate".[26] The army probably developed from the campaigns in France. In Francia, there was a conflict between the Emperor and his sons, and one of the sons had welcomed the support from a Viking fleet.[31] By the time that the war had ended, the Vikings had discovered that monasteries and towns situated on navigable rivers were vulnerable to attack. In 845, a raid on Paris was prevented by the large payment of silver to the Vikings. The opportunity for rich pickings drew other Vikings to the area, and by the end of the decade all the main rivers of West Francia were being patrolled by Viking fleets.[31] In 862, the West Frankish king responded to the Vikings, fortifying his towns and defending his rivers, thus making it difficult for the Vikings to raid inland. The lower reaches of the rivers and the coastal regions were left largely undefended. Religious communities in these areas, however, chose to move inland away from the reaches of the Viking fleets. With the changes in Francia making raiding more difficult, the Vikings turned their attention to England.[31] Invasion of England[edit] The Viking leaders would often join together for mutual benefit and then dissolve once profit had been achieved.[24] Several of the Viking leaders who had been active in Francia and Frisia joined forces to conquer the four kingdoms constituting Anglo-Saxon England. The composite force probably contained elements from Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Ireland as well as those who had been fighting on the continent. The Anglo-Saxon historian Æthelweard was very specific in his chronicle and said that "the fleets of the viking tyrant Ivar the Boneless landed in England from the north".[31][32] The Vikings had been defeated by the West Saxon King Æthelwulf in 851, so rather than land in Wessex they decided to go further north to East Anglia.[20][31][33] Legend has it that the united army was led by the three sons[b] of Ragnar Lodbrok: Halfdan Ragnarsson, Ivar the Boneless (Hingwar), and Ubba.[20][31][33] Norse sagas consider the invasion by the three brothers[c] as a response to the death of their father at the hands of Ælla of Northumbria in 865, but the historicity of this claim is uncertain.[34][8] Start of the invasion, 865[edit] Silver penny of Æthelred I, King of Wessex (865–871) In late 865, the Great Heathen Army encamped in the Isle of Thanet and was promised by the people of Kent danegeld in exchange for peace. Regardless, the Vikings did not abide by this agreement and proceeded to rampage across eastern Kent.[35][36] The Vikings used East Anglia as a starting point for an invasion. The East Anglians made peace with the invaders by providing them with horses.[37] The Vikings stayed in East Anglia for the winter before setting out for Northumbria towards the end of 866, establishing themselves at York. In 867, the Northumbrians paid danegeld and the Viking Army established a puppet leader in Northumbria before setting off for the Kingdom of Mercia, where in 867 they captured Nottingham. The king of Mercia requested help from the king of Wessex to help fight the Vikings. A combined army from Wessex and Mercia besieged the city of Nottingham with no clear result, so the Mercians settled on paying the Vikings off. The Vikings returned to Northumbria in autumn 868 and overwintered in York, staying there for most of 869. They returned to East Anglia and spent the winter of 869–70 at Thetford. While in Thetford, they were attacked by Edmund, king of East Anglia, with whom they had no peace agreement. The Viking army was victorious in these battles, and Edmund was captured, possibly tortured, and killed. He would later come to be known as Edmund the Martyr.[38] In 871, the Great Summer Army arrived from Scandinavia, led by Bagsecg.[39] The reinforced Viking army turned its attention to Wessex but the West Saxons, led by King Æthelred's brother Alfred, defeated them on 8 January 871 at the Battle of Ashdown, slaying Bagsecg in the process. Three months later, Æthelred died and was succeeded by Alfred (later known as Alfred the Great), who bought[i] the Vikings off to gain time. During 871–72, the Great Heathen Army wintered in London before returning to Northumbria. It seems that there had been a rebellion against the puppet ruler in Northumbria, so they returned to restore power. They then established their winter quarters for 872–73 at Torksey in the Kingdom of Lindsey (now part of Lincolnshire).[41] The Mercians again paid them off in return for peace,[i] and at the end of 873 the Vikings took up winter quarters at Repton in Derbyshire.[42] In 874, following their winter stay in Repton, the Great Heathen Army drove the Mercian king into exile and finally conquered Mercia; the exiled Mercian king was replaced by Ceolwulf. According to Alfred the Great's biographer Asser, the Vikings then split into two bands.[43][44] Halfdan led one band north to Northumbria, where he overwintered by the river Tyne (874–75). In 875 he ravaged further north to Scotland, where he fought the Picts and the Britons of Strathclyde.[45] Returning south of the border in 876, he shared out Northumbrian land amongst his men, who "ploughed the land and supported themselves"; this land was part of what became known as the Danelaw.[44] King Alfred's victory[edit] According to Asser, the second band was led by Guthrum, Oscetel, and Anwend. This group also left Repton in 874 and established a base at Cambridge for the winter of 874–75. In late 875 they moved onto Wareham, where they raided the surrounding area and occupied a fortified position. Asser reports that Alfred made a treaty with the Vikings to get them to leave Wessex.[43][46] The Vikings left Wareham, but it was not long before they were raiding other parts of Wessex, and initially they were successful. Alfred fought back, however, and eventually won victory over them at the Battle of Edington in 878. This was followed closely by what was described by Asser as the Treaty of Wedmore, where Guthrum agreed to be baptised and then for him and his army to leave Wessex.[47] Then some time after, the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum was agreed, that set out the boundaries between Alfred and Guthrum's territories as well as agreements on peaceful trade, and the weregild value of their people.[48] Aftermath[edit] A sword of a Viking buried at Repton in Mercia. This sword is now in Derby Museum. In late 878, Guthrum's band withdrew to Cirencester, in the kingdom of Mercia.[49] Then, probably in late 879, it moved to East Anglia,[50] where Guthrum, who was also known by his baptismal name of Aethelstan, reigned as king until his death in 890.[51] The part of the army that did not go with Guthrum mostly went on to more settled lives in Northumbria and York. Some may have settled in Mercia. Evidence for this is the presence of two Viking cemeteries in Derbyshire that are believed to be connected to the Great Army, at Repton and at Heath Wood.[5] In 878, a third Viking army gathered on Fulham by the Thames. It seems they were partly discouraged by the defeat of Guthrum but also Alfred's success against the Vikings coincided with a period of renewed weakness in Francia. The Frankish emperor, Charles the Bald, died in 877 and his son shortly after, precipitating a period of political instability of which the Vikings were quick to take advantage. The assembled Viking army on the Thames departed in 879 to begin new campaigns on the continent.[52][53] In 892, the army that had encamped on Fulham, now comprising 250 ships, had returned and re-established itself in Appledore, Kent.[54] Another army of 80 ships soon afterwards also encamped in Milton Regis, posing a threat to the West Saxons.[54] The army subsequently launched a series of attacks on Wessex. Due in part to the king's efforts to resist the invaders and defend Wessex, the Heathen army made less of an impact against the kingdom than hoped and saw little progress, eventually disbanding in 896.[55] Throughout the 880s, the Viking presence in his kingdom encouraged Alfred to protect Wessex. The king realised the importance of naval combat against the Vikings and saw to the creation of a navy; Alfred ordered the construction of specialised ships that were supposedly twice as long as Viking ships, some possessing 60 oars, others possessing even more.[36][56] Alfred also reorganised the army and set up a powerful system of fortified towns known as burhs. Alfred mainly used old Roman cities for his burhs, as he was able to rebuild and reinforce their existing fortifications.[57][58] Every freeman in the land could be called out to protect the realm in times of trouble but the speed of Viking hit-and-run raids had been too quick for the local militias to act; part of Alfred's reforms was to create a standing army that could react rapidly to attacks. The Anglo-Saxon rural population lived within a 24 km (15-mile) radius of each burh, so they were able to seek refuge when necessary.[59] To maintain the burhs, as well as the standing army, Alfred set up a system of taxation and conscription that is recorded in a document now known as the Burghal Hidage.[60] The burhs were connected with a network of military roads, known as herepaths, enabling Alfred's troops to move swiftly to engage the enemy. Some historians believe that each burh would have had a mounted force ready for action against the Vikings.[61] Based on figures from the Burghal Hidage, it is probable that a fifth of the adult male population of Wessex (27,000 men) would have been mobilised.[62] A common Viking tactic was to seize a centre, usually some sort of fortification, that they could reinforce and then use as a base to plunder the surrounding district. From 884 Alfred's reforms prevented them from doing this in Wessex.[62] By 896, the Viking army was all but defeated and no longer saw any reason to continue their attacks and dispersed to East Anglia and Northumbria. Those that were penniless found themselves ships and went south across the sea to the Seine.[36][55][63][64] This influx of new settlers helped consolidate the ever-growing establishment of Danelaw.[65] Anglo-Saxon England had been torn apart by the invading Great Heathen Army and the Vikings had control of northern and eastern England, while Alfred and his successors had defended their kingdom and remained in control of Wessex.[66] Archaeological sites[edit] The stone church of St Wystan at Repton was, in the 9th century, the site of an Anglo-Saxon monastery and church. Excavations at the site between 1974 and 1988 found a D-shaped earthwork on the river bank, incorporated into the church. Burials of Viking type were made at the east end of the church, and an existing building was cut down and converted into the chamber of a burial mound that revealed the disarticulated remains of at least 249 people, with their long bones pointing towards the centre of the burial. A large stone coffin was found in the middle of the mass grave; however, the remains of this individual did not survive. A study of the skeletal remains revealed that at least 80% of the individuals were male, and were between the ages of 15 and 45.[67] Further investigation of the male skeletal remains revealed that they were dissimilar to the local population of Repton, most likely of Scandinavian descent, and many showed signs of violent injury. In contrast, analysis of the female remains revealed that they were similar to the local population, suggesting an Anglo-Saxon lineage.[67] It is possible that the people in the grave may have suffered some sort of epidemic when the army overwintered in Repton during 873–74, leading to the mass burial.[44] A variety of Viking artifacts, such as a silver Thor's hammer, were also found among the bones.[67] Although initial radiocarbon dating suggested that the bodies had accumulated there over several centuries, in February 2018, a team out of the University of Bristol announced that the remains could indeed all be dated to the late 9th century, consistent with the time the army wintered in Derbyshire. They attributed the initial discrepancies to the high consumption of seafood by the Vikings. Because the carbon in the Earth's oceans is older than much of the carbon found by organisms on land, radiocarbon dating must be adjusted. This is called the marine reservoir effect.[68][69] The nearby Heath Wood barrow cemetery contains about sixty cremations (rather than burials). Finds of cremation sites in the British Isles are very rare, and this one probably was the war cemetery of the Great Heathen Army.[5] Great Heathen Army, Great Danish Army; ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899) ; GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, APOLOGIST and WRITER, 1936, Commemorated June 13 ;

England, 871-899, King of the English, Alphred the Great, King of Wessex, m tactics, biblical law code, education
England, King of the English, 871-899, Alphred the Great, King of Wessex ; the Great (848/49 – 26 October 899) was king of the West Saxons from 871 to c. 886 and king of the Anglo-Saxons from c. 886 to 899. He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf, who died when Alfred was young. Three of Alfred's brothers, Æthelbald, Æthelberht and Æthelred, reigned in turn before him. Under Alfred's rule, considerable administrative and military reforms were introduced, prompting lasting change in England.[2] After ascending the throne, Alfred spent several years fighting Viking invasions. He won a decisive victory in the Battle of Edington in 878 and made an agreement with the Vikings, creating what was known as the Danelaw in the North of England. Alfred also oversaw the conversion of Viking leader Guthrum to Christianity. He defended his kingdom against the Viking attempt at conquest, becoming the dominant ruler in England.[3] Details of his life are described in a work by 9th-century Welsh scholar and bishop Asser. Alfred had a reputation as a learned and merciful man of a gracious and level-headed nature who encouraged education, proposing that primary education be conducted in Old English rather than Latin and improving the legal system and military structure and his people's quality of life. He was given the epithet "the Great" in the 16th century. Contents Family[edit] Further information: House of Wessex family tree Alfred was a son of Æthelwulf, king of Wessex, and his wife Osburh.[4] According to his biographer, Asser, writing in 893, "In the year of our Lord's Incarnation 849 Alfred, King of the Anglo-Saxons", was born at the royal estate called Wantage, in the district known as Berkshire[a] (which is so called from Berroc Wood, where the box tree grows very abundantly)." This date has been accepted by the editors of Asser's biography, Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge,[5] and by other historians such as David Dumville and Richard Huscroft.[6] However, West Saxon genealogical lists state that Alfred was 23 when he became king in April 871, implying that he was born between April 847 and April 848.[7] This dating is adopted in the biography of Alfred by Alfred Smyth, who regards Asser's biography as fraudulent,[8] an allegation which is rejected by other historians.[9] Richard Abels in his biography discusses both sources but does not decide between them and dates Alfred's birth as 847/849, while Patrick Wormald in his Oxford Dictionary of National Biography article dates it 848/849.[b] Berkshire had been historically disputed between Wessex and Mercia, and as late as 844, a charter showed that it was part of Mercia, but Alfred's birth in the county is evidence that, by the late 840s, control had passed to Wessex.[11] He was the youngest of six children. His eldest brother, Æthelstan, was old enough to be appointed sub-king of Kent in 839, almost 10 years before Alfred was born. He died in the early 850s. Alfred's next three brothers were successively kings of Wessex. Æthelbald (858-860) and Æthelberht (860-865) were also much older than Alfred, but Æthelred (865-871) was only a year or two older. Alfred's only known sister, Æthelswith, married Burgred, king of the midland kingdom of Mercia in 853. Most historians think that Osburh was the mother of all Æthelwulf's children, but some suggest that the older ones were born to an unrecorded first wife. Osburh was descended from the rulers of the Isle of Wight. She was described by Alfred's biographer Asser as "a most religious woman, noble by temperament and noble by birth". She had died by 856 when Æthelwulf married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, king of West Francia.[12] In 868, Alfred married Ealhswith, daughter of the Mercian nobleman Æthelred Mucel, ealdorman of the Gaini, and his wife Eadburh, who was of royal Mercian descent.[13][c] Their children were Æthelflæd, who married Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians; Edward the Elder, Alfred's successor as king; Æthelgifu, abbess of Shaftesbury; Ælfthryth, who married Baldwin, count of Flanders; and Æthelweard.[15] Background[edit] Map of Britain in 886 Alfred's grandfather, Ecgberht, became king of Wessex in 802, and in the view of the historian Richard Abels, it must have seemed very unlikely to contemporaries that he would establish a lasting dynasty. For 200 years, three families had fought for the West Saxon throne, and no son had followed his father as king. No ancestor of Ecgberht had been a king of Wessex since Ceawlin in the late sixth century, but he was believed to be a paternal descendant of Cerdic, the founder of the West Saxon dynasty.[d] This made Ecgberht an ætheling – a prince eligible for the throne. But after Ecgberht's reign, descent from Cerdic was no longer sufficient to make a man an ætheling. When Ecgberht died in 839, he was succeeded by his son Æthelwulf; all subsequent West Saxon kings were descendants of Ecgberht and Æthelwulf, and were also sons of kings.[18] At the beginning of the ninth century, England was almost wholly under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. Mercia dominated southern England, but its supremacy came to an end in 825 when it was decisively defeated by Ecgberht at the Battle of Ellendun.[19] The two kingdoms became allies, which was important in the resistance to Viking attacks.[20] In 853, King Burgred of Mercia requested West Saxon help to suppress a Welsh rebellion, and Æthelwulf led a West Saxon contingent in a successful joint campaign. In the same year Burgred married Æthelwulf's daughter, Æthelswith.[21] In 825, Ecgberht sent Æthelwulf to invade the Mercian sub-kingdom of Kent, and its sub-king, Baldred, was driven out shortly afterwards. By 830, Essex, Surrey and Sussex had submitted to Ecgberht, and he had appointed Æthelwulf to rule the south-eastern territories as king of Kent.[22] The Vikings ravaged the Isle of Sheppey in 835, and the following year they defeated Ecgberht at Carhampton in Somerset,[23] but in 838 he was victorious over an alliance of Cornishmen and Vikings at the Battle of Hingston Down, reducing Cornwall to the status of a client kingdom.[24] When Æthelwulf succeeded, he appointed his eldest son Æthelstan as sub-king of Kent.[25] Ecgberht and Æthelwulf may not have intended a permanent union between Wessex and Kent because they both appointed sons as sub-kings and charters in Wessex were attested (witnessed) by West Saxon magnates, and Kentish charters were witnessed by the Kentish elite; both kings kept overall control and the sub-kings were not allowed to issue their own coinage.[26] Viking raids increased in the early 840s on both sides of the English Channel, and in 843 Æthelwulf was defeated at Carhampton.[25] In 850, Æthelstan defeated a Danish fleet off Sandwich in the first recorded naval battle in English history.[27] In 851 Æthelwulf and his second son, Æthelbald, defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Aclea and, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, "there made the greatest slaughter of a heathen raiding-army that we have heard tell of up to this present day, and there took the victory".[28] Æthelwulf died in 858 and was succeeded by his oldest surviving son, Æthelbald, as king of Wessex and by his next oldest son, Æthelberht, as king of Kent. Æthelbald only survived his father by two years and Æthelberht then for the first time united Wessex and Kent into a single kingdom.[29] Childhood[edit] Alfred's father Æthelwulf of Wessex in the early 14th-century Genealogical Roll of the Kings of England According to Asser, in his childhood Alfred won a beautifully decorated book of English poetry, offered as a prize by his mother to the first of her sons able to memorise it. He must have had it read to him because his mother died when he was about six and he did not learn to read until he was 12.[30] In 853, Alfred is reported by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to have been sent to Rome where he was confirmed by Pope Leo IV, who "anointed him as king".[31] Victorian writers later interpreted this as an anticipatory coronation in preparation for his eventual succession to the throne of Wessex. This is unlikely; his succession could not have been foreseen at the time because Alfred had three living elder brothers. A letter of Leo IV shows that Alfred was made a "consul" and a misinterpretation of this investiture, deliberate or accidental, could explain later confusion.[15] It may be based upon the fact that Alfred later accompanied his father on a pilgrimage to Rome where he spent some time at the court of Charles the Bald, king of the Franks, around 854–855.[32] On their return from Rome in 856, Æthelwulf was deposed by his son Æthelbald. With civil war looming, the magnates of the realm met in council to form a compromise. Æthelbald retained the western shires (i.e. historical Wessex), and Æthelwulf ruled in the east. After King Æthelwulf died in 858, Wessex was ruled by three of Alfred's brothers in succession: Æthelbald, Æthelberht and Æthelred.[33] The reigns of Alfred's brothers[edit] A map of the route taken by the Viking Great Heathen Army which arrived in England from Denmark, Norway, and southern Sweden in 865 Alfred is not mentioned during the short reigns of his older brothers Æthelbald and Æthelberht. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes the Great Heathen Army of Danes landing in East Anglia with the intent of conquering the four kingdoms which constituted Anglo-Saxon England in 865.[34] Alfred's public life began in 865 at age 16 with the accession of his third brother, 18-year-old Æthelred. During this period, Bishop Asser gave Alfred the unique title of secundarius, which may indicate a position similar to the Celtic tanist, a recognised successor closely associated with the reigning monarch. This arrangement may have been sanctioned by Alfred's father or by the Witan to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should Æthelred fall in battle. It was a well known tradition among other Germanic peoples - such as the Swedes and Franks to whom the Anglo-Saxons were closely related - to crown a successor as royal prince and military commander.[35] Viking invasion[edit] In 868, Alfred was recorded as fighting beside Æthelred in a failed attempt to keep the Great Heathen Army led by Ivar the Boneless out of the adjoining Kingdom of Mercia.[36] The Danes arrived in his homeland at the end of 870, and nine engagements were fought in the following year, with mixed results; the places and dates of two of these battles have not been recorded. A successful skirmish at the Battle of Englefield in Berkshire on 31 December 870 was followed by a severe defeat at the siege and the Battle of Reading by Ivar's brother Halfdan Ragnarsson on 5 January 871. Four days later, the Anglo-Saxons won a victory at the Battle of Ashdown on the Berkshire Downs, possibly near Compton or Aldworth.[35] The Saxons were defeated at the Battle of Basing on 22 January. They were defeated again on 22 March at the Battle of Merton (perhaps Marden in Wiltshire or Martin in Dorset).[35] Æthelred died shortly afterwards in April.[35] King at war[edit] Early struggles[edit] In April 871 King Æthelred died and Alfred acceded to the throne of Wessex and the burden of its defence, even though Æthelred left two under-age sons, Æthelhelm and Æthelwold. This was in accordance with the agreement that Æthelred and Alfred had made earlier that year in an assembly at an unidentified place called Swinbeorg. The brothers had agreed that whichever of them outlived the other would inherit the personal property that King Æthelwulf had left jointly to his sons in his will. The deceased's sons would receive only whatever property and riches their father had settled upon them and whatever additional lands their uncle had acquired. The unstated premise was that the surviving brother would be king. Given the Danish invasion and the youth of his nephews, Alfred's accession probably went uncontested.[37] While he was busy with the burial ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the Saxon army in his absence at an unnamed spot and then again in his presence at Wilton in May.[35] The defeat at Wilton smashed any remaining hope that Alfred could drive the invaders from his kingdom. Alfred was forced instead to make peace with them. Although the terms of the peace are not recorded, Bishop Asser wrote that the pagans agreed to vacate the realm and made good their promise.[38] The Viking army withdrew from Reading in the autumn of 871 to take up winter quarters in Mercian London. Although not mentioned by Asser or by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Alfred probably paid the Vikings cash to leave, much as the Mercians were to do in the following year.[38] Hoards dating to the Viking occupation of London in 871/872 have been excavated at Croydon, Gravesend and Waterloo Bridge. These finds hint at the cost involved in making peace with the Vikings. For the next five years, the Danes occupied other parts of England.[39] In 876, under their three leaders Guthrum, Oscetel and Anwend, the Danes slipped past the Saxon army and attacked and occupied Wareham in Dorset. Alfred blockaded them but was unable to take Wareham by assault. He negotiated a peace that involved an exchange of hostages and oaths, which the Danes swore on a "holy ring" associated with the worship of Thor. The Danes broke their word, and after killing all the hostages, slipped away under cover of night to Exeter in Devon.[40] Alfred blockaded the Viking ships in Devon, and with a relief fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes were forced to submit. The Danes withdrew to Mercia. In January 878, the Danes made a sudden attack on Chippenham, a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been staying over Christmas "and most of the people they killed, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way by wood and swamp, and after Easter he made a fort at Athelney in the marshes of Somerset, and from that fort kept fighting against the foe".[41] From his fort at Athelney, an island in the marshes near North Petherton, Alfred was able to mount a resistance campaign, rallying the local militias from Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire.[35] 878 was the nadir of the history of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. With all the other kingdoms having fallen to the Vikings, Wessex alone was resisting.[42] The cake legend[edit] A legend tells how when Alfred first fled to the Somerset Levels, he was given shelter by a peasant woman who, unaware of his identity, left him to watch some wheaten cakes she had left cooking on the fire.[42][43] Preoccupied with the problems of his kingdom, Alfred accidentally let the cakes burn and was roundly scolded by the woman upon her return. There is no contemporary evidence for the legend, but it is possible that there was an early oral tradition. The first known written account of the incident is from about 100 years after Alfred's death.[43] Counter-attack and victory[edit] King Alfred's Tower (1772) on the supposed site of Egbert's Stone, the mustering place before the Battle of Edington.[e] In the seventh week after Easter (4–10 May 878), around Whitsuntide, Alfred rode to Egbert's Stone east of Selwood where he was met by "all the people of Somerset and of Wiltshire and of that part of Hampshire which is on this side of the sea (that is, west of Southampton Water), and they rejoiced to see him".[41] Alfred's emergence from his marshland stronghold was part of a carefully planned offensive that entailed raising the fyrds of three shires. This meant not only that the king had retained the loyalty of ealdormen, royal reeves and king's thegns, who were charged with levying and leading these forces, but that they had maintained their positions of authority in these localities well enough to answer his summons to war. Alfred's actions also suggest a system of scouts and messengers.[45] Alfred won a decisive victory in the ensuing Battle of Edington which may have been fought near Westbury, Wiltshire. He then pursued the Danes to their stronghold at Chippenham and starved them into submission. One of the terms of the surrender was that Guthrum convert to Christianity. Three weeks later, the Danish king and 29 of his chief men were baptised at Alfred's court at Aller, near Athelney, with Alfred receiving Guthrum as his spiritual son.[35] According to Asser, The unbinding of the chrisom[f] on the eighth day took place at a royal estate called Wedmore. — Keynes & Lapidge 1983, Ch. 56 At Wedmore, Alfred and Guthrum negotiated what some historians have called the Treaty of Wedmore, but it was to be some years after the cessation of hostilities that a formal treaty was signed.[47] Under the terms of the so-called Treaty of Wedmore, the converted Guthrum was required to leave Wessex and return to East Anglia. Consequently, in 879 the Viking army left Chippenham and made its way to Cirencester.[48] The formal Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, preserved in Old English in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (Manuscript 383), and in a Latin compilation known as Quadripartitus, was negotiated later, perhaps in 879 or 880, when King Ceolwulf II of Mercia was deposed.[49] That treaty divided up the kingdom of Mercia. By its terms, the boundary between Alfred's and Guthrum's kingdoms was to run up the River Thames to the River Lea, follow the Lea to its source (near Luton), from there extend in a straight line to Bedford, and from Bedford follow the River Ouse to Watling Street.[50] Alfred succeeded to Ceolwulf's kingdom consisting of western Mercia, and Guthrum incorporated the eastern part of Mercia into an enlarged Kingdom of East Anglia (henceforward known as the Danelaw). By terms of the treaty, moreover, Alfred was to have control over the Mercian city of London and its mints—at least for the time being.[51] In 825, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle had recorded that the people of Essex, Sussex, Kent and Surrey surrendered to Egbert, Alfred's grandfather. From then until the arrival of the Great Heathen Army, Essex had formed part of Wessex. After the foundation of Danelaw, it appears that some of Essex would have been ceded to the Danes, but how much is not clear.[52] 880s[edit] Further information: Londinium and Anglo-Saxon London With the signing of the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, an event most commonly held to have taken place around 880 when Guthrum's people began settling East Anglia, Guthrum was neutralised as a threat.[53] The Viking army, which had stayed at Fulham during the winter of 878–879, sailed for Ghent and was active on the continent from 879 to 892.[54][55] There were local raids on the coast of Wessex throughout the 880s. In 882, Alfred fought a small sea battle against four Danish ships. Two of the ships were destroyed, and the others surrendered. This was one of four sea battles recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, three of which involved Alfred.[56] Similar small skirmishes with independent Viking raiders would have occurred for much of the period as they had for decades.[57] In 883, Pope Marinus exempted the Saxon quarter in Rome from taxation, probably in return for Alfred's promise to send alms annually to Rome, which may be the origin of the medieval tax called Peter's Pence. The pope sent gifts to Alfred, including what was reputed to be a piece of the True Cross.[58] After the signing of the treaty with Guthrum, Alfred was spared any large-scale conflicts for some time. Despite this relative peace, the king was forced to deal with a number of Danish raids and incursions. Among these was a raid in Kent, an allied kingdom in South East England, during the year 885, which was possibly the largest raid since the battles with Guthrum. Asser's account of the raid places the Danish raiders at the Saxon city of Rochester,[54] where they built a temporary fortress in order to besiege the city. In response to this incursion, Alfred led an Anglo-Saxon force against the Danes who, instead of engaging the army of Wessex, fled to their beached ships and sailed to another part of Britain. The retreating Danish force supposedly left Britain the following summer.[59] Not long after the failed Danish raid in Kent, Alfred dispatched his fleet to East Anglia. The purpose of this expedition is debated, but Asser claims that it was for the sake of plunder.[59] After travelling up the River Stour, the fleet was met by Danish vessels that numbered 13 or 16 (sources vary on the number), and a battle ensued.[59] The Anglo-Saxon fleet emerged victorious, and as Huntingdon accounts, "laden with spoils".[60] The victorious fleet was surprised when attempting to leave the River Stour and was attacked by a Danish force at the mouth of the river. The Danish fleet defeated Alfred's fleet, which may have been weakened in the previous engagement.[61] A plaque in the City of London noting the restoration of the Roman walled city by Alfred A year later, in 886, Alfred reoccupied the city of London and set out to make it habitable again.[62] Alfred entrusted the city to the care of his son-in-law Æthelred, ealdorman of Mercia. The restoration of London progressed through the latter half of the 880s and is believed to have revolved around a new street plan; added fortifications in addition to the existing Roman walls; and, some believe, the construction of matching fortifications on the south bank of the River Thames.[63] This is also the period in which almost all chroniclers agree that the Saxon people of pre-unification England submitted to Alfred.[64] In 888, Æthelred, the archbishop of Canterbury, also died. One year later Guthrum, or Athelstan by his baptismal name, Alfred's former enemy and king of East Anglia, died and was buried in Hadleigh, Suffolk.[65] Guthrum's death changed the political landscape for Alfred. The resulting power vacuum stirred other power-hungry warlords eager to take his place in the following years. The quiet years of Alfred's life were coming to a close.[66] Viking attacks (890s)[edit] After another lull, in the autumn of 892 or 893, the Danes attacked again. Finding their position in mainland Europe precarious, they crossed to England in 330 ships in two divisions. They entrenched themselves, the larger body, at Appledore, Kent and the lesser under Hastein, at Milton, also in Kent. The invaders brought their wives and children with them indicating a meaningful attempt at conquest and colonisation. Alfred, in 893 or 894, took up a position from which he could observe both forces.[67] While he was in talks with Hastein, the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck north-westwards. They were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son, Edward and were defeated at the Battle of Farnham in Surrey. They took refuge on an island at Thorney, on the River Colne between Buckinghamshire and Middlesex, where they were blockaded and forced to give hostages and promise to leave Wessex.[68][67] They then went to Essex and after suffering another defeat at Benfleet, joined with Hastein's force at Shoebury.[68] Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed stronghold on the North Devon shore. Alfred at once hurried westward and raised the Siege of Exeter. The fate of the other place is not recorded.[69] The force under Hastein set out to march up the Thames Valley, possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. They were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wiltshire and Somerset and forced to head off to the north-west, being finally overtaken and blockaded at Buttington. (Some identify this with Buttington Tump at the mouth of the River Wye, others with Buttington near Welshpool.) An attempt to break through the English lines failed. Those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. After collecting reinforcements, they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of Chester. The English did not attempt a winter blockade but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the district.[69] Early in 894 or 895 lack of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of the year, the Danes drew their ships up the River Thames and the River Lea and fortified themselves twenty miles (32 km) north of London. A frontal attack on the Danish lines failed but later in the year, Alfred saw a means of obstructing the river to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realised that they were outmanoeuvred, struck off north-westwards and wintered at Cwatbridge near Bridgnorth. The next year, 896 (or 897), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to Northumbria, some to East Anglia. Those who had no connections in England returned to the continent.[69] Military reorganisation[edit] Alfred the Great silver offering penny, 871–899. Legend: AELFRED REX SAXONUM ('Alfred King of the Saxons'). The Germanic tribes who invaded Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries relied upon the unarmoured infantry supplied by their tribal levy, or fyrd, and it was upon this system that the military power of the several kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England depended.[70] The fyrd was a local militia in the Anglo-Saxon shire in which all freemen had to serve; those who refused military service were subject to fines or loss of their land.[71] According to the law code of King Ine of Wessex, issued in about 694, If a nobleman who holds land neglects military service, he shall pay 120 shillings and forfeit his land; a nobleman who holds no land shall pay 60 shillings; a commoner shall pay a fine of 30 shillings for neglecting military service — Attenborough 1922, pp. 52–53 Wessex's history of failures preceding Alfred's success in 878 emphasised to him that the traditional system of battle he had inherited played to the Danes' advantage. While the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes attacked settlements for plunder, they employed different tactics. In their raids the Anglo-Saxons traditionally preferred to attack head-on by assembling their forces in a shield wall, advancing against their target and overcoming the oncoming wall marshalled against them in defence.[72] The Danes preferred to choose easy targets, mapping cautious forays to avoid risking their plunder with high-stake attacks for more. Alfred determined their tactic was to launch small attacks from a secure base to which they could retreat should their raiders meet strong resistance.[72] The bases were prepared in advance, often by capturing an estate and augmenting its defences with ditches, ramparts and palisades. Once inside the fortification, Alfred realised, the Danes enjoyed the advantage, better situated to outlast their opponents or crush them with a counter-attack because the provisions and stamina of the besieging forces waned.[72] The means by which the Anglo-Saxons marshalled forces to defend against marauders also left them vulnerable to the Vikings. It was the responsibility of the shire fyrd to deal with local raids. The king could call up the national militia to defend the kingdom but in the case of the Viking raids, problems with communication and raising supplies meant that the national militia could not be mustered quickly enough. It was only after the raids had begun that a call went out to landowners to gather their men for battle. Large regions could be devastated before the fyrd could assemble and arrive. Although the landowners were obliged to the king to supply these men when called, during the attacks in 878 many of them abandoned their king and collaborated with Guthrum.[73][74] With these lessons in mind Alfred capitalised on the relatively peaceful years following his victory at Edington with an ambitious restructuring of Saxon defences. On a trip to Rome Alfred had stayed with Charles the Bald and it is possible that he may have studied how the Carolingian kings had dealt with Viking raiders. Learning from their experiences he was able to establish a system of taxation and defence for Wessex. There had been a system of fortifications in pre-Viking Mercia that may have been an influence. When the Viking raids resumed in 892 Alfred was better prepared to confront them with a standing, mobile field army, a network of garrisons and a small fleet of ships navigating the rivers and estuaries.[75][76][77] Administration and taxation[edit] Tenants in Anglo-Saxon England had a threefold obligation based on their landholding: the so-called "common burdens" of military service, fortress work, and bridge repair. This threefold obligation has traditionally been called trinoda necessitas or trimoda necessitas.[78] The Old English name for the fine due for neglecting military service was fierdwite.[79] To maintain the burhs, and to reorganise the fyrd as a standing army, Alfred expanded the tax and conscription system based on the productivity of a tenant's landholding. The hide was the basic unit of the system on which the tenant's public obligations were assessed. A hide is thought to represent the amount of land required to support one family. The hide differed in size according to the value and resources of the land and the landowner would have to provide service based on how many hides he owned.[78][80] Burghal system[edit] See also: Burghal Hidage A map of burhs named in the Burghal Hidage The walled defence round a burh. The City Walls of Alfred's capital, Winchester. Saxon and medieval work on Roman foundations. The foundation of Alfred's new military defence system was a network of burhs, distributed at tactical points throughout the kingdom.[81] There were thirty-three burhs, about 30 kilometres (19 miles) apart, enabling the military to confront attacks anywhere in the kingdom within a day.[82][83] Alfred's burhs (of which 22 developed into boroughs) ranged from former Roman towns, such as Winchester, where the stone walls were repaired and ditches added, to massive earthen walls surrounded by wide ditches, probably reinforced with wooden revetments and palisades, such as at Burpham in West Sussex.[84][85][86][g] The size of the burhs ranged from tiny outposts such as Pilton in Devon, to large fortifications in established towns, the largest being at Winchester.[88] A document now known as the Burghal Hidage provides an insight into how the system worked. It lists the hidage for each of the fortified towns contained in the document. Wallingford had a hidage of 2,400, which meant that the landowners there were responsible for supplying and feeding 2,400 men, the number sufficient for maintaining 9,900 feet (1.88 miles; 3.0 kilometres) of wall.[89] A total of 27,071 soldiers were needed, approximately one in four of all the free men in Wessex.[90] Many of the burhs were twin towns that straddled a river and were connected by a fortified bridge, like those built by Charles the Bald a generation before.[76] The double-burh blocked passage on the river, forcing Viking ships to navigate under a garrisoned bridge lined with men armed with stones, spears or arrows. Other burhs were sited near fortified royal villas, allowing the king better control over his strongholds.[91] The burhs were connected by a road system maintained for army use (known as herepaths). The roads allowed an army quickly to be assembled, sometimes from more than one burh, to confront the Viking invader.[92] The road network posed significant obstacles to Viking invaders, especially those laden with booty. The system threatened Viking routes and communications making it far more dangerous for them. The Vikings lacked the equipment for a siege against a burh and a developed doctrine of siegecraft, having tailored their methods of fighting to rapid strikes and unimpeded retreats to well-defended fortifications. The only means left to them was to starve the burh into submission but this gave the king time to send his field army or garrisons from neighbouring burhs along the army roads. In such cases, the Vikings were extremely vulnerable to pursuit by the king's joint military forces.[93] Alfred's burh system posed such a formidable challenge against Viking attack that when the Vikings returned in 892 and stormed a half-built, poorly garrisoned fortress up the Lympne estuary in Kent, the Anglo-Saxons were able to limit their penetration to the outer frontiers of Wessex and Mercia.[94] Alfred's burghal system was revolutionary in its strategic conception and potentially expensive in its execution. His contemporary biographer Asser wrote that many nobles balked at the demands placed upon them even though they were for "the common needs of the kingdom".[95][96] English navy[edit] Alfred also tried his hand at naval design. In 896 he ordered the construction of a small fleet, perhaps a dozen or so longships that, at 60 oars, were twice the size of Viking warships.[97] This was not, as the Victorians asserted, the birth of the English Navy. Wessex had possessed a royal fleet before this. Alfred's older brother sub-king Æthelstan of Kent and Ealdorman Ealhhere had defeated a Viking fleet in 851 capturing nine ships and Alfred had conducted naval actions in 882.[98] The year 897 marked an important development in the naval power of Wessex. The author of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle related that Alfred's ships were larger, swifter, steadier and rode higher in the water than either Danish or Frisian ships. It is probable that, under the classical tutelage of Asser, Alfred used the design of Greek and Roman warships, with high sides, designed for fighting rather than for navigation.[99] Alfred had seapower in mind; if he could intercept raiding fleets before they landed, he could spare his kingdom from being ravaged. Alfred's ships may have been superior in conception, but in practice they proved to be too large to manoeuvre well in the close waters of estuaries and rivers, the only places in which a naval battle could be fought.[100] The warships of the time were not designed to be ship killers but rather troop carriers. It has been suggested that, like sea battles in late Viking age Scandinavia, these battles may have entailed a ship coming alongside an opposing vessel, lashing the two ships together and then boarding the craft. The result was a land battle involving hand-to-hand fighting on board the two lashed vessels.[101] In the one recorded naval engagement in 896, Alfred's new fleet of nine ships intercepted six Viking ships at the mouth of an unidentified river in the south of England. The Danes had beached half their ships and gone inland.[102][97] Alfred's ships immediately moved to block their escape. The three Viking ships afloat attempted to break through the English lines. Only one made it; Alfred's ships intercepted the other two.[97] Lashing the Viking boats to their own, the English crew boarded and proceeded to kill the Vikings. One ship escaped because Alfred's heavy ships became grounded when the tide went out.[101] A land battle ensued between the crews. The Danes were heavily outnumbered, but as the tide rose, they returned to their boats which, with shallower drafts, were freed first. The English watched as the Vikings rowed past them but they suffered so many casualties (120 dead against 62 Frisians and English) that they had difficulty putting out to sea.[101] All were too damaged to row around Sussex, and two were driven against the Sussex coast (possibly at Selsey Bill).[97][101] The shipwrecked crew were brought before Alfred at Winchester and hanged.[97] Legal reform[edit] Main article: Doom book A coin of Alfred, London, 880 (based upon a Roman model) In the late 880s or early 890s, Alfred issued a long domboc or law code consisting of his own laws, followed by a code issued by his late seventh-century predecessor King Ine of Wessex.[103] Together these laws are arranged into 120 chapters. In his introduction Alfred explains that he gathered together the laws he found in many "synod-books" and "ordered to be written many of the ones that our forefathers observed—those that pleased me; and many of the ones that did not please me, I rejected with the advice of my councillors, and commanded them to be observed in a different way".[104] Alfred singled out in particular the laws that he "found in the days of Ine, my kinsman, or Offa, king of the Mercians, or King Æthelberht of Kent who first among the English people received baptism". He appended, rather than integrated, the laws of Ine into his code and although he included, as had Æthelbert, a scale of payments in compensation for injuries to various body parts, the two injury tariffs are not aligned. Offa is not known to have issued a law code, leading historian Patrick Wormald to speculate that Alfred had in mind the legatine capitulary of 786 that was presented to Offa by two papal legates.[105] About a fifth of the law code is taken up by Alfred's introduction which includes translations into English of the Ten Commandments, a few chapters from the Book of Exodus, and the Apostolic Letter from the Acts of the Apostles (15:23–29). The introduction may best be understood as Alfred's meditation upon the meaning of Christian law.[106] It traces the continuity between God's gift of law to Moses to Alfred's own issuance of law to the West Saxon people. By doing so, it linked the holy past to the historical present and represented Alfred's law-giving as a type of divine legislation.[107] Similarly Alfred divided his code into 120 chapters because 120 was the age at which Moses died and, in the number-symbolism of early medieval biblical exegetes, 120 stood for law.[108] The link between Mosaic law and Alfred's code is the Apostolic Letter which explained that Christ "had come not to shatter or annul the commandments but to fulfill them; and he taught mercy and meekness" (Intro, 49.1). The mercy that Christ infused into Mosaic law underlies the injury tariffs that figure so prominently in barbarian law codes since Christian synods "established, through that mercy which Christ taught, that for almost every misdeed at the first offence secular lords might with their permission receive without sin the monetary compensation which they then fixed".[109] The only crime that could not be compensated with a payment of money was treachery to a lord "since Almighty God adjudged none for those who despised Him, nor did Christ, the Son of God, adjudge any for the one who betrayed Him to death; and He commanded everyone to love his lord as Himself".[109] Alfred's transformation of Christ's commandment, from "Love your neighbour as yourself" (Matt. 22:39–40) to love your secular lord as you would love the Lord Christ himself, underscores the importance that Alfred placed upon lordship which he understood as a sacred bond instituted by God for the governance of man.[110] When one turns from the domboc's introduction to the laws themselves, it is difficult to uncover any logical arrangement. The impression is of a hodgepodge of miscellaneous laws. The law code, as it has been preserved, is singularly unsuitable for use in lawsuits. In fact, several of Alfred's laws contradicted the laws of Ine that form an integral part of the code. Patrick Wormald's explanation is that Alfred's law code should be understood not as a legal manual but as an ideological manifesto of kingship "designed more for symbolic impact than for practical direction".[111] In practical terms the most important law in the code may well have been the first: "We enjoin, what is most necessary, that each man keep carefully his oath and his pledge" which expresses a fundamental tenet of Anglo-Saxon law.[112] Alfred devoted considerable attention and thought to judicial matters. Asser underscores his concern for judicial fairness. Alfred, according to Asser, insisted upon reviewing contested judgments made by his ealdormen and reeves and "would carefully look into nearly all the judgements which were passed [issued] in his absence anywhere in the realm to see whether they were just or unjust".[113] A charter from the reign of his son Edward the Elder depicts Alfred as hearing one such appeal in his chamber while washing his hands.[114] Asser represents Alfred as a Solomonic judge, painstaking in his own judicial investigations and critical of royal officials who rendered unjust or unwise judgments. Although Asser never mentions Alfred's law code he does say that Alfred insisted that his judges be literate so that they could apply themselves "to the pursuit of wisdom". The failure to comply with this royal order was to be punished by loss of office.[115] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, commissioned at the time of Alfred, was probably written to promote unification of England,[116] whereas Asser's The Life of King Alfred promoted Alfred's achievements and personal qualities. It was possible that the document was designed this way so that it could be disseminated in Wales because Alfred had acquired overlordship of that country.[116] Foreign relations[edit] Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign powers but little definite information is available.[69] His interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he made in his translation of Orosius. He corresponded with Elias III, the patriarch of Jerusalem,[69] and embassies to Rome conveying the English alms to the pope were fairly frequent.[76][h] Around 890, Wulfstan of Hedeby undertook a journey from Hedeby on Jutland along the Baltic Sea to the Prussian trading town of Truso. Alfred personally collected details of this trip.[118] Alfred's relations with the Celtic princes in the western half of Great Britain are clearer. Comparatively early in his reign, according to Asser, the southern Welsh princes, owing to the pressure on them from North Wales and Mercia, commended themselves to Alfred. Later in his reign, the North Welsh followed their example and the latter cooperated with the English in the campaign of 893 (or 894). That Alfred sent alms to Irish and Continental monasteries may be taken on Asser's authority. The visit of three pilgrim "Scots" (i.e., Irish) to Alfred in 891 is undoubtedly authentic. The story that, in his childhood, he was sent to Ireland to be healed by Saint Modwenna may show Alfred's interest in that island.[69] Religion, education and culture[edit] Alfred depicted in a stained-glass window of c. 1905 in Bristol Cathedral In the 880s, at the same time that he was "cajoling and threatening" his nobles to build and man the burhs, Alfred, perhaps inspired by the example of Charlemagne almost a century before, undertook an equally ambitious effort to revive learning.[69] During this period, the Viking raids were often seen as a divine punishment, and Alfred may have wished to revive religious awe in order to appease God's wrath.[119] This revival entailed the recruitment of clerical scholars from Mercia, Wales and abroad to enhance the tenor of the court and of the episcopacy; the establishment of a court school to educate his own children, the sons of his nobles, and intellectually promising boys of lesser birth; an attempt to require literacy in those who held offices of authority; a series of translations into the vernacular of Latin works the king deemed "most necessary for all men to know";[120] the compilation of a chronicle detailing the rise of Alfred's kingdom and house, with a genealogy that stretched back to Adam, thus giving the West Saxon kings a biblical ancestry.[121] Very little is known of the church under Alfred. The Danish attacks had been particularly damaging to the monasteries. Although Alfred founded monasteries at Athelney and Shaftesbury, these were the first new monastic houses in Wessex since the beginning of the eighth century.[122] According to Asser, Alfred enticed foreign monks to England for his monastery at Athelney because there was little interest for the locals to take up the monastic life.[123] Alfred undertook no systematic reform of ecclesiastical institutions or religious practices in Wessex. For him, the key to the kingdom's spiritual revival was to appoint pious, learned, and trustworthy bishops and abbots. As king, he saw himself as responsible for both the temporal and spiritual welfare of his subjects. Secular and spiritual authority were not distinct categories for Alfred.[124][125] He was equally comfortable distributing his translation of Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care to his bishops so that they might better train and supervise priests and using those same bishops as royal officials and judges. Nor did his piety prevent him from expropriating strategically sited church lands, especially estates along the border with the Danelaw, and transferring them to royal thegns and officials who could better defend them against Viking attacks.[125][126] Effect of Danish raids on education[edit] The Danish raids had a devastating effect on learning in England. Alfred lamented in the preface to his translation of Gregory's Pastoral Care that "learning had declined so thoroughly in England that there were very few men on this side of the Humber who could understand their divine services in English or even translate a single letter from Latin into English: and I suppose that there were not many beyond the Humber either".[127] Alfred undoubtedly exaggerated, for dramatic effect, the abysmal state of learning in England during his youth.[32] That Latin learning had not been obliterated is evidenced by the presence in his court of learned Mercian and West Saxon clerics such as Plegmund, Wæferth, and Wulfsige.[128] Manuscript production in England dropped off precipitously around the 860s when the Viking invasions began in earnest, not to be revived until the end of the century.[129] Numerous Anglo-Saxon manuscripts burnt along with the churches that housed them. A solemn diploma from Christ Church, Canterbury, dated 873, is so poorly constructed and written that historian Nicholas Brooks posited a scribe who was either so blind he could not read what he wrote or who knew little or no Latin. "It is clear", Brooks concludes, "that the metropolitan church [of Canterbury] must have been quite unable to provide any effective training in the scriptures or in Christian worship".[130] Establishment of a court school[edit] Alfred established a court school for the education of his own children, those of the nobility, and "a good many of lesser birth". There they studied books in both English and Latin and "devoted themselves to writing, to such an extent ... they were seen to be devoted and intelligent students of the liberal arts".[131] He recruited scholars from the Continent and from Britain to aid in the revival of Christian learning in Wessex and to provide the king personal instruction. Grimbald and John the Saxon came from Francia; Plegmund (whom Alfred appointed archbishop of Canterbury in 890), Bishop Wærferth of Worcester, Æthelstan, and the royal chaplains Werwulf, from Mercia; and Asser, from St David's in southwestern Wales.[132] Advocacy of education in English[edit] Line drawing of the Alfred Jewel, showing the socket at its base Alfred's educational ambitions seem to have extended beyond the establishment of a court school. Believing that without Christian wisdom there can be neither prosperity nor success in war, Alfred aimed "to set to learning (as long as they are not useful for some other employment) all the free-born young men now in England who have the means to apply themselves to it".[133] Conscious of the decay of Latin literacy in his realm Alfred proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.[134] There were few "books of wisdom" written in English. Alfred sought to remedy this through an ambitious court-centred programme of translating into English the books he deemed "most necessary for all men to know".[134] It is unknown when Alfred launched this programme but it may have been during the 880s when Wessex was enjoying a respite from Viking attacks. Alfred was, until recently, often considered to have been the author of many of the translations but this is now considered doubtful in almost all cases.[135] Scholars more often refer to translations as "Alfredian" indicating that they probably had something to do with his patronage but are unlikely to be his own work.[136] Apart from the lost Handboc or Encheiridio, which seems to have been a commonplace book kept by the king, the earliest work to be translated was the Dialogues of Gregory the Great, a book greatly popular in the Middle Ages. The translation was undertaken at Alfred's command by Wærferth, Bishop of Worcester, with the king merely furnishing a preface.[69] Remarkably, Alfred – undoubtedly with the advice and aid of his court scholars – translated four works himself: Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care, Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy, St. Augustine's Soliloquies and the first fifty psalms of the Psalter.[137] One might add to this list the translation, in Alfred's law code, of excerpts from the Vulgate Book of Exodus. The Old English versions of Orosius's Histories against the Pagans and Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People are no longer accepted by scholars as Alfred's own translations because of lexical and stylistic differences.[137] Nonetheless the consensus remains that they were part of the Alfredian programme of translation. Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge suggest this also for Bald's Leechbook and the anonymous Old English Martyrology.[138] The preface of Alfred's translation of Pope Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care[133] explained why he thought it necessary to translate works such as this from Latin into English. Although he described his method as translating "sometimes word for word, sometimes sense for sense", the translation keeps very close to the original although, through his choice of language, he blurred throughout the distinction between spiritual and secular authority. Alfred meant the translation to be used, and circulated it to all his bishops.[139] Interest in Alfred's translation of Pastoral Care was so enduring that copies were still being made in the 11th century.[140] Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy was the most popular philosophical handbook of the Middle Ages. Unlike the translation of the Pastoral Care the Alfredian text deals very freely with the original and, though the late Dr. G. Schepss showed that many of the additions to the text are to be traced not to the translator himself[141] but to the glosses and commentaries which he used, still there is much in the work which is distinctive to the translation and has been taken to reflect philosophies of kingship in Alfred's milieu. It is in the Boethius that the oft-quoted sentence occurs: "To speak briefly: I desired to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good works."[142] The book has come down to us in two manuscripts only. In one of these[143] the writing is prose, in the other[144] a combination of prose and alliterating verse. The latter manuscript was severely damaged in the 18th and 19th centuries.[145] The last of the Alfredian works is one which bears the name Blostman ('Blooms') or Anthology. The first half is based mainly on the Soliloquies of St Augustine of Hippo, the remainder is drawn from various sources. The material has traditionally been thought to contain much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for the noblest of English kings. "Therefore, he seems to me a very foolish man, and truly wretched, who will not increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear."[139] Alfred appears as a character in the twelfth- or 13th-century poem The Owl and the Nightingale where his wisdom and skill with proverbs is praised. The Proverbs of Alfred, a 13th-century work, contains sayings that are not likely to have originated with Alfred but attest to his posthumous medieval reputation for wisdom.[146] The Alfred Jewel, in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, commissioned by Alfred; probably a pointer to aid reading The Alfred jewel, discovered in Somerset in 1693, has long been associated with King Alfred because of its Old English inscription AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN ('Alfred ordered me to be made'). The jewel is about 2+1⁄2 inches (6.4 centimetres) long, made of filigreed gold, enclosing a highly polished piece of quartz crystal beneath which is set in a cloisonné enamel plaque with an enamelled image of a man holding floriate sceptres, perhaps personifying Sight or the Wisdom of God.[147] It was at one time attached to a thin rod or stick based on the hollow socket at its base. The jewel certainly dates from Alfred's reign. Although its function is unknown it has been often suggested that the jewel was one of the æstels – pointers for reading – that Alfred ordered sent to every bishopric accompanying a copy of his translation of the Pastoral Care. Each æstel was worth the princely sum of 50 mancuses which fits in well with the quality workmanship and expensive materials of the Alfred jewel.[148] Historian Richard Abels sees Alfred's educational and military reforms as complementary. Restoring religion and learning in Wessex, Abels contends, was to Alfred's mind as essential to the defence of his realm as the building of the burhs.[149] As Alfred observed in the preface to his English translation of Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care, kings who fail to obey their divine duty to promote learning can expect earthly punishments to befall their people.[150] The pursuit of wisdom, he assured his readers of the Boethius, was the surest path to power: "Study wisdom, then, and, when you have learned it, condemn it not, for I tell you that by its means you may without fail attain to power, yea, even though not desiring it".[151] The portrayal of the West-Saxon resistance to the Vikings by Asser and the chronicler as a Christian holy war was more than mere rhetoric or propaganda. It reflected Alfred's own belief in a doctrine of divine rewards and punishments rooted in a vision of a hierarchical Christian world order in which God is the Lord to whom kings owe obedience and through whom they derive their authority over their followers. The need to persuade his nobles to undertake work for the 'common good' led Alfred and his court scholars to strengthen and deepen the conception of Christian kingship that he had inherited by building upon the legacy of earlier kings including Offa, clerical writers including Bede, and Alcuin and various participants in the Carolingian renaissance. This was not a cynical use of religion to manipulate his subjects into obedience but an intrinsic element in Alfred's worldview. He believed, as did other kings in ninth-century England and Francia, that God had entrusted him with the spiritual as well as physical welfare of his people. If the Christian faith fell into ruin in his kingdom, if the clergy were too ignorant to understand the Latin words they butchered in their offices and liturgies, if the ancient monasteries and collegiate churches lay deserted out of indifference, he was answerable before God, as Josiah had been. Alfred's ultimate responsibility was the pastoral care of his people.[149] Appearance and character[edit] No known portrait of Alfred the Great exists from life. A likeness by artist and historian George S. Stuart created from his physical description mentioned in historical records. Asser wrote of Alfred in his Life of King Alfred, Now, he was greatly loved, more than all his brothers, by his father and mother—indeed, by everybody—with a universal and profound love, and he was always brought up in the royal court and nowhere else...[He] was seen to be more comely in appearance than his other brothers, and more pleasing in manner, speech and behaviour...[and] in spite of all the demands of the present life, it has been the desire for wisdom, more than anything else, together with the nobility of his birth, which have characterized the nature of his noble mind. — Keynes & Lapidge 1983, pp. 74–75 It is also written by Asser that Alfred did not learn to read until he was 12 years old or later, which is described as "shameful negligence" of his parents and tutors. Alfred was an excellent listener and had an incredible memory and he retained poetry and psalms very well. A story is told by Asser about how his mother held up a book of Saxon poetry to him and his brothers, and said; "I shall give this book to whichever one of you can learn it the fastest." After excitedly asking, "Will you really give this book to the one of us who can understand it the soonest and recite it to you?" Alfred then took it to his teacher, learned it, and recited it back to his mother.[152] Alfred is noted as carrying around a small book, probably a medieval version of a small pocket notebook, that contained psalms and many prayers that he often collected. Asser writes: these "he collected in a single book, as I have seen for myself; amid all the affairs of the present life he took it around with him everywhere for the sake of prayer, and was inseparable from it."[152] An excellent hunter in every branch of the sport, Alfred is remembered as an enthusiastic huntsman against whom nobody's skills could compare.[152] Although he was the youngest of his brothers, he was probably the most open-minded. He was an early advocate for education. His desire for learning could have come from his early love of English poetry and inability to read or physically record it until later in life. Asser writes that Alfred "could not satisfy his craving for what he desired the most, namely the liberal arts; for, as he used to say, there were no good scholars in the entire kingdom of the West Saxons at that time".[152] Family[edit] A posthumous image of Queen Ealhswith, 1220 In 868, Alfred married Ealhswith, daughter of a Mercian nobleman, Æthelred Mucel, Ealdorman of the Gaini. The Gaini were probably one of the tribal groups of the Mercians. Ealhswith's mother, Eadburh, was a member of the Mercian royal family.[153] They had five or six children together, including Edward the Elder who succeeded his father as king; Æthelflæd who became lady of the Mercians; and Ælfthryth who married Baldwin II, Count of Flanders. His mother was Osburga, daughter of Oslac of the Isle of Wight, Chief Butler of England. Asser, in his Vita Ælfredi asserts that this shows his lineage from the Jutes of the Isle of Wight. This is unlikely because Bede tells us that they were all slaughtered by the Saxons under Cædwalla.[154] Osferth was described as a relative in King Alfred's will and he attested charters in a high position until 934. A charter of King Edward's reign described him as the king's brother – mistakenly according to Keynes and Lapidge, and in the view of Janet Nelson, he probably was an illegitimate son of King Alfred.[155][156] Name Birth Death Notes Æthelflæd 12 June 918 Married c. 886, Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians d. 911; had issue Edward c. 874 17 July 924 Married (1) Ecgwynn, (2) Ælfflæd, (3) 919 Eadgifu Æthelgifu Abbess of Shaftesbury Æthelweard 16 October 922(?) Married and had issue Ælfthryth 929 Married Baldwin II d. 918; had issue Death and burial[edit] Alfred's will Alfred died on 26 October 899 at the age of 50 or 51.[157] How he died is unknown, but he suffered throughout his life with a painful and unpleasant illness. His biographer Asser gave a detailed description of Alfred's symptoms, and this has allowed modern doctors to provide a possible diagnosis. It is thought that he had either Crohn's disease or haemorrhoids.[158][159] His grandson King Eadred seems to have suffered from a similar illness.[160][i] Alfred was temporarily buried at the Old Minster in Winchester with his wife Ealhswith and later, his son Edward the Elder. Before his death he ordered the construction of the New Minster hoping that it would become a mausoleum for him and his family.[162] Four years after his death, the bodies of Alfred and his family were exhumed and moved to their new resting place in the New Minster and remained there for 211 years. When William the Conqueror rose to the English throne after the Norman conquest in 1066, many Anglo-Saxon abbeys were demolished and replaced with Norman cathedrals. One of those unfortunate abbeys was the very New Minster abbey where Alfred was laid to rest.[162] Before demolition, the monks at the New Minster exhumed the bodies of Alfred and his family to safely transfer them to a new location. The New Minster monks moved to Hyde in 1110 a little north of the city, and they transferred to Hyde Abbey along with Alfred's body and those of his wife and children, which were interred before the high altar.[162] In 1536, many Roman Catholic churches were vandalized by the people of England spurred by disillusionment with the church during the Dissolution of the Monasteries. One such Catholic church was the site of Alfred's burial, Hyde Abbey. Once again, Alfred's place of rest was disturbed for the now 3rd time. Hyde Abbey was dissolved in 1538 during the reign of Henry VIII,[162] the church site was demolished and treated like a quarry, as the stones that made up the abbey were then re-used in local architecture.[163] The stone graves housing Alfred and his family stayed underground, and the land returned to farming. These graves remained intact until 1788 when the site was acquired by the county for the construction of a town jail. Before construction began, convicts that would later be imprisoned at the site were sent in to prepare the ground, to ready it for building. While digging the foundation trenches, the convicts discovered the coffins of Alfred and his family. The local Catholic priest, Dr. Milner recounts this event: Thus miscreants couch amidst the ashes of our Alfreds and Edwards; and where once religious silence and contemplation were only interrupted by the bell of regular observance, the chanting of devotion, now alone resound the clank of the captives chains and the oaths of the profligate! In digging for the foundation of that mournful edifice, at almost every stroke of the mattock or spade some ancient sepulchre was violated, the venerable contents of which were treated with marked indignity. On this occasion a great number of stone coffins were dug up, with a variety of other curious articles, such as chalices, patens, rings, buckles, the leather of shoes and boots, velvet and gold lace belonging to chasubles and other vestments; as also the crook, rims, and joints of a beautiful crosier double gilt.[164] The convicts broke the stone coffins into pieces, the lead, which lined the coffins, was sold for two guineas, and the bones within scattered around the area.[163] The prison was demolished between 1846 and 1850.[165] Further excavations were inconclusive in 1866 and 1897.[166][167] In 1866, amateur antiquarian John Mellor claimed to have recovered a number of bones from the site which he said were those of Alfred. These came into the possession of the vicar of nearby St Bartholomew's Church who reburied them in an unmarked grave in the church graveyard.[165] Excavations conducted by the Winchester Museums Service of the Hyde Abbey site in 1999 located a second pit dug in front of where the high altar would have been located, which was identified as probably dating to Mellor's 1866 excavation.[166] The 1999 archeological excavation uncovered the foundations of the abbey buildings and some bones, suggested at the time to be those of Alfred; they proved instead to belong to an elderly woman.[168] In March 2013, the Diocese of Winchester exhumed the bones from the unmarked grave at St Bartholomew's and placed them in secure storage. The diocese made no claim that they were the bones of Alfred, but intended to secure them for later analysis, and from the attentions of people whose interest may have been sparked by the recent identification of the remains of King Richard III.[168][169] The bones were radiocarbon-dated but the results showed that they were from the 1300s and therefore not of Alfred. In January 2014, a fragment of pelvis that had been unearthed in the 1999 excavation of the Hyde site, and had subsequently lain in a Winchester museum store room, was radiocarbon-dated to the correct period. It has been suggested that this bone may belong to either Alfred or his son Edward, but this remains unproven.[170][171] Legacy[edit] See also: Cultural depictions of Alfred the Great Statue of Alfred the Great at Wantage, Oxfordshire Alfred is venerated as a saint by some Christian traditions.[172] Though Henry VI of England attempted unsuccessfully to have him canonized by Pope Eugene IV in 1441, he was venerated sometimes in the Catholic Church; however the current "Roman Martyrology" does not mention him.[173][174][j] The Anglican Communion venerates him as a Christian hero, with a Lesser Festival on 26 October,[175] and he may often be found depicted in stained glass in Church of England parish churches.[176] Alfred commissioned Bishop Asser to write his biography, which inevitably emphasised Alfred's positive aspects. Later medieval historians such as Geoffrey of Monmouth also reinforced Alfred's favourable image. By the time of the Reformation, Alfred was seen as a pious Christian ruler who promoted the use of English rather than Latin, and so the translations that he commissioned were viewed as untainted by the later Roman Catholic influences of the Normans. Consequently, it was writers of the 16th century who gave Alfred his epithet as "the Great", not any of Alfred's contemporaries.[177] The epithet was retained by succeeding generations who admired Alfred's patriotism, success against barbarism, promotion of education, and establishment of the rule of law.[177] A number of educational establishments are named in Alfred's honour: The University of Winchester created from the former King Alfred's College, Winchester (1928 to 2004) Alfred University and Alfred State College in Alfred, New York; the local telephone exchange for Alfred University is 871 in commemoration of the year of Alfred's ascension to the throne. Additionally, the mascot of Alfred University is named Lil' Alf and is modeled after the king The University of Liverpool created a King Alfred Chair of English Literature Eighteenth-century portrait of Alfred by Samuel Woodforde King Alfred's Academy, a secondary school in Wantage, Oxfordshire, the birthplace of Alfred King's Lodge School in Chippenham, Wiltshire, so named because King Alfred's hunting lodge is reputed to have stood on or near the site of the school The King Alfred School and Specialist Sports Academy, Burnham Road, Highbridge, so named due to its rough proximity to Brent Knoll (a Beacon site) and Athelney The King Alfred School in Barnet, North London, UK King Alfred's house in Bishop Stopford's School at Enfield King Alfred Swimming Pool & Leisure complex in Hove, Brighton UK The Royal Navy named one ship and two shore establishments HMS King Alfred, and one of the early ships of the U.S. Navy was named USS Alfred in his honour. In 2002, Alfred was ranked number 14 in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.[178] Statues[edit] Winchester[edit] A bronze statue of Alfred the Great stands at the eastern end of The Broadway, close to the site of Winchester's medieval East Gate. The statue was designed by Hamo Thornycroft, cast in bronze by Singer & Sons of Frome and erected in 1899 to mark one thousand years since Alfred's death.[179][180] The statue is placed on a pedestal consisting of two immense blocks of grey Cornish granite.[181] Pewsey[edit] Pewsey statue, 1913 A prominent statue of King Alfred the Great stands in the middle of Pewsey. It was unveiled in June 1913 to commemorate the coronation of King George V.[182] Wantage[edit] A statue of Alfred the Great, situated in the Wantage market place, was sculpted by Count Gleichen, a relative of Queen Victoria, and unveiled on 14 July 1877 by the Prince and Princess of Wales.[183] The statue was vandalised on New Year's Eve 2007, losing part of its right arm and axe. After the arm and axe were replaced, the statue was again vandalised on Christmas Eve 2008, losing its axe.[183] Alfred University, New York[edit] Statue at Alfred University The centerpiece of Alfred University's quad is a bronze statue of the king, created in 1990 by then-professor William Underhill. It features the king as a young man, holding a shield in his left hand and an open book in his right.[184] Cleveland, Ohio[edit] A marble statue of Alfred the Great stands on the North side of the Cuyahoga County Courthouse in Cleveland, Ohio. It was sculpted by Isidore Konti in 1910.[185] Chronology[edit] Date Event c. 848 Alfred is born in Wantage, Berkshire. c. 852 Alfred's oldest brother Æthelstan of Kent dies. c. 853 Alfred's sister, Æthelswith marries Burgred, the king of Mercians. c. 854 Alfred's father Æthelwulf sends Alfred and his youngest older brother Æthelred on a pilgrimage to Rome.[186] Alfred's mother Osburh dies. c. 855 Æthelwulf goes on a pilgrimage with Alfred, after dividing his realm between his sons, Æthelbald and Æthelberht.[187] c. 856 Preteen Judith of Flanders becomes the stepmother of Alfred after Æthelwulf marries her.[187] Æthelwulf returns home, but Æthelbald refuses to give up his position, forcing Æthelwulf to retire to Kent with Æthelberht.[188] c. 858 Æthelwulf dies. c. 860 Æthelbald dies and is succeeded by his brother Æthelberht. c. 865 Æthelberht dies and is succeeded by his brother Æthelred. The Great Heathen Army lands in East Anglia. c. 868 Æthelred aids Burgred against the Danes. Alfred marries Ealhswith in Gainsborough, Lincolnshire. c. 870 Alfred's first child Æthelflæd is born. c. 871 Æthelred dies and is succeeded by Alfred. Alfred makes peace with the Danes and takes Winchester as his residence. c. 872 Burgred pays tribute to the Danes. c. 873 The Danes invade Mercia and seize Repton. c. 874 Danes sack Tamworth, exiling Burgred. Alfred's first son Edward the Elder is born. The Great Heathen Army splits as Halfdan retires to Northumbria. c. 875 Guthrum invades Alfred's realm. c. 876 Guthrum takes Wareham, but is besieged by Alfred. The Danes abandon Wareham, only to take Exeter instead. c. 877 Alfred besieges Exeter and is able to expel the Danes from his realm. c. 878 Alfred is forced to flee to Somerset Levels and begin guerilla warfare. Alfred defeats Guthrum decisively in the Battle of Edington, causing Guthrum's conversion to Christianity. Alfred's subject defeats another Danish invasion in the Battle of Cynwit. c. 886 Alfred conquers London and declares himself the king of the Anglo-Saxons.[189] c. 888 Æthelswith dies in Pavia. c. 893 Edward marries Ecgwynn. c. 894 Alfred becomes a grandfather when Ecgwynn gives birth to Æthelstan, the son of Edward. 899 Alfred dies. ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899); the Gospel was first preached in Britain, the island was inhabited by Celtic peoples. In the 400's, pagan Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, invaded Britain and drove the Christian Celts out of what is now England into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. The new arrivals (called collectively the Anglo-Saxons) were then converted by Celtic missionaries moving in from the one side and Roman missionaries moving in from the other. (They then sent missionaries of their own, such as Boniface, to their pagan relatives on the Continent.) the 800's the cycle partly repeated itself, as the Christian Anglo-Saxons were invaded by the Danes, pagan raiders, who rapidly conquered the northeast portion of England. They seemed about to conquer the entire country and eliminate all resistance when they were turned back by Alfred, King of the West Saxons. was born in 849 at Wantage, Berkshire, youngest of five sons of King Aethelwulf. He wished to become a monk, but after the deaths (all in battle, I think) of his father and his four older brothers, he was made king in 871. He proved to be skilled at military tactics, and devised a defensive formation which the Danish charge was unable to break. After a decisive victory at Edington in 878, he reached an agreement with the Danish leader Guthrum, by which the Danes would retain a portion of northeastern England and be given other concessions in return for their agreement to accept baptism and Christian instruction. From a later point of view, it seems obvious that such a promise could not involve a genuine change of heart, and was therefore meaningless (and indeed, one Dane complained that the white robe that he was given after his baptism was not nearly so fine as the two that he had received after the two previous times that he had been defeated and baptized). However, Alfred's judgement proved sound. Guthrum, from his point of view, agreed to become a vassal of Christ. His nobles and chief warriors, being his vassals, were thereby obligated to give their feudal allegiance to Christ as well. They accepted baptism and the presence among them of Christian priests and missionaries to instruct them. The door was opened for conversions on a more personal level in that and succeeding generations. his later years, having secured a large degree of military security for his people, Alfred devoted his energies to repairing the damage that war had done to the cultural life of his people. He translated Boethius' Consolations of Philosophy into Old English, and brought in scholars from Wales and the Continent with whose help various writings of Bede, Augustine of Canterbury, and Gregory the Great were likewise translated. He was much impressed by the provisions in the Law of Moses for the protection of the rights of ordinary citizens, and gave order that similar provisions should be made part of English law. He promoted the education of the parish clergy. In one of his treatises, he wrote: "He seems to me a very foolish man, and very wretched, who will not increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear." died on 26 October 899, and was buried in the Old Minster at Winchester. Alone among English monarchs, he is known as "the Great." writer G K Chesterton has written a long narrative poem about Alfred, called, "The Ballad of the White Horse." In my view, it would be improved by abridgement (I would, for example, terminate the prologue after the line "And laid peace on the sea"), but I think it well worth reading as it stands, both for the history and (with minor reservations) for the theology. by James Kiefer DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988;

England, 878, Battle of Edington, Wessex, A S Kingdom of Wessex under Alfred over Great Summer Army of Dane Grunthrum
Battle of Edington in 878; the Battle of Edington, an army of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex under Alfred the Great defeated the Great Heathen Army led by the Dane Guthrum on a date between 6 and 12 May 878, resulting in the Treaty of Wedmore later the same year. sources locate the battle at "Eðandun". Until a scholarly consensus linked the battle site with the present-day town of Edington in Wiltshire, it was known as the Battle of Ethandun. This name continues to be used. Guthrum; (c. 835 - c. 890) was King of East Anglia in the late 9th century. A native of Denmark, he was one of the leaders of the "Great Summer Army" that arrived in Reading during April 871 to join forces with the Great Danish Army, whose intentions were to conquer the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England. combined armies were successful in conquering the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria, and overran Alfred the Great's Wessex, but were ultimately defeated by Alfred at the Battle of Edington in 878. Danes retreated to their stronghold, where Alfred laid siege and eventually Guthrum surrendered. the terms of his surrender, Guthrum was obliged to be baptised as a Christian and then leave Wessex. The subsequent Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum set out the boundaries between Alfred and Guthrum's territories, as well as agreements on peaceful trade and the weregild value of its people. treaty is seen as the foundation of the Danelaw. Guthrum ruled East Anglia under his baptismal name of Æthelstan until his death.[1] ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899); GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, APOLOGIST and WRITER, 1936;

England, 900-999, 10th Century Folder, Battle of Brunaburh, Eng. v Scot. and Ire.

England, 924-939, King of the English, Athelstan, conquered Viking York, first king of England, invaded Scotland, Brunaburh v
English King, 924-939, Athelstan; or Athelstan (c. 894 - 27 October 939) was King of the Anglo-Saxons from 924 to 927 and King of the English from 927 to 939 when he died.[a] He was the son of King Edward the Elder and his first wife, Ecgwynn. historians regard him as the first King of England and one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings. He never married and had no children. He was succeeded by his half-brother, Edmund. Edward died in July 924, Æthelstan was accepted by the Mercians as king. His half-brother Ælfweard may have been recognised as king in Wessex, but died within three weeks of their father's death. Æthelstan encountered resistance in Wessex for several months, and was not crowned until September 925. 927 he conquered the last remaining Viking kingdom, York, making him the first Anglo-Saxon ruler of the whole of England. 934 he invaded Scotland and forced Constantine II to submit to him, but Æthelstan's rule was resented by the Scots and Vikings, and in 937 they invaded England. Æthelstan defeated them at the Battle of Brunanburh, a victory which gave him great prestige both in the British Isles and on the Continent. his death in 939 the Vikings seized back control of York, and it was not finally reconquered until 954. centralised government; he increased control over the production of charters and summoned leading figures from distant areas to his councils. These meetings were also attended by rulers from outside his territory, especially Welsh kings, who thus acknowledged his overlordship. legal texts survive from his reign than from any other 10th-century English king. They show his concern about widespread robberies, and the threat they posed to social order. His legal reforms built on those of his grandfather, Alfred the Great. was one of the most pious West Saxon kings, and was known for collecting relics and founding churches. household was the centre of English learning during his reign, and it laid the foundation for the Benedictine monastic reform later in the century. No other West Saxon king played as important a role in European politics as Athelstan, and he arranged the marriages of several of his sisters to continental rulers. Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

England, 929-988, Dunstan of Glasconbury, Archbishop of Canterbury
England, 929-988, Dunstan of Glasconbury, Archbishop of Canterbury; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ;

England, 937, Battle of Brunaburh, United England v invading Scotland&Ireland who lost
England, 937, Battle of Brunaburh, Saxon England v Scotland and Ireland; Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

England, 939-946, King of the English, Edmund I, constant warfare, reconquests, killed in a brawl w outlaw
England, King of the English, 939-946, Edmund I ; I (921 - 26 May 946) was King of the English from 939 until his death. His epithets include the Elder, the Deed-doer, the Just, and the Magnificent.[2] was the son of Edward the Elder and his third wife Eadgifu of Kent, and a grandson of Alfred the Great. Edmund was a young child when his father died in 924 and was succeeded by his eldest son and Edmund's half-brother Æthelstan, who died in 939. Edmund then became king. reign was marked by almost constant warfare, including conquests or reconquests of the Midlands, Northumbria, and Strathclyde (the last of which was ceded to Malcolm I of Scotland). was killed in a brawl with an outlaw at Pucklechurch in Gloucestershire after six-and-a-half years as king. He was succeeded by his brother Eadred, who was succeeded by Edmund's sons Eadwig and then Edgar the Peaceful. DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988;

England, 946-955, King of the English, Edread, won Northumbria
England, King of the English, 946-955, Edread; (also Edred, 'the Weak-in-the-Feet'[1]) (923 - 23 November 955) was King of the English from 946 until his death. He was the son of Edward the Elder and his third wife Eadgifu of Kent, and a grandson of Alfred the Great. Eadred came to the throne following the assassination of his older brother, Edmund I. chief achievement of his reign was to bring the Kingdom of Northumbria under total English control, which occurred with the defeat and expulsion of Eric Bloodaxe in 954. died at the age of 32 having never married, and was succeeded by his 15-year-old nephew, Eadwig. DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988;

England, 955-959, King of the English, Eadwig (Edwy), disputes with nobles and church, premature death
England, King of the English, 955-959, Eadwig ; also spelled Edwy or Eadwige (c. 940 - October 959), sometimes called the All-Fair,[2] was King of the English from 955 until his premature death. elder son of Edmund I and Alfgifu of Shaftesbury, Eadwig became king in 955 aged 15 following the death of his uncle Eadred. short reign was tarnished by disputes with nobles and men of the church, including Archbishops Dunstan and Oda. He died in 959, having ruled less than four years. He was buried in the capital Winchester. His brother Edgar the Peaceful succeeded him. DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988;

England, 959-975, King of the English, Edgar the Peaceful, unity, relative stability, advisor Dunstan
England, King of the English, 959-975, Edgar the Peaceful; (c. 943 – 8 July 975), known as the Peaceful or the Peaceable, was King of the English from 959 until his death. He was the younger son of Edmund I and Alfgifu of Shaftesbury, and came to the throne as a teenager, following the death of his older brother Eadwig. king, Edgar further consolidated the political unity achieved by his predecessors, with his reign being noted for its relative stability. most trusted advisor was Dunstan, whom he recalled from exile and made Archbishop of Canterbury. The pinnacle of Edgar's reign was his coronation at Bath in 973, which was organised by Dunstan and forms the basis for the current coronation ceremony. After his death he was succeeded by his son Edward, although the succession was disputed. ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988;

England, 973, Council of Winchester, Regularis Concordia (Winchester)
England, 973, Council of Winchester, Regularis Concordia (Winchester); DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ;

England, 975-978, King of the English, Edward the Martyr
England, King of the English, 975-978, Edward the Martyr; ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988;

England, 978-1016, King of the English, Ethelred the Unready
England, King of the English, 978-1016, Ethelred the Unready ; ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988;

England, 1000-1699, Folder 11th - 17th Century, Normans or Vikings

England, 1000-1099, London, 11th Century History Folder, Viking, William the Conqueror, King of England and Normandy

England, 1013-1014, King of England, Swein Forkbeard
England, 1013-1014, King of England, Swein Forkbeard ; ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012);

England, 1014-1016, King of England, Aethelred the Unready
England, 1014-1016, King of England, Aethelred the Unready ;

England, 1016-1016, King of England, Edmund Ironside, Valourous, resisted the Danes
England, 1016-1016, King of England, Edmund Ironside; MARGARET, QUEEN OF SCOTLAND (16 NOV 1093) ;

England, 1016-1035, King of England, Cnut the Great
England, 1016-1035, King of England, Cnut the Great ; St Brihtwald of Wilton, Commemorated on January 22;

England, 1035-1040, King of England, Harold Harefoot
England, 1035-1040, King of England, Harold Harefoot ; St Brihtwald of Wilton, Commemorated on January 22;

England, 1040-1042, King of England, Harthacnut
England, 1040-1042, King of England, Harthacnut; St Brihtwald of Wilton, Commemorated on January 22;

England, 1042-1066, King of England, Edward the Confessor, Anglo Saxon
England, 1042-1066, King of England, Edward the Confessor; MARGARET, QUEEN OF SCOTLAND (16 NOV 1093); ANSELM OF CANTERBURY, MONK, ARCHBISHOP, THEOLOGIAN (21 APR 1109); St Brihtwald of Wilton, Commemorated on January 22;

England, 1062-1095, Saint of England, Wulfstan of Worchester
England, 1062-1095, Saint of England, Wulfstan of Worchester; WULFSTAN OF WORCESTER, BISHOP (19 JAN 1095);

England, 1066-1087, King of England, William the Conqueror, Norman King
England, 1066-1087, King of England, William the Conqueror, Norman King ; MARGARET, QUEEN OF SCOTLAND (16 NOV 1093); ANSELM OF CANTERBURY, MONK, ARCHBISHOP, THEOLOGIAN (21 APR 1109); WULFSTAN OF WORCESTER, BISHOP (19 JAN 1095);

England, 1087-1100, King of England, William II of England
England, 1087-1100, King of England, William II of England; WULFSTAN OF WORCESTER, BISHOP (19 JAN 1095);

England, 1100-1199, London, 12th Century History Folder, Third Crusade, Richard the Lion Heart, King John

England, 1101-1135, King of England, Henry I of England, son of Conqueror, fought with b and french kings for Normandy, harsh but effective
England, 1100-1135, King of England, Henry I of England; I (c. 1068 – 1 December 1135), also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death in 1135. was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin and the liberal arts. William's death in 1087, Henry's elder brothers Robert Curthose and William Rufus inherited Normandy and England, respectively, Henry was left landless. He purchased the County of Cotentin in western Normandy from Robert, but his brothers deposed him in 1091. He gradually rebuilt his power base in the Cotentin and allied himself with William against Robert. at the place where his brother William died in a hunting accident in 1100, Henry seized the English throne, promising at his coronation to correct many of William's less popular policies. married Matilda of Scotland and they had two surviving children, William Adelin and Empress Matilda; he also had many illegitimate children by his many mistresses. who invaded in 1101, disputed Henry's control of England; this military campaign ended in a negotiated settlement that confirmed Henry as king. peace was short-lived, and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating Robert at the Battle of Tinchebray. kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life. Henry's control of Normandy was challenged by Louis VI of France, Baldwin VII of Flanders and Fulk V of Anjou, who promoted the rival claims of Robert's son, William Clito, and supported a major rebellion in the Duchy between 1116 and 1119. Following Henry's victory at the Battle of Brémule, a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120. by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler, Henry skillfully manipulated the barons in England and Normandy. England, he drew on the existing Anglo-Saxon system of justice, local government and taxation, but also strengthened it with additional institutions, including the royal exchequer and itinerant justices. was also governed through a growing system of justices and an exchequer. Many of the officials who ran Henry's system were "new men" of obscure backgrounds, rather than from families of high status, who rose through the ranks as administrators. encouraged ecclesiastical reform, but became embroiled in a serious dispute in 1101 with Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury, which was resolved through a compromise solution in 1105. supported the Cluniac order and played a major role in the selection of the senior clergy in England and Normandy. son William drowned in the White Ship disaster of 1120, throwing the royal succession into doubt. took a second wife, Adeliza of Louvain, in the hope of having another son, but their marriage was childless. response to this, he declared his daughter Matilda his heir and married her to Geoffrey of Anjou. relationship between Henry and the couple became strained, and fighting broke out along the border with Anjou. Henry died on 1 December 1135 after a week of illness. his plans for Matilda, the king was succeeded by his nephew Stephen of Blois, resulting in a period of civil war known as the Anarchy. 1 Early life, 1068–1099 1.1 Childhood and appearance, 1068–86 1.2 Inheritance, 1087–88 1.3 Count of the Cotentin, 1088–90 1.4 Fall and rise, 1091–99 2 Early reign, 1100–06 2.1 Taking the throne, 1100 2.2 Marriage to Matilda, 1100 2.3 Treaty of Alton, 1101–02 2.4 Conquest of Normandy, 1103–06 3 Government, family and household 3.1 Government, law and court 3.2 Relations with the Church 4 Later reign, 1107–35 4.1 Continental and Welsh politics, 1108–14 4.2 Rebellion, 1115–20 4.3 Succession crisis, 1120–24 4.4 Planning the succession, 1125–34 5 Death and legacy 5.1 Death 5.2 Historiography 6 Family and children 6.1 Legitimate 6.2 Illegitimate 6.3 Family tree 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography life, 1068–1099[edit] and appearance, 1068–86[edit] was probably born in England in 1068, in either the summer or the last weeks of the year, possibly in the town of Selby in Yorkshire.[1][nb 1] His father was William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy who had invaded England in 1066 to become the king of England, establishing lands stretching into Wales. The invasion had created an Anglo-Norman ruling class, many with estates on both sides of the English Channel.[2] These Anglo-Norman barons typically had close links to the Kingdom of France, which was then a loose collection of counties and smaller polities, under only the nominal control of the king.[3] Henry's mother, Matilda of Flanders, was the granddaughter of Robert II of France, and she probably named Henry after her uncle, King Henry I of France.[4] was the youngest of William and Matilda's four sons. Physically he resembled his older brothers Robert Curthose, Richard and William Rufus, being, as historian David Carpenter describes, "short, stocky and barrel-chested," with black hair.[5] As a result of their age differences and Richard's early death, Henry would have probably seen relatively little of his older brothers.[6] He probably knew his sister Adela well, as the two were close in age.[7] There is little documentary evidence for his early years; historians Warren Hollister and Kathleen Thompson suggest he was brought up predominantly in England, while Judith Green argues he was initially brought up in the Duchy.[8][nb 2] He was probably educated by the Church, possibly by Bishop Osmund, the King's chancellor, at Salisbury Cathedral; it is uncertain if this indicated an intent by his parents for Henry to become a member of the clergy.[10][nb 3] It is also uncertain how far Henry's education extended, but he was probably able to read Latin and had some background in the liberal arts.[11] He was given military training by an instructor called Robert Achard, and Henry was knighted by his father on 24 May 1086.[12] 1087–88[edit] century picture ------------------13th-century depiction of Henry 1087, William was fatally injured during a campaign in the Vexin.[13] Henry joined his dying father near Rouen in September, where the King partitioned his possessions among his sons.[14] The rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain; in some parts of France, primogeniture, in which the eldest son would inherit a title, was growing in popularity.[15] In other parts of Europe, including Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be divided, with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands – usually considered to be the most valuable – and younger sons given smaller, or more recently acquired, partitions or estates.[15] dividing his lands, William appears to have followed the Norman tradition, distinguishing between Normandy, which he had inherited, and England, which he had acquired through war.[16] William's second son, Richard, had died in a hunting accident, leaving Henry and his two brothers to inherit William's estate. Robert, the eldest, despite being in armed rebellion against his father at the time of his death, received Normandy.[17] England was given to William Rufus, who was in favour with the dying king.[17] Henry was given a large sum of money, usually reported as £5,000, with the expectation that he would also be given his mother's modest set of lands in Buckinghamshire and Gloucestershire.[18][nb 4] William's funeral at Caen was marred by angry complaints from a local man, and Henry may have been responsible for resolving the dispute by buying off the protester with silver.[20] returned to Normandy, expecting to have been given both the Duchy and England, to find that William Rufus had crossed the Channel and been crowned king.[21] The two brothers disagreed fundamentally over the inheritance, and Robert soon began to plan an invasion of England to seize the kingdom, helped by a rebellion by some of the leading nobles against William Rufus.[22] Henry remained in Normandy and took up a role within Robert's court, possibly either because he was unwilling to side openly with William Rufus, or because Robert might have taken the opportunity to confiscate Henry's inherited money if he had tried to leave.[21][nb 5] William Rufus sequestered Henry's new estates in England, leaving Henry landless.[24] 1088, Robert's plans for the invasion of England began to falter, and he turned to Henry, proposing that his brother lend him some of his inheritance, which Henry refused.[25] Henry and Robert then came to an alternative arrangement, in which Robert would make Henry the count of western Normandy, in exchange for £3,000.[25][nb 6] Henry's lands were a new countship created by a delegation of the ducal authority in the Cotentin, but it extended across the Avranchin, with control over the bishoprics of both.[27] This also gave Henry influence over two major Norman leaders, Hugh d'Avranches and Richard de Redvers, and the abbey of Mont Saint-Michel, whose lands spread out further across the Duchy.[28] Robert's invasion force failed to leave Normandy, leaving William Rufus secure in England.[29] of the Cotentin, 1088–90[edit] of Bishop Odo (wielding club at centre) who imprisoned Henry from 1088–89. From the Bayeux Tapestry. Henry quickly established himself as count, building up a network of followers from western Normandy and eastern Brittany, whom historian John Le Patourel has characterised as "Henry's gang".[30] His early supporters included Roger of Mandeville, Richard of Redvers, Richard d'Avranches and Robert Fitzhamon, along with the churchman Roger of Salisbury.[31] Robert attempted to go back on his deal with Henry and re-appropriate the county, but Henry's grip was already sufficiently firm to prevent this.[32] Robert's rule of the duchy was chaotic, and parts of Henry's lands became almost independent of central control from Rouen.[33] this period, neither William nor Robert seems to have trusted Henry.[34] Waiting until the rebellion against William Rufus was safely over, Henry returned to England in July 1088.[35] He met with the King but was unable to persuade him to grant him their mother's estates, and travelled back to Normandy in the autumn.[36] While he had been away, however, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who regarded Henry as a potential competitor, had convinced Robert that Henry was conspiring against the duke with William Rufus.[37] On landing, Odo seized Henry and imprisoned him in Neuilly-la-Forêt, and Robert took back the county of the Cotentin.[38] Henry was held there over the winter, but in the spring of 1089 the senior elements of the Normandy nobility prevailed upon Robert to release him.[39] no longer formally the Count of Cotentin, Henry continued to control the west of Normandy.[40] The struggle between his brothers continued. William Rufus continued to put down resistance to his rule in England, but began to build a number of alliances against Robert with barons in Normandy and neighbouring Ponthieu.[41] Robert allied himself with Philip I of France.[42] In late 1090 William Rufus encouraged Conan Pilatus, a powerful burgher in Rouen, to rebel against Robert; Conan was supported by most of Rouen and made appeals to the neighbouring ducal garrisons to switch allegiance as well.[43] issued an appeal for help to his barons, and Henry was the first to arrive in Rouen in November.[44] Violence broke out, leading to savage, confused street fighting as both sides attempted to take control of the city.[44] Robert and Henry left the castle to join the battle, but Robert then retreated, leaving Henry to continue the fighting.[45] The battle turned in favour of the ducal forces and Henry took Conan prisoner.[45] Henry was angry that Conan had turned against his feudal lord. He had him taken to the top of Rouen Castle and then, despite Conan's offers to pay a huge ransom, threw him off the top of the castle to his death.[46] Contemporaries considered Henry to have acted appropriately in making an example of Conan, and Henry became famous for his exploits in the battle.[47] and rise, 1091–99[edit] of Mont St Michel ----------------- Mont Saint-Michel, site of the 1091 siege the aftermath, Robert forced Henry to leave Rouen, probably because Henry's role in the fighting had been more prominent than his own, and possibly because Henry had asked to be formally reinstated as the count of the Cotentin.[48] In early 1091, William Rufus invaded Normandy with a sufficiently large army to bring Robert to the negotiating table.[49] The two brothers signed a treaty at Rouen, granting William Rufus a range of lands and castles in Normandy. In return, William Rufus promised to support Robert's attempts to regain control of the neighbouring county of Maine, once under Norman control, and help in regaining control over the duchy, including Henry's lands.[49] They nominated each other as heirs to England and Normandy, excluding Henry from any succession while either one of them lived.[50] now broke out between Henry and his brothers.[51] Henry mobilised a mercenary army in the west of Normandy, but as William Rufus and Robert's forces advanced, his network of baronial support melted away.[52] Henry focused his remaining forces at Mont Saint-Michel, where he was besieged, probably in March 1091.[53] The site was easy to defend, but lacked fresh water.[54] The chronicler William of Malmesbury suggested that when Henry's water ran short, Robert allowed his brother fresh supplies, leading to remonstrations between Robert and William Rufus.[55] The events of the final days of the siege are unclear: the besiegers had begun to argue about the future strategy for the campaign, but Henry then abandoned Mont Saint-Michel, probably as part of a negotiated surrender.[56][nb 7] He left for Brittany and crossed over into France.[57] next steps are not well documented; one chronicler, Orderic Vitalis, suggests that he travelled in the French Vexin, along the Normandy border, for over a year with a small band of followers.[58] By the end of the year, Robert and William Rufus had fallen out once again, and the Treaty of Rouen had been abandoned.[59] In 1092, Henry and his followers seized the Normandy town of Domfront.[60] Domfront had previously been controlled by Robert of Bellême, but the inhabitants disliked his rule and invited Henry to take over the town, which he did in a bloodless coup.[61] Over the next two years, Henry re-established his network of supporters across western Normandy, forming what Judith Green terms a "court in waiting".[62] By 1094, he was allocating lands and castles to his followers as if he were the Duke of Normandy.[63] William Rufus began to support Henry with money, encouraging his campaign against Robert, and Henry used some of this to construct a substantial castle at Domfront.[64] Rufus crossed into Normandy to take the war to Robert in 1094, and when progress stalled, called upon Henry for assistance.[65] Henry responded, but travelled to London instead of joining the main campaign further east in Normandy, possibly at the request of the King, who in any event abandoned the campaign and returned to England.[66][nb 8] Over the next few years, Henry appears to have strengthened his power base in western Normandy, visiting England occasionally to attend at William Rufus's court.[68] In 1095 Pope Urban II called the First Crusade, encouraging knights from across Europe to join.[67] Robert joined the Crusade, borrowing money from William Rufus to do so, and granting the King temporary custody of his part of the Duchy in exchange.[69] The King appeared confident of regaining the remainder of Normandy from Robert, and Henry appeared ever closer to William Rufus. They campaigned together in the Norman Vexin between 1097 and 1098.[70] reign, 1100–06[edit] the throne, 1100[edit] Pontificals --------------A 17th-century manuscript drawing of Henry's coronation. the afternoon of 2 August 1100, King William went hunting in the New Forest, accompanied by a team of huntsmen and a number of the Norman nobility, including Henry.[71] An arrow, possibly shot by the baron Walter Tirel, hit and killed William Rufus.[72] Numerous conspiracy theories have been put forward suggesting that the King was killed deliberately; most modern historians reject these, as hunting was a risky activity, and such accidents were common.[73][nb 9] Chaos broke out, and Tirel fled the scene for France, either because he had shot the fatal arrow, or because he had been incorrectly accused and feared that he would be made a scapegoat for the King's death.[72] rode to Winchester, where an argument ensued as to who now had the best claim to the throne.[75] William of Breteuil championed the rights of Robert, who was still abroad, returning from the Crusade, and to whom Henry and the barons had given homage in previous years.[76] Henry argued that, unlike Robert, he had been born to a reigning king and queen, thereby giving him a claim under the right of porphyrogeniture.[77] Tempers flared, but Henry, supported by Henry de Beaumont and Robert of Meulan, held sway and persuaded the barons to follow him.[78] He occupied Winchester Castle and seized the royal treasury.[79] was hastily crowned king in Westminster Abbey on 5 August by Maurice, the bishop of London, as Anselm, the archbishop of Canterbury, had been exiled by William Rufus, and Thomas, the archbishop of York, was in the north of England at Ripon.[80] In accordance with English tradition and in a bid to legitimise his rule, Henry issued a coronation charter laying out various commitments.[81] The new king presented himself as having restored order to a trouble-torn country.[82] He announced that he would abandon William Rufus's policies towards the Church, which had been seen as oppressive by the clergy; he promised to prevent royal abuses of the barons' property rights, and assured a return to the gentler customs of Edward the Confessor; he asserted that he would "establish a firm peace" across England and ordered "that this peace shall henceforth be kept".[83] addition to his existing circle of supporters, many of whom were richly rewarded with new lands, Henry quickly co-opted many of the existing administration into his new royal household.[84] William Giffard, William Rufus's chancellor, was made the bishop of Winchester, and the prominent sheriffs Urse d'Abetot, Haimo Dapifer and Robert Fitzhamon continued to play a senior role in government.[84] By contrast, the unpopular Ranulf Flambard, the bishop of Durham and a key member of the previous regime, was imprisoned in the Tower of London and charged with corruption.[85] The late king had left many Church positions unfilled, and Henry set about nominating candidates to these, in an effort to build further support for his new government.[86] The appointments needed to be consecrated, and Henry wrote to Anselm, apologising for having been crowned while the archbishop was still in France and asking him to return at once.[87] to Matilda, 1100[edit] ------------Picture of Matilda first wife, Matilda of Scotland 11 November 1100 Henry married Matilda, the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland.[88] Henry was now around 31 years old, but late marriages for noblemen were not unusual in the 11th century.[89] The pair had probably first met earlier the previous decade, possibly being introduced through Bishop Osmund of Salisbury.[90] Historian Warren Hollister argues that Henry and Matilda were emotionally close, but their union was also certainly politically motivated.[91][nb 10] Matilda had originally been named Edith, an Anglo-Saxon name, and was a member of the West Saxon royal family, being the niece of Edgar the Ætheling, the great-granddaughter of Edmund Ironside and a descendant of Alfred the Great.[93] For Henry, marrying Matilda gave his reign increased legitimacy, and for Matilda, an ambitious woman, it was an opportunity for high status and power in England.[94] had been educated in a sequence of convents, however, and may well have taken the vows to formally become a nun, which formed an obstacle to the marriage progressing.[95] She did not wish to be a nun and appealed to Anselm for permission to marry Henry, and the Archbishop established a council at Lambeth Palace to judge the issue.[95] Despite some dissenting voices, the council concluded that although Matilda had lived in a convent, she had not actually become a nun and was therefore free to marry, a judgement that Anselm then affirmed, allowing the marriage to proceed.[95][nb 11] Matilda proved an effective queen for Henry, acting as a regent in England on occasion, addressing and presiding over councils, and extensively supporting the arts.[97] The couple soon had two children, Matilda, born in 1102, and William Adelin, born in 1103; it is possible that they also had a second son, Richard, who died young.[98][nb 12] Following the birth of these children, Matilda preferred to remain based in Westminster while Henry travelled across England and Normandy, either for religious reasons or because she enjoyed being involved in the machinery of royal governance.[100] had a considerable sexual appetite and enjoyed a substantial number of sexual partners, resulting in many illegitimate children, at least nine sons and 13 daughters, many of whom he appears to have recognised and supported.[101] It was normal for unmarried Anglo-Norman noblemen to have sexual relations with prostitutes and local women, and kings were also expected to have mistresses.[102][nb 13] Some of these relationships occurred before Henry was married, but many others took place after his marriage to Matilda.[103] Henry had a wide range of mistresses from a range of backgrounds, and the relationships appear to have been conducted relatively openly.[100] He may have chosen some of his noble mistresses for political purposes, but the evidence to support this theory is limited.[104] of Alton, 1101–02[edit] of Henry -----------Early 14th-century depiction of Henry early 1101, Henry's new regime was established and functioning, but many of the Anglo-Norman elite still supported his brother Robert, or would be prepared to switch sides if Robert appeared likely to gain power in England.[105] In February, Flambard escaped from the Tower of London and crossed the Channel to Normandy, where he injected fresh direction and energy to Robert's attempts to mobilise an invasion force.[106] By July, Robert had formed an army and a fleet, ready to move against Henry in England.[107] Raising the stakes in the conflict, Henry seized Flambard's lands and, with the support of Anselm, Flambard was removed from his position as bishop.[108] The King held court in April and June, where the nobility renewed their oaths of allegiance to him, but their support still appeared partial and shaky.[109] the invasion imminent, Henry mobilised his forces and fleet outside Pevensey, close to Robert's anticipated landing site, training some of them personally in how to counter cavalry charges.[110] Despite English levies and knights owing military service to the Church arriving in considerable numbers, many of his barons did not appear.[111] Anselm intervened with some of the doubters, emphasising the religious importance of their loyalty to Henry.[112] Robert unexpectedly landed further up the coast at Portsmouth on 20 July with a modest force of a few hundred men, but these were quickly joined by many of the barons in England.[113] However, instead of marching into nearby Winchester and seizing Henry's treasury, Robert paused, giving Henry time to march west and intercept the invasion force.[114] two armies met at Alton, Hampshire, where peace negotiations began, possibly initiated by either Henry or Robert, and probably supported by Flambard.[114] The brothers then agreed to the Treaty of Alton, under which Robert released Henry from his oath of homage and recognised him as king; Henry renounced his claims on western Normandy, except for Domfront, and agreed to pay Robert £2,000 a year for life; if either brother died without a male heir, the other would inherit his lands; the barons whose lands had been seized by either the King or the Duke for supporting his rival would have them returned, and Flambard would be reinstated as bishop; the two brothers would campaign together to defend their territories in Normandy.[115][nb 14] Robert remained in England for a few months more with Henry before returning to Normandy.[117] the treaty, Henry set about inflicting severe penalties on the barons who had stood against him during the invasion.[118] William de Warenne, the Earl of Surrey, was accused of fresh crimes, which were not covered by the Alton amnesty, and was banished from England.[119] In 1102 Henry then turned against Robert of Bellême and his brothers, the most powerful of the barons, accusing him of 45 different offences.[120] Robert escaped and took up arms against Henry.[121] Henry besieged Robert's castles at Arundel, Tickhill and Shrewsbury Castles, pushing down into the south-west to attack Bridgnorth.[122] His power base in England broken, Robert accepted Henry's offer of banishment and left the country for Normandy.[123] of Normandy, 1103–06[edit] of Tinchebray ------The village of Tinchebray in 2008 network of allies in Normandy became stronger during 1103.[124] He arranged the marriages of his illegitimate daughters, Juliane and Matilda, to Eustace of Breteuil and Rotrou III, Count of Perche, respectively, the latter union securing the Norman border.[125] Henry attempted to win over other members of the Norman nobility and gave other English estates and lucrative offers to key Norman lords.[126] Duke Robert continued to fight Robert of Bellême, but the Duke's position worsened, until by 1104, he had to ally himself formally with Bellême to survive.[127] Arguing that the Duke had broken the terms of their treaty, the King crossed over the Channel to Domfront, where he met with senior barons from across Normandy, eager to ally themselves with him.[128] He confronted the Duke and accused him of siding with his enemies, before returning to England.[129] continued to disintegrate into chaos.[130] In 1105, Henry sent his friend Robert Fitzhamon and a force of knights into the Duchy, apparently to provoke a confrontation with Duke Robert.[131] Fitzhamon was captured, and Henry used this as an excuse to invade, promising to restore peace and order.[130] Henry had the support of most of the neighbouring counts around Normandy's borders, and King Philip of France was persuaded to remain neutral.[132] Henry occupied western Normandy, and advanced east on Bayeux, where Fitzhamon was held.[133] The city refused to surrender, and Henry besieged it, burning it to the ground.[133] Terrified of meeting the same fate, the town of Caen switched sides and surrendered, allowing Henry to advance on Falaise, Calvados, which he took with some casualties.[134] His campaign stalled, and the King instead began peace discussions with Robert.[135] The negotiations were inconclusive and the fighting dragged on until Christmas, when Henry returned to England.[136] invaded again in July 1106, hoping to provoke a decisive battle.[137] After some initial tactical successes, he turned south-west towards the castle of Tinchebray.[138] He besieged the castle and Duke Robert, supported by Robert of Bellême, advanced from Falaise to relieve it.[138] After attempts at negotiation failed, the Battle of Tinchebray took place, probably on 28 September.[139][nb 15] The battle lasted around an hour, and began with a charge by Duke Robert's cavalry; the infantry and dismounted knights of both sides then joined the battle.[141] Henry's reserves, led by Elias I, Count of Maine, and Alan IV, Duke of Brittany, attacked the enemy's flanks, routing first Bellême's troops and then the bulk of the ducal forces.[142] Duke Robert was taken prisoner, but Bellême escaped.[142] mopped up the remaining resistance in Normandy, and Duke Robert ordered his last garrisons to surrender.[143] Reaching Rouen, Henry reaffirmed the laws and customs of Normandy and took homage from the leading barons and citizens.[144] The lesser prisoners taken at Tinchebray were released, but the Duke and several other leading nobles were imprisoned indefinitely.[145] The Duke's son, William Clito, was only three years old and was released to the care of Helias of Saint-Saens, a Norman baron.[146] Henry reconciled himself with Robert of Bellême, who gave up the ducal lands he had seized and rejoined the royal court.[147] Henry had no way of legally removing the Duchy from his brother, and initially Henry avoided using the title "duke" at all, emphasising that, as the King of England, he was only acting as the guardian of the troubled Duchy.[148] family and household[edit] Government, law and court[edit] Henry's royal seal, showing the King on horseback (l) and seated on his throne (r) information on English government during this period: England in the Middle Ages § High Middle Ages (1066–1272) inherited the kingdom of England from William Rufus, giving him a claim of suzerainty over Wales and Scotland, and acquired the Duchy of Normandy, a complex entity with troubled borders.[149] The borders between England and Scotland were still uncertain during Henry's reign, with Anglo-Norman influence pushing northwards through Cumbria, but his relationship with King David I of Scotland was generally good, partially due to Henry's marriage to his sister.[150] In Wales, Henry used his power to coerce and charm the indigenous Welsh princes, while Norman Marcher Lords pushed across the valleys of South Wales.[151] Normandy was controlled via various interlocking networks of ducal, ecclesiastical and family contacts, backed by a growing string of important ducal castles along the borders.[152] Alliances and relationships with neighbouring counties along the Norman border were particularly important to maintaining the stability of the Duchy.[153] ruled through the various barons and lords in England and Normandy, whom he manipulated skilfully for political effect.[154] Political friendships, termed amicitia in Latin, were important during the 12th century, and Henry maintained a wide range of these, mediating between his friends in various factions across his realm when necessary, and rewarding those who were loyal to him.[155] He also had a reputation for punishing those barons who stood against him, and he maintained an effective network of informers and spies who reported to him on events.[156] Henry was a harsh, firm ruler, but not excessively so by the standards of the day.[157] Over time, he increased the degree of his control over the barons, removing his enemies and bolstering his friends until the "reconstructed baronage", as historian Warren Hollister describes it, was predominantly loyal and dependent on the King.[158] itinerant royal court comprised various parts.[159] At the heart was his domestic household, called the domus; a wider grouping was termed the familia regis, and formal gatherings of the court were termed curia.[160] The domus was divided into several parts. The chapel, headed by the chancellor, looked after the royal documents, the chamber dealt with financial affairs and the master-marshal was responsible for travel and accommodation.[161] The familia regis included Henry's mounted household troops, up to several hundred strong, who came from a wider range of social backgrounds, and could be deployed across England and Normandy as required.[162] Initially Henry continued his father's practice of regular crown-wearing ceremonies at his curia, but they became less frequent as the years passed.[163] Henry's court was grand and ostentatious, financing the construction of large new buildings and castles with a range of precious gifts on display, including his private menagerie of exotic animals, which he kept at Woodstock Palace.[164] Despite being a lively community, Henry's court was more tightly controlled than those of previous kings.[165] Strict rules controlled personal behaviour and prohibited members of the court from pillaging neighbouring villages, as had been the norm under William Rufus.[165] was responsible for a substantial expansion of the royal justice system.[166][nb 16] In England, Henry drew on the existing Anglo-Saxon system of justice, local government and taxes, but strengthened it with additional central governmental institutions.[168] Roger of Salisbury began to develop the royal exchequer after 1110, using it to collect and audit revenues from the King's sheriffs in the shires.[169] Itinerant justices began to emerge under Henry, travelling around the country managing eyre courts, and many more laws were formally recorded.[170] Henry gathered increasing revenue from the expansion of royal justice, both from fines and from fees.[171] The first Pipe Roll that is known to have survived dates from 1130, recording royal expenditures.[172] Henry reformed the coinage in 1107, 1108 and in 1125, inflicting harsh corporal punishments to English coiners who had been found guilty of debasing the currency.[173][nb 17] In Normandy, he restored law and order after 1106, operating through a body of Norman justices and an exchequer system similar to that in England.[175] Norman institutions grew in scale and scope under Henry, although less quickly than in England.[176] Many of the officials that ran Henry's system were termed "new men", relatively low-born individuals who rose through the ranks as administrators, managing justice or the royal revenues.[177][nb 18] with the Church[edit] information on religion in England during this period: Religion in Medieval England and the King[edit] of seal seal of Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury ability to govern was intimately bound up with the Church, which formed the key to the administration of both England and Normandy, and this relationship changed considerably over the course of his reign.[179] William the Conqueror had reformed the English Church with the support of his Archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfranc, who became a close colleague and advisor to the King.[180][nb 19] Under William Rufus this arrangement had collapsed, the King and Archbishop Anselm had become estranged and Anselm had gone into exile. Henry also believed in Church reform, but on taking power in England he became embroiled in the investiture controversy.[182] argument concerned who should invest a new bishop with his staff and ring: traditionally, this had been carried out by the King in a symbolic demonstration of royal power, but Pope Urban II had condemned this practice in 1099, arguing that only the papacy could carry out this task, and declaring that the clergy should not give homage to their local temporal rulers.[183] Anselm returned to England from exile in 1100 having heard Urban's pronouncement, and informed Henry that he would be complying with the Pope's wishes.[184] Henry was in a difficult position. On one hand, the symbolism and homage was important to him; on the other hand, he needed Anselm's support in his struggle with his brother Duke Robert.[185] stuck firmly to the letter of the papal decree, despite Henry's attempts to persuade him to give way in return for a vague assurance of a future royal compromise.[186] Matters escalated, with Anselm going back into exile and Henry confiscating the revenues of his estates. Anselm threatened excommunication, and in July 1105 the two men finally negotiated a solution.[187] A distinction was drawn between the secular and ecclesiastical powers of the prelates, under which Henry gave up his right to invest his clergy, but retained the custom of requiring them to come and do homage for the temporalities, the landed properties they held in England.[188] Despite this argument, the pair worked closely together, combining to deal with Duke Robert's invasion of 1101, for example, and holding major reforming councils in 1102 and 1108.[189] long-running dispute between the Archbishops of Canterbury and York flared up under Anselm's successor, Ralph d'Escures.[190] Canterbury, traditionally the senior of the two establishments, had long argued that the Archbishop of York should formally promise to obey their Archbishop, but York argued that the two episcopates were independent within the English Church and that no such promise was necessary. Henry supported the primacy of Canterbury, to ensure that England remained under a single ecclesiastical administration, but the Pope preferred the case of York.[190] The matter was complicated by Henry's personal friendship with Thurstan, the Archbishop of York, and the King's desire that the case should not end up in a papal court, beyond royal control.[190] Henry needed the support of the Papacy in his struggle with Louis of France, however, and therefore allowed Thurstan to attend the Council of Rheims in 1119, where Thurstan was then consecrated by the Pope with no mention of any duty towards Canterbury.[191] Henry believed that this went against assurances Thurstan had previously made and exiled him from England until the King and Archbishop came to a negotiated solution the following year.[192] after the investiture dispute, Henry continued to play a major role in the selection of new English and Norman bishops and archbishops.[193] He appointed many of his officials to bishoprics and, as historian Martin Brett suggests, "some of his officers could look forward to a mitre with all but absolute confidence".[194] Henry's chancellors, and those of his queens, became bishops of Durham, Hereford, London, Lincoln, Winchester and Salisbury.[195] Henry increasingly drew on a wider range of these bishops as advisors – particularly Roger of Salisbury – breaking with the earlier tradition of relying primarily on the Archbishop of Canterbury.[196] The result was a cohesive body of administrators through which Henry could exercise careful influence, holding general councils to discuss key matters of policy.[197] This stability shifted slightly after 1125, when he began to inject a wider range of candidates into the senior positions of the Church, often with more reformist views, and the impact of this generation would be felt in the years after Henry's death.[198] beliefs and piety[edit] of Reading Abbey ruined chapter house of Reading Abbey in 2008 other rulers of the period, Henry donated to the Church and patronised various religious communities, but contemporary chroniclers did not consider him an unusually pious king.[199] His personal beliefs and piety may, however, have developed during the course of his life. Henry had always taken an interest in religion, but in his later years he may have become much more concerned about spiritual affairs.[200] If so, the major shifts in his thinking would appear to have occurred after 1120, when his son William Adelin died, and 1129, when his daughter's marriage teetered on the verge of collapse.[201][nb 20] a proponent of religious reform, Henry gave extensively to reformist groups within the Church.[203] He was a keen supporter of the Cluniac order, probably for intellectual reasons.[204] He donated money to the abbey at Cluny itself, and after 1120 gave generously to Reading Abbey, a Cluniac establishment.[204] Construction on Reading began in 1121, and Henry endowed it with rich lands and extensive privileges, making it a symbol of his dynastic lines.[205] He also focused effort on promoting the conversion of communities of clerks into Augustinian canons, the foundation of leper hospitals, expanding the provision of nunneries, and the charismatic orders of the Savigniacs and Tironensians.[206] He was an avid collector of relics, sending an embassy to Constantinople in 1118 to collect Byzantine items, some of which were donated to Reading Abbey.[207] reign, 1107–35[edit] and Welsh politics, 1108–14[edit] faced an increased threat from France, Anjou and Flanders after 1108.[208] King Louis VI succeeded to the French throne in 1108 and began to reassert central royal power.[208] Louis demanded Henry give homage to him and that two disputed castles along the Normandy border be placed into the control of neutral castellans.[209] Henry refused, and Louis responded by mobilising an army.[210] After some arguments, the two kings negotiated a truce and retreated without fighting, leaving the underlying issues unresolved.[210][nb 21] Fulk V assumed power in Anjou in 1109 and began to rebuild Angevin authority.[212] He inherited the county of Maine, but refused to recognise Henry as his feudal lord and instead allied himself with Louis.[213] Robert II of Flanders also briefly joined the alliance, before his death in 1111.[214] of coin coin of Henry's rival, Louis VI of France 1108, Henry betrothed his six-year-old daughter, Matilda, to Henry V, the future Holy Roman Emperor.[215] For King Henry, this was a prestigious match; for Henry V, it was an opportunity to restore his financial situation and fund an expedition to Italy, as he received a dowry of £6,666 from England and Normandy.[216][nb 22] Raising this money proved challenging, and required the implementation of a special "aid", or tax, in England.[218] Matilda was crowned German queen in 1110.[219] responded to the French and Angevin threat by expanding his own network of supporters beyond the Norman borders.[220] Some Norman barons deemed unreliable were arrested or dispossessed, and Henry used their forfeited estates to bribe his potential allies in the neighbouring territories, in particular Maine.[221] Around 1110, Henry attempted to arrest the young William Clito, but William's mentors moved him to the safety of Flanders before he could be taken.[222] At about this time, Henry probably began to style himself as the duke of Normandy.[223][nb 23] Robert of Bellême turned against Henry once again, and when he appeared at Henry's court in 1112 in a new role as a French ambassador, he was arrested and imprisoned.[225] broke out in France and Anjou between 1111 and 1113, and Henry crossed into Normandy to support his nephew, Count Theobald II, Count of Champagne, who had sided against Louis in the uprising.[226] In a bid to isolate Louis diplomatically, Henry betrothed his young son, William Adelin, to Fulk's daughter Matilda, and married his illegitimate daughter Matilda to Duke Conan III of Brittany, creating alliances with Anjou and Brittany respectively.[227] Louis backed down and in March 1113 met with Henry near Gisors to agree a peace settlement, giving Henry the disputed fortresses and confirming Henry's overlordship of Maine, Bellême and Brittany.[228] the situation in Wales was deteriorating. Henry had conducted a campaign in South Wales in 1108, pushing out royal power in the region and colonising the area around Pembroke with Flemings.[229] By 1114, some of the resident Norman lords were under attack, while in Mid-Wales, Owain ap Cadwgan blinded one of the political hostages he was holding, and in North Wales Gruffudd ap Cynan threatened the power of the Earl of Chester.[230] Henry sent three armies into Wales that year, with Gilbert Fitz Richard leading a force from the south, Alexander, King of Scotland, pressing from the north and Henry himself advancing into Mid-Wales.[230] Owain and Gruffudd sued for peace, and Henry accepted a political compromise.[231] He reinforced the Welsh Marches with his own appointees, strengthening the border territories.[232] 1115–20[edit] pennies of Henry I, struck at the Oxford mint about the succession, Henry sought to persuade Louis VI to accept his son, William Adelin, as the legitimate future Duke of Normandy, in exchange for his son's homage.[233] Henry crossed into Normandy in 1115 and assembled the Norman barons to swear loyalty; he also almost successfully negotiated a settlement with Louis, affirming William's right to the Duchy in exchange for a large sum of money. However, Louis, backed by his ally Baldwin of Flanders, instead declared that he considered William Clito the legitimate heir to the Duchy.[234] broke out after Henry returned to Normandy with an army to support Theobald of Blois, who was under attack from Louis.[235] Henry and Louis raided each other's towns along the border, and a wider conflict then broke out, probably in 1116.[235][nb 24] Henry was pushed onto the defensive as French, Flemish and Angevin forces began to pillage the Normandy countryside.[237] Amaury III of Montfort and many other barons rose up against Henry, and there was an assassination plot from within his own household.[237] Henry's wife, Matilda, died in early 1118, but the situation in Normandy was sufficiently pressing that Henry was unable to return to England for her funeral.[238] responded by mounting campaigns against the rebel barons and deepening his alliance with Theobald.[239] Baldwin of Flanders was wounded in battle and died in September 1118, easing the pressure on Normandy from the north-east.[240] Henry attempted to crush a revolt in the city of Alençon, but was defeated by Fulk and the Angevin army.[241] Forced to retreat from Alençon, Henry's position deteriorated alarmingly, as his resources became overstretched and more barons abandoned his cause.[242] Early in 1119, Eustace of Breteuil and Henry's daughter, Juliana, threatened to join the baronial revolt.[243] Hostages were exchanged in a bid to avoid conflict, but relations broke down and both sides mutilated their captives.[244] Henry attacked and took the town of Breteuil, Eure, despite Juliana's attempt to kill her father with a crossbow.[244][nb 25] In the aftermath, Henry dispossessed the couple of almost all of their lands in Normandy.[246] situation improved in May 1119 when he enticed Fulk to switch sides by finally agreeing to marry William Adelin to Fulk's daughter, Matilda, and paying Fulk a large sum of money.[247] Fulk left for the Levant, leaving the County of Maine in Henry's care, and the King was free to focus on crushing his remaining enemies.[248] During the summer Henry advanced into the Norman Vexin, where he encountered Louis's army, resulting in the Battle of Brémule.[249] Henry appears to have deployed scouts and then organised his troops into several carefully formed lines of dismounted knights.[250] Unlike Henry's forces, the French knights remained mounted; they hastily charged the Anglo-Norman positions, breaking through the first rank of the defences but then becoming entangled in Henry's second line of knights.[251] Surrounded, the French army began to collapse.[250] In the melee, Henry was hit by a sword blow, but his armour protected him.[252] Louis and William Clito escaped from the battle, leaving Henry to return to Rouen in triumph.[253] war slowly petered out after this battle, and Louis took the dispute over Normandy to Pope Callixtus II's council in Reims that October.[254] Henry faced a number of French complaints concerning his acquisition and subsequent management of Normandy, and despite being defended by Geoffrey, the Archbishop of Rouen, Henry's case was shouted down by the pro-French elements of the council.[255] Callixtus declined to support Louis, however, and merely advised the two rulers to seek peace.[256] Amaury de Montfort came to terms with Henry, but Henry and William Clito failed to find a mutually satisfactory compromise.[257] In June 1120, Henry and Louis formally made peace on terms advantageous to the King of England: William Adelin gave homage to Louis, and in return Louis confirmed William's rights to the Duchy.[258] crisis, 1120–24[edit] of White Ship 14th-century depiction of the sinking of the White Ship at Barfleur on 25 November 1120 succession plans were thrown into chaos by the sinking of the White Ship on 25 November 1120.[259] Henry had left the port of Barfleur for England in the early evening, leaving William Adelin and many of the younger members of the court to follow on that night in a separate vessel, the White Ship.[260] Both the crew and passengers were drunk and, just outside the harbour, the ship hit a submerged rock.[261][nb 26] The ship sank, killing as many as 300 people, with only one survivor, a butcher from Rouen.[261] Henry's court was initially too scared to report William's death to the King. When he was finally told, he collapsed with grief.[263] disaster left Henry with no legitimate son, his various nephews now the closest possible male heirs.[264] Henry announced he would take a new wife, Adeliza of Louvain, opening up the prospect of a new royal son, and the two were married at Windsor Castle in January 1121.[265][nb 27] Henry appears to have chosen her because she was attractive and came from a prestigious noble line. Adeliza seems to have been fond of Henry and joined him in his travels, probably to maximise the chances of her conceiving a child.[267] The White Ship disaster initiated fresh conflict in Wales, where the drowning of Richard, Earl of Chester, encouraged a rebellion led by Maredudd ap Bleddyn.[268] Henry intervened in North Wales that summer with an army and, although he was hit by a Welsh arrow, the campaign reaffirmed royal power across the region.[268] alliance with Anjou – which had been based on his son William marrying Fulk's daughter Matilda – began to disintegrate.[269] Fulk returned from the Levant and demanded that Henry return Matilda and her dowry, a range of estates and fortifications in Maine.[269] Matilda left for Anjou, but Henry argued that the dowry had in fact originally belonged to him before it came into the possession of Fulk, and so declined to hand the estates back to Anjou.[270] Fulk married his daughter Sibylla to William Clito, and granted them Maine.[271] Once again, conflict broke out, as Amaury de Montfort allied himself with Fulk and led a revolt along the Norman-Anjou border in 1123.[271] Amaury was joined by several other Norman barons, headed by Waleran de Beaumont, one of the sons of Henry's old ally, Robert of Meulan.[272][nb 28] dispatched Robert of Gloucester and Ranulf le Meschin to Normandy and then intervened himself in late 1123.[274] He began the process of besieging the rebel castles, before wintering in the Duchy.[275] In the spring of 1124, campaigning began again. In the battle of Bourgthéroulde, Odo Borleng, castellan of Bernay, Eure, led the King's army and received intelligence that the rebels were departing from the rebel base in Beaumont-le-Roger allowing him to ambush them as they traversed through the Brotonne forest. Waleran charged the royal forces, but his knights were cut down by Odo's archers and the rebels were quickly overwhelmed.[276] Waleran was captured, but Amaury escaped.[276] Henry mopped up the remainder of the rebellion, blinding some of the rebel leaders – considered, at the time, a more merciful punishment than execution – and recovering the last rebel castles.[277] He paid Pope Callixtus a large amount of money, in exchange for the Papacy annulling the marriage of William Clito and Sibylla on the grounds of consanguinity.[278][nb 29] the succession, 1125–34[edit] and Adeliza did not conceive any children, generating prurient speculation as to the possible explanation, and the future of the dynasty appeared at risk.[280][nb 30] Henry may have begun to look among his nephews for a possible heir. He may have considered Stephen of Blois as a possible option and, perhaps in preparation for this, he arranged a beneficial marriage for Stephen to a wealthy heiress, Matilda.[282] Theobald of Blois, his close ally, may have also felt that he was in favour with Henry.[283] William Clito, who was King Louis's preferred choice, remained opposed to Henry and was therefore unsuitable.[284] Henry may have also considered his own illegitimate son, Robert of Gloucester, as a possible candidate, but English tradition and custom would have looked unfavourably on this.[285] plans shifted when the Empress Matilda's husband, the Emperor Henry, died in 1125.[286] The King recalled his daughter to England the next year and declared that, should he die without a male heir, she was to be his rightful successor.[287] The Anglo-Norman barons were gathered together at Westminster at Christmas 1126, where they swore to recognise Matilda and any future legitimate heir she might have.[287][nb 31] Putting forward a woman as a potential heir in this way was unusual: opposition to Matilda continued to exist within the English court, and Louis was vehemently opposed to her candidacy.[289] conflict broke out in 1127, when the childless Charles I, Count of Flanders, was murdered, creating a local succession crisis.[290] Backed by King Louis, William Clito was chosen by the Flemings to become their new ruler.[291] This development potentially threatened Normandy, and Henry began to finance a proxy war in Flanders, promoting the claims of William's Flemish rivals.[292] In an effort to disrupt the French alliance with William, Henry mounted an attack into France in 1128, forcing Louis to cut his aid to William.[293] William died unexpectedly in July, removing the last major challenger to Henry's rule and bringing the war in Flanders to a halt.[294] Without William, the baronial opposition in Normandy lacked a leader. A fresh peace was made with France, and Henry was finally able to release the remaining prisoners from the revolt of 1123, including Waleran of Meulan, who was rehabilitated into the royal court.[295] Henry rebuilt his alliance with Fulk of Anjou, this time by marrying Matilda to Fulk's eldest son, Geoffrey.[296] The pair were betrothed in 1127 and married the following year.[297] It is unknown whether Henry intended Geoffrey to have any future claim on England or Normandy, and he was probably keeping his son-in-law's status deliberately uncertain. Similarly, although Matilda was granted a number of Normandy castles as part of her dowry, it was not specified when the couple would actually take possession of them.[298] Fulk left Anjou for Jerusalem in 1129, declaring Geoffrey the Count of Anjou and Maine.[299] The marriage proved difficult, as the couple did not particularly like each other and the disputed castles proved a point of contention, resulting in Matilda returning to Normandy later that year.[300] Henry appears to have blamed Geoffrey for the separation, but in 1131 the couple were reconciled.[301] Much to the pleasure and relief of Henry, Matilda then gave birth to a sequence of two sons, Henry and Geoffrey, in 1133 and 1134.[302] and legacy[edit] of Henry 14th-century depiction of Henry mourning the death of his son between Henry, Matilda, and Geoffrey became increasingly strained during the King's final years. Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England. In 1135 they urged Henry to hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still alive, and insisted that the Norman nobility swear immediate allegiance to her, thereby giving the couple a more powerful position after Henry's death.[303] Henry angrily declined to do so, probably out of concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy.[304] A fresh rebellion broke out amongst the barons in southern Normandy, led by William III, Count of Ponthieu, whereupon Geoffrey and Matilda intervened in support of the rebels.[305] campaigned throughout the autumn, strengthening the southern frontier, and then travelled to Lyons-la-Forêt in November to enjoy some hunting, still apparently healthy.[306] There he fell ill – according to the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, he ate too many ("a surfeit of") lampreys against his physician's advice – and his condition worsened over the course of a week.[307] Once the condition appeared terminal, Henry gave confession and summoned Archbishop Hugh of Amiens, who was joined by Robert of Gloucester and other members of the court.[308] In accordance with custom, preparations were made to settle Henry's outstanding debts and to revoke outstanding sentences of forfeiture.[309] The King died on 1 December 1135, and his corpse was taken to Rouen accompanied by the barons, where it was embalmed; his entrails were buried locally at the priory of Notre-Dame du Pré, and the preserved body was taken on to England, where it was interred at Reading Abbey.[310] Henry's efforts, the succession was disputed. When news began to spread of the King's death, Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which included a number of Matilda's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester.[15] Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried, which prevented them from returning to England.[311] The Norman nobility discussed declaring Theobald of Blois king.[312] Theobald's younger brother, Stephen of Blois, quickly crossed from Boulogne to England, however, accompanied by his military household.[313] Hugh Bigod dubiously testified that Henry, on his deathbed, had released the barons from their oath to Matilda,[314] and with the help of his brother, Henry of Blois, Stephen seized power in England and was crowned king on 22 December.[315] Matilda did not give up her claim to England and Normandy, appealing at first to the Pope against the decision to allow the coronation of Stephen,[314] and then invading England to start a prolonged civil war, known as the Anarchy, between 1135 and 1153.[316] AELRED OF RIEVAULX, ABBOT (12 JANUARY 1167);

England, 1135-1154, King, Stephen. of Blois, Boulogne, Normandy, Anarchy, long Civil War w Matilda and Henry
England, 1135-1154, King of England, Stephen, King of England ; (1092 or 1096 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as Stephen of Blois, was King of England from 22 December 1135 to his death. A younger son of the Count of Blois, he was Count of Boulogne jure uxoris from 1125 until 1147 and Duke of Normandy from 1135 until 1144. His reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda, whose son, Henry II, succeeded Stephen as the first of the Angevin kings of England. was born in the County of Blois in central France; his father, Count Stephen-Henry, died while Stephen was still young, and he was brought up by his mother, Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror. Placed into the court of his uncle, Henry I of England, Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands. He married Matilda of Boulogne, inheriting additional estates in Kent and Boulogne that made the couple one of the wealthiest in England. Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry I's son, William Adelin, in the sinking of the White Ship in 1120; William's death left the succession of the English throne open to challenge. When Henry died in 1135, Stephen quickly crossed the English Channel and with the help of his brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester and Abbot of Glastonbury, took the throne, arguing that the preservation of order across the kingdom took priority over his earlier oaths to support the claim of Henry I's daughter, the Empress Matilda. early years of Stephen's reign were largely successful, despite a series of attacks on his possessions in England and Normandy by David I of Scotland, Welsh rebels, and the Empress Matilda's husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. In 1138, the Empress's half-brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil war. Together with his close advisor, Waleran de Beaumont, Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule, including arresting a powerful family of bishops. When the Empress and Robert invaded in 1139, Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly, and it took hold in the south-west of England. Captured at the battle of Lincoln in 1141, he was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of Normandy. He was freed only after his wife and William of Ypres, one of his military commanders, captured Robert at the Rout of Winchester, but the war dragged on for many years with neither side able to win an advantage. became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit his throne. The King tried to convince the Church to agree to crown Eustace to reinforce his claim; Pope Eugene III refused, and Stephen found himself in a sequence of increasingly bitter arguments with his senior clergy. In 1153, the Empress's son Henry invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne. The two armies met at Wallingford, but neither side's barons were keen to fight another pitched battle. Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace, a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace. Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the Treaty of Winchester, in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace, passing over William, Stephen's second son. Stephen died the following year. Modern historians have extensively debated the extent to which his personality, external events, or the weaknesses in the Norman state contributed to this prolonged period of civil war. AELRED OF RIEVAULX, ABBOT (12 JANUARY 1167);

England, 1140-1170, Saint Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, killed over rights of the church
England, 1140-1170, Saint Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury; Becket (/ËˆbÉ›kÉªt/), also known as Saint Thomas of Canterbury, Thomas of London[1] and later Thomas à Becket[note 1] (21 December 1119 or 1120 – 29 December 1170), was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in 1170. is venerated as a saint and martyr by both the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion. He engaged in conflict with Henry II, King of England, over the rights and privileges of the Church and was murdered by followers of the king in Canterbury Cathedral. Soon after his death, he was canonised by Pope Alexander III HUGH OF LINCOLN, BISHOP, PROTECTOR OF THE OPPRESSED (17 NOV 1200);

England, 1154-1189, King of E, Henry II, Norman, Angevin Empire, Common Law, Matilda's son, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine
England, 1154-1189, King of England, Henry II of England ; II (5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189), also known as Henry Curtmantle (French: Court-manteau), Henry FitzEmpress or Henry Plantagenet, was King of England from 1154 to his death. He was the first king of the House of Plantagenet. Louis VII of France made him Duke of Normandy in 1150. Henry became Count of Anjou and Maine upon the death of his father, Geoffrey of Anjou, in 1151. marriage in 1152 to Eleanor of Aquitaine, whose marriage to Louis VII had recently been annulled, made him Duke of Aquitaine. became Count of Nantes by treaty in 1185. he was 40 he controlled England, large parts of Wales, the eastern half of Ireland and the western half of France—an area that would later come to be called the Angevin Empire. At various times, Henry also partially controlled Scotland, Wales and the Duchy of Brittany. became actively involved by the age of 14 in the efforts of his mother Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, to claim the throne of England, then occupied by Stephen of Blois. Stephen agreed to a peace treaty after Henry's military expedition to England in 1153, and Henry inherited the kingdom on Stephen's death a year later. Henry was an energetic and sometimes ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the lands and privileges of his grandfather Henry I. During the early years of his reign the younger Henry restored the royal administration in England, re-established hegemony over Wales and gained full control over his lands in Anjou, Maine and Touraine. Henry's desire to reform the relationship with the Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Becket's murder in 1170. Henry soon came into conflict with Louis VII, and the two rulers fought what has been termed a "cold war" over several decades. Henry expanded his empire at Louis's expense, taking Brittany and pushing east into central France and south into Toulouse; despite numerous peace conferences and treaties, no lasting agreement was reached. and Eleanor had eight children—three daughters and five sons. Three of his sons would be king, though Henry the Young King was named his father's co-ruler rather than a stand-alone king. As the sons grew up, tensions over the future inheritance of the empire began to emerge, encouraged by Louis and his son King Philip II. In 1173 Henry's heir apparent, "Young Henry", rebelled in protest; he was joined by his brothers Richard (later a king) and Geoffrey and by their mother, Eleanor. France, Scotland, Brittany, Flanders, and Boulogne allied themselves with the rebels. The Great Revolt was only defeated by Henry's vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them "new men" appointed for their loyalty and administrative skills. Young Henry and Geoffrey revolted again in 1183, resulting in Young Henry's death. The Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for his youngest son John (later a king), but Henry struggled to find ways to satisfy all his sons' desires for land and immediate power. By 1189, Young Henry and Geoffrey were dead, and Philip successfully played on Richard's fears that Henry II would make John king, leading to a final rebellion. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from a bleeding ulcer, Henry retreated to Chinon Castle in Anjou. He died soon afterwards and was succeeded by Richard. empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his son John (who succeeded Richard), but many of the changes Henry introduced during his long rule had long-term consequences. Henry's legal changes are generally considered to have laid the basis for the English Common Law, while his intervention in Brittany, Wales, and Scotland shaped the development of their societies and governmental systems. Historical interpretations of Henry's reign have changed considerably over time. In the 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. During the Victorian expansion of the British Empire, historians were keenly interested in the formation of Henry's own empire, but they also expressed concern over his private life and treatment of Becket. Late-20th-century historians have combined British and French historical accounts of Henry, challenging earlier Anglocentric interpretations of his reign. HUGH OF LINCOLN, BISHOP, PROTECTOR OF THE OPPRESSED (17 NOV 1200); THOMAS OF CANTERBURY, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (29 DEC 1170); AELRED OF RIEVAULX, ABBOT (12 JANUARY 1167);

England, 1189-1199, King of England, Richard I of England, Lion Heart, French and English hero, only 6 mos in England
England, 1189-1199, King of England, Richard I of England ; I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Aquitaine and Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, and Count of Poitiers, Anjou, Maine, and Nantes, and was overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. was the third of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine and seemed unlikely to become king, but all his brothers except the youngest, John, predeceased their father. Richard is known as Richard CÅ“ur de Lion (Norman French: Le quor de lion) or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior.[1] troubador Bertran de Born also called him Richard Oc-e-Non (Occitan for Yes and No), possibly from a reputation for terseness.[2] the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father.[1] Richard was an important Christian commander during the Third Crusade, leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and achieving considerable victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, although he finalized a peace treaty and ended the campaign without retaking Jerusalem.[3] probably spoke both French and Occitan.[4] He was born in England, where he spent his childhood; before becoming king, however, he lived most of his adult life in the Duchy of Aquitaine, in the southwest of France. his accession, he spent very little time, perhaps as little as six months, in England. Most of his life as king was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or actively defending his lands in France. than regarding his kingdom as a responsibility requiring his presence as ruler, he has been perceived as preferring to use it merely as a source of revenue to support his armies.[5] Nevertheless, he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects.[6] He remains one of the few kings of England remembered more commonly by his epithet than his regnal number, and is an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France.[7] HUGH OF LINCOLN, BISHOP, PROTECTOR OF THE OPPRESSED (17 NOV 1200);

England, 1189-1192, Third Crusade and Richard the Lion Heart
England, 1189-1192, Third Crusade; England, 1189-1199, King of England, Richard I of England ; HUGH OF LINCOLN, BISHOP, PROTECTOR OF THE OPPRESSED (17 NOV 1200);

England, 1189-1192, Third Crusade riots against Jews, stopped by Hugh of Lincoln
England, 1189-1192, Third Crusade riots against Jews, stopped by Hugh of Lincoln England, 1189-1192, Third Crusade; England, 1189-1199, King of England, Richard I of England ; HUGH OF LINCOLN, BISHOP, PROTECTOR OF THE OPPRESSED (17 NOV 1200);

England, 1194-1240, Edmund Rich (Edmund of Abingdon)
Edmund Rich (Edmund of Abingdon); RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253) Richard of Wyche;

England, 1195-1253, Robert Grosseteste
England, 1195-1253, Robert Grosseteste; RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253) Richard of Wyche ;

England, 1199-1216, King of E, John, collapse of Angevin E, to Capetian France, Magna Carta, Villain
England, 1199-1216, King of England, John, King of England; HUGH OF LINCOLN, BISHOP, PROTECTOR OF THE OPPRESSED (17 NOV 1200);

England, 1200-1299, London, 13th Century History Folder, Magna Carta by John, and Henry III

England, 1215, Magna Carta Signing at Runnymede (Thames River 4)
Magna Carta Signing at Runnymede ; ROBERT GROSSETESTE, BISHOP OF LINCOLN (9 OCT 1253) ;

England, 1216-1272, King, Henry III of England, defeated popular rebel barons, charter of 1225, allied w Poitevins
England, King of England, 1216-1272, Henry III of England; HUGH OF LINCOLN, BISHOP, PROTECTOR OF THE OPPRESSED (17 NOV 1200); ROBERT GROSSETESTE, BISHOP OF LINCOLN (9 OCT 1253); RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253);

England, 1300-1399, London, 14th Century History Folder, 100 Years War, John Wycliff, Julian of Norwich

England, 1307-1327, King, Edward II, boyfriend Gaveston, d by Robert the Bruce, Parliment growth
King of England, 1307-1327, Edward II of England; II (25 April 1284 - 21 September 1327), also called Edward of Caernarfon, was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed in January 1327. fourth son of Edward I, Edward became the heir apparent to the throne following the death of his elder brother Alphonso. in 1300, Edward accompanied his father on campaigns to pacify Scotland. In 1306, he was knighted in a grand ceremony at Westminster Abbey. his father's death, Edward succeeded to the throne in 1307. married Isabella, the daughter of the powerful King Philip IV of France, in 1308, as part of a long-running effort to resolve tensions between the English and French crowns. had a close and controversial relationship with Piers Gaveston, who had joined his household in 1300. The precise nature of their relationship is uncertain; they may have been friends, lovers, or sworn brothers. relationship with Gaveston inspired Christopher Marlowe's 1592 play Edward II, along with other plays, films, novels and media. power as Edward's favourite provoked discontent both among the barons and the French royal family, and Edward was forced to exile him. On Gaveston's return, the barons pressured the king into agreeing to wide-ranging reforms, called the Ordinances of 1311. The newly empowered barons banished Gaveston, to which Edward responded by revoking the reforms and recalling his favourite. Led by Edward's cousin Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, a group of the barons seized and executed Gaveston in 1312, beginning several years of armed confrontation. English forces were pushed back in Scotland, where Edward was decisively defeated by Robert the Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Widespread famine followed, and criticism of the king's reign mounted. Despenser family, in particular Hugh Despenser the Younger, became close friends and advisers to Edward, but Lancaster and many of the barons seized the Despensers' lands in 1321, and forced the king to exile them. In response, Edward led a short military campaign, capturing and executing Lancaster. Edward and the Despensers strengthened their grip on power, formally revoking the 1311 reforms, executing their enemies and confiscating estates. Unable to make progress in Scotland, Edward finally signed a truce with Robert. Opposition to the regime grew, and when Isabella was sent to France to negotiate a peace treaty in 1325, she turned against Edward and refused to return. Instead, she allied herself with the exiled Roger Mortimer, and invaded England with a small army in 1326. Edward's regime collapsed and he fled to Wales, where he was captured in November. The king was forced to relinquish his crown in January 1327 in favour of his 14 year-old son, Edward III, and he died in Berkeley Castle on 21 September, probably murdered on the orders of the new regime. contemporaries criticised his performance as king, noting his failures in Scotland and the oppressive regime of his later years, although 19th-century academics later argued that the growth of parliamentary institutions during his reign was a positive development for England over the longer term.

England, 1310-1349, Richard Rolle of Hampole, Mystic and Writer
England, 1310-1349, Richard Rolle of Hampole, Mystic and Writer ; Richard Rolle of RICHARD ROLLE, WALTER HILTON, AND MARGERY KEMPE, MYSTICS, 28 Sept. 1349, 1396, c. 1440;

England, 1327-1377, King of England, Edward III of England, formidable Military, claimed French throne, starting 100 yr war
England, King of England, 1327-1377, Edward III of England; III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from January 1327 until his death in 1377. is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after the disastrous and unorthodox reign of his father, Edward II. III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. fifty-year reign was the second-longest in medieval English history, and saw vital developments in legislation and government, in particular the evolution of the English Parliament, as well as the ravages of the Black Death. He outlived his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, and the throne passed to his grandson, Richard II. was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, and her lover Roger Mortimer. At age seventeen he led a successful coup d'état against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1337. started what became known as the Hundred Years' War.[1] some initial setbacks, this first phase of the war went exceptionally well for England; victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny, in which England made territorial gains, and Edward renounced his claim to the French throne. This phase would become known as the Edwardian War. Edward's later years were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health. was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in many ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, he was denounced as an irresponsible adventurer by later Whig historians such as Bishop William Stubbs, but modern historians credit him with some significant achievements.[2][3] JOHN WYCLIF, TRANSLATOR AND CONTROVERSIALIST, 30 OCT. 1384;

England, 1348, Order of the Garter
England, 1348, Order of the Garter ; GEORGE, SOLDIER and MARTYR, 23 APRIL 303, Commemorated April 23;

England, 1350-1384, JOHN WYCLIFF, Bible Translator
England, 1350-1384, JOHN WYCLIFF; JOHN WYCLIF, TRANSLATOR AND CONTROVERSIALIST, 30 OCT. 1384;

England, 1360-1399, John of Gaunt, nobleman, soldier, statesman and prince
Gaunt; England, 1360-1399, John of Gaunt, nobleman, soldier, statesman and prince JOHN WYCLIF, Commemorated October 30 ;

England, 1360-1396, Author Walter Hilton
England, 1360-1396, Author Walter Hilton; Walter Hilton of RICHARD ROLLE, WALTER HILTON, AND MARGERY KEMPE MYSTICS, 28 Sept. 1349, 1396, c. 1440;

England, 1362-1416, Author, Julian of Norwich
England, 1362-1416, Author, Julian of Norwich; Julian's Business Model, The Passion of Christ, using business terminology; England, 1400-1438, Author Margery Kempe; Margery Kemp of RICHARD ROLLE, WALTER HILTON, AND MARGERY KEMPE, MYSTICS, 28 Sept. 1349, 1396, c. 1440, Commemorated September 28 ;

England, 1377-1399, King of England, Richard II of England, regents, 100yr war, personality disorder, deposed
England, 1377-1399, King of England, Richard II of England; II (6 January 1367 - c. 14 February 1400), also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. Richard's father, Edward, Prince of Wales, died in 1376, leaving Richard as heir apparent to his grandfather, King Edward III. Upon the death of Edward III, the 10-year-old Richard succeeded to the throne. Richard's first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of regency councils, influenced by Richard's uncles John of Gaunt and Thomas of Woodstock. England then faced various problems, most notably the Hundred Years' War. A major challenge of the reign was the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, and the young king played a central part in the successful suppression of this crisis. Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years' War. A firm believer in the royal prerogative, Richard restrained the power of the aristocracy and relied on a private retinue for military protection instead. In contrast to his grandfather, Richard cultivated a refined atmosphere centred on art and culture at court, in which the king was an elevated figure. king's dependence on a small number of courtiers caused discontent among the influential, and in 1387 control of government was taken over by a group of aristocrats known as the Lords Appellant. By 1389 Richard had regained control, and for the next eight years governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. In 1397, he took his revenge on the Appellants, many of whom were executed or exiled. The next two years have been described by historians as Richard's "tyranny". In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, the king disinherited Gaunt's son, Henry Bolingbroke, who had previously been exiled. Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Meeting little resistance, he deposed Richard and had himself crowned king. Richard is thought to have been starved to death in captivity, although questions remain regarding his final fate. posthumous reputation has been shaped to a large extent by William Shakespeare, whose play Richard II portrayed Richard's misrule and his deposition as responsible for the 15th-century Wars of the Roses. Modern historians do not accept this interpretation, while not exonerating Richard from responsibility for his own deposition. While probably not insane, as many historians of the 19th and 20th centuries believed, he may have had a personality disorder, particularly manifesting itself towards the end of his reign. Most authorities agree that his policies were not unrealistic or even entirely unprecedented, but that the way in which he carried them out was unacceptable to the political establishment, leading to his downfall. JOHN WYCLIF, TRANSLATOR AND CONTROVERSIALIST, 30 OCT. 1384; DAME JULIAN OF NORWICH, CONTEMPLATIVE (8 MAY 1417);

England, 1381, Peasants' Revolt 1381
Peasants' Revolt 1381; JOHN WYCLIF, TRANSLATOR AND CONTROVERSIALIST, 30 OCT. 1384 ; DAME JULIAN OF NORWICH, CONTEMPLATIVE (8 MAY 1417);

England, 1400-1499, London, 15th Century History Folder, Battle of Agincourt in 100 Yrs War, King Henry V, Printing

England, 1400-1438, Author Margery Kempe
England, 1400-1438, Author Margery Kempe; Margery Kemp of RICHARD ROLLE, WALTER HILTON, AND MARGERY KEMPE, MYSTICS, 28 Sept. 1349, 1396, c. 1440, Commemorated September 28 ;

England, 1413-1422, King, Henry V, claimed F Throne, 100 Y War success, Agincourt, but died before uni, immortalized by S
England, 1413-1422, King of England, Henry V ; V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), also called Henry of Monmouth, was King of England from 1413 until his death in 1422. his relatively short reign, Henry's outstanding military successes in the Hundred Years' War against France made England one of the strongest military powers in Europe.[1] Immortalised in Shakespeare's "Henriad" plays, Henry is known and celebrated as one of the greatest warrior kings of medieval England. the reign of his father Henry IV, Henry gained military experience fighting the Welsh during the revolt of Owain GlyndÅµr and against the powerful aristocratic Percy family of Northumberland at the Battle of Shrewsbury. Henry acquired an increasing role in England's government due to the king's declining health, but disagreements between father and son led to political conflict between the two. After his father's death in 1413, Henry assumed control of the country and asserted the pending English claim to the French throne. 1415, Henry embarked on war with France in the ongoing Hundred Years' War (1337-“1453) between the two nations. His military successes culminated in his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt (1415) and saw him come close to conquering France. Taking advantage of political divisions within France, he conquered large portions of the kingdom, resulting in Normandy's occupation by the English for the first time since 1345-“1360. After months of negotiation with Charles VI of France, the Treaty of Troyes (1420) recognised Henry V as regent and heir apparent to the French throne, and he was subsequently married to Charles's daughter, Catherine of Valois. seemed to point to the formation of a union between the kingdoms, in the person of Henry. However, he died two years later and was succeeded by his only child, the infant Henry VI. JOAN OF ARC, VISIONARY, 30 May 1431 ;

England, 1415, Battle of Agincourt in 100 Years War with France 1337-1453
Battle of Agincourt; Hundred Years War (1337-1453); GEORGE, SOLDIER and MARTYR, 23 APRIL 303, Commemorated April 23;

England, 1422-1461, Henry VI, disputed f king, regents, timid, unstable, Q Margaret, private armies in E, Richard, civil W of Roses, colleges
England, 1422-1461, King of England, Henry VI; VI (6 December 1421 – 21 May 1471) was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. The only child of Henry V, he succeeded to the English throne at the age of nine months upon his father's death, and succeeded to the French throne on the death of his maternal grandfather, Charles VI, shortly afterwards. inherited the long-running Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), in which his uncle Charles VII contested his claim to the French throne. He is the only English monarch to have been also crowned King of France (as Henry II, in 1431). early reign, when several people were ruling for him, saw the pinnacle of English power in France, but subsequent military, diplomatic, and economic problems had seriously endangered the English cause by the time Henry was declared fit to rule in 1437. found his realm in a difficult position, faced with setbacks in France and divisions among the nobility at home. his father, Henry is described as timid, shy, passive, well-intentioned and averse to warfare and violence; he was also at times mentally unstable. ineffective reign saw the gradual loss of the English lands in France. Partially in the hope of achieving peace, in 1445 Henry married Charles VII's niece, the ambitious and strong-willed Margaret of Anjou. peace policy failed, leading to the murder of one of Henry's key advisers, William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and the war recommenced, with France taking the upper hand; by 1453, Calais was Henry's only remaining territory on the continent. the situation in France worsened, there was a related increase in political instability in England. With Henry effectively unfit to rule, power was exercised by quarrelsome nobles, while factions and favourites encouraged the rise of disorder in the country. Regional magnates and soldiers returning from France formed and maintained increasing numbers of private armed retainers, with whom they fought one another, terrorised their neighbours, paralysed the courts, and dominated the government.[1] Margaret did not remain unpartisan and took advantage of the situation to make herself an effective power behind the throne. military disasters in France and a collapse of law and order in England, the Queen and her clique came under accusations, especially from Henry VI's increasingly popular cousin Richard, Duke of York, of misconduct of the war in France and misrule of the country. in 1453, Henry had a series of mental breakdowns, and tensions mounted between Margaret and Richard of York over control of the incapacitated King's government and over the question of succession to the English throne. war broke out in 1455, leading to a long period of dynastic conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. Henry was deposed on 4 March 1461 by Richard's son, who took the throne as Edward IV. Margaret continuing to lead a resistance to Edward, Henry was captured by Edward's forces in 1465 and imprisoned in the Tower of London. was restored to the throne in 1470 but Edward retook power in 1471, killing Henry's only son and heir, Edward of Westminster, in battle and imprisoning Henry once again. "lost his wits, his two kingdoms and his only son",[2] Henry died in the Tower during the night of 21 May, possibly killed on the orders of King Edward. were attributed to Henry after his death and he was informally regarded as a saint and martyr until the 16th century. He left a legacy of educational institutions, having founded Eton College, King's College, Cambridge, and, (together with Henry Chichele), All Souls College, Oxford. Shakespeare wrote a trilogy of plays about his life, depicting him as weak-willed and easily influenced by his wife, Margaret. JOAN OF ARC, VISIONARY, 30 May 1431 ;

England, 1461-1483, King, Edward IV, Civil War of Roses, Killed by Henry Tudor who married Edward's daughter
England, 1461-1483, King, Edward IV; IV (28 April 1442 - 9 April 1483) was King of England from 4 March 1461 to 3 October 1470,[1] then again from 11 April 1471 until his death in 1483. was a central figure in the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars in England fought between the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions between 1455 and 1487. inherited the Yorkist claim when his father, Richard, Duke of York, died at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. defeating Lancastrian armies at Mortimer's Cross and Towton in early 1461, he deposed King Henry VI and took the throne. His marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in 1464 led to conflict with his chief advisor, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, known as the "Kingmaker". In 1470, a revolt led by Warwick and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence, briefly re-installed Henry VI. fled to Flanders, where he gathered support and invaded England in March 1471; after victories at the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, he resumed the throne. Shortly afterwards, Henry VI was found dead in the Tower of London. Despite a continuing threat from Henry Tudor, the last Lancastrian claimant, Edward reigned in relative peace for the next twelve years. Edward died suddenly in April 1483, his minor son became King Edward V, with his father's brother, the Duke of Gloucester, as Lord Protector. In June, Gloucester seized the throne as Richard III after declaring his nephews illegitimate; they are generally supposed to have been murdered shortly afterwards. In 1485, he was killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field by Henry Tudor, who ruled as Henry VII, and married Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York, thus uniting the two houses. JOAN OF ARC, VISIONARY, 30 May 1431 ;

England, 1483-1483, King, Edward V, dominated by his uncle who deposed him, King Richard III
England, 1483-1483, King, Edward V; V (2 November 1470 - c. June/July 1483)[1] was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 9 April to 26 June 1483. He succeeded his father, Edward IV,[2] upon the latter's death. V was never crowned, and his brief reign was dominated by the influence of his uncle and Lord Protector, the Duke of Gloucester, who deposed him to reign as King Richard III; this was confirmed by the Act entitled Titulus Regius, which denounced any further claims through his father's heirs. V and his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York were the Princes in the Tower who disappeared after being sent to heavily guarded royal lodgings in the Tower of London. Responsibility for their deaths is widely attributed to Richard III, but the lack of any solid evidence and conflicting contemporary accounts allow for other possibilities.

England, 1483-1485, King, Richard III, two revolts, Henry Tudor and French Troups won second revolt
England, 1483-1485, King, Richard III; III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1483 until his death in 1485. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty. His defeat and death at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the Middle Ages in England. He is the protagonist of Richard III, one of William Shakespeare's history plays. Richard was created Duke of Gloucester in 1461 after his brother ascended the throne as King Edward IV. In 1472 he married Anne Neville, daughter of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick. He governed northern England during Edward's reign and played a role in the invasion of Scotland in 1482. When Edward IV died in April 1483, Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm for Edward's eldest son and successor, the 12-year-old Edward V. Arrangements were made for Edward V's coronation on 22 June 1483. Before the king could be crowned, the marriage of his parents was declared bigamous and therefore invalid. Now officially illegitimate, their children were barred from inheriting the throne. On 25 June, an assembly of lords and commoners endorsed a declaration to this effect and proclaimed Richard as the rightful king. He was crowned on 6 July 1483. Edward and his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, called the "Princes in the Tower", were not seen in public after August and accusations circulated that they had been murdered on King Richard's orders. were two major rebellions against Richard during his reign. October 1483, an unsuccessful revolt was led by staunch allies of Edward IV and Richard's former ally, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. in August 1485, Henry Tudor and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, landed in southern Wales with a contingent of French troops and marched through Pembrokeshire, recruiting soldiers. Henry's forces defeated Richard's army near the Leicestershire town of Market Bosworth. Richard was slain, making him the last English king to die in battle. Henry Tudor then ascended the throne as Henry VII.

England, 1485-1509, King, Henry Tudor, Henry VII, with French help, ended war of Roses, married Edward IV's daughter
England, 1485-1509, King, Henry Tudor, Henry VII; VII (28 January 1457 - 21 April 1509) was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor. mother, Margaret Beaufort, was a descendant of the Lancastrian branch of the House of Plantagenet. Henry's father, Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, a half-brother of Henry VI of England and descendant of the Welsh Tudors of Penmynydd, died three months before his son Henry was born. During Henry's early years, his uncle Henry VI was fighting against Edward of York (later King Edward IV), a member of the Yorkist Plantagenet branch. Edward re-took the throne in 1471, Henry Tudor spent 14 years in exile in Brittany. He attained the throne when his forces, supported by France, Scotland, and Wales, defeated Edward IV's brother Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. He cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of King Edward. was successful in restoring power and stability to the English monarchy following the civil war. He is credited with a number of administrative, economic and diplomatic initiatives. His supportive policy toward England's wool industry and his standoff with the Low Countries had long-lasting benefit to the whole English economy. He paid very close attention to detail, and instead of spending lavishly he concentrated on raising new revenues. New taxes stabilised the government's finances. After his death, a commission found widespread abuses in the tax collection process. Henry reigned for nearly 24 years and was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII.

England, 1500-1599, London, 16th Century History Folder, Luther's 95 Theses, Henry VIII, Book of Common Prayer

England, 1505-1536, Bible Translator, William Tyndall
England, 1505-1536, Bible Translator, William Tyndall; England, 1508-1569, Bible Translator and Bishop, Miles Coverdale; WILLIAM TYNDALE and MILES CLOVERDALE, TRANSLATOR OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569); England, 1533-1555, Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER , Commemorated May 22;

England, 1507-1555, Hugh Latimer, preacher, martyr, play the man brother Ridley...candle in England
Worcester (pronounced "Wooster") Cathedral; HUGH LATIMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555); CHARLES GORE; GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, AKA Woodbine Willie, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ;

England, 1508-1569, Bible Translator and Bishop, Miles Coverdale
England, 1508-1569, Bible Translator and Bishop, Miles Coverdale; WILLIAM TYNDALE and MILES CLOVERDALE, TRANSLATOR OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569); England, 1533-1555, Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER , Commemorated May 22;

England, 1509-1547, King of England, Henry VIII, 6 marriages, E Reformation
England, 1509-1547, King of England, Henry VIII ; Tudor Dynasty, Lancaster York; Palace of Whitehall; Miles Coverdale of WILLIAM TYNDALE [AND MILES COVERDALE], TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569); William Tyndale of WILLIAM TYNDALE [AND MILES COVERDALE], TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569); HUGH LATIMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555), NICHOLAS RIDLEY, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555) ; John Merbecke of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; Thomas Tallis of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE, and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ;

England, 1520-1555 , Nicholas Ridley, book C Prayer, Cranmer's& King's chaplin, debates Papal s & vestments, Latimer's candle
England, 1500- , Nicholas Ridley; Ridley (c. 1500 - 16 October 1555) was an English Bishop of London (the only bishop called "Bishop of London and Westminster"[1]). was burned at the stake as one of the Oxford Martyrs during the Marian Persecutions for his teachings and his support of Lady Jane Grey. He is remembered with a commemoration in the calendar of saints (with Hugh Latimer) in some parts of the Anglican Communion (Church of England) on 16 October.[2] years and advancement (c.1500–50) came from a prominent family in Tynedale, Northumberland. He was the second son of Christopher Ridley, first cousin to Lancelot Ridley and grew up in Unthank Hall from the old House of Unthank located on the site of an ancient watch tower or pele tower. a boy, Ridley was educated at the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle, and Pembroke College, Cambridge,[3] where he proceeded to Master of Arts in 1525.[4][5] afterward he was ordained as a priest and went to the Sorbonne, in Paris, for further education. returning to England around 1529, he became the senior proctor of Cambridge University in 1534. that time there was significant debate about the Pope's supremacy. Ridley was well versed on Biblical hermeneutics, through his arguments the university came up with the following resolution: "That the Bishop of Rome had no more authority and jurisdiction derived to him from God, in this kingdom of England, than any other foreign bishop." graduated B.D. in 1537 and was then appointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, to serve as one of his chaplains. April 1538, Cranmer made him vicar of Herne, in Kent.[6] 1540–1, he was made one of the King's Chaplains, and was also presented with a prebendal stall in Canterbury Cathedral. 1540 he was made Master of Pembroke College and in 1541 was awarded the degree of Doctor of Divinity.[7] 1543 he was accused of heresy, but he was able to beat the charge. Cranmer had resolved to support the English Reformation by gradually replacing the old guard in his ecclesiastical province with men who followed the new thinking.[8] was made the Bishop of Rochester in 1547, and shortly after coming to office, directed that the altars in the churches of his diocese should be removed, and tables put in their place to celebrate the Lord's Supper. 1548 he helped Cranmer compile the Book of Common Prayer and in 1549 he was one of the commissioners who investigated Bishops Stephen Gardiner and Edmund Bonner. He concurred that they should be removed. John Ponet took Ridley's former position. Incumbent conservatives were uprooted and replaced with reformers.[9] Ridley was appointed to the see of London by letters patent on 1 April 1550, he was called the "Bishop of London and Westminster" because the Diocese of London had just re-absorbed the dissolved Diocese of Westminster.[1] controversy (1550–3) played a major part in the vestments controversy. John Hooper, having been exiled during King Henry's reign, returned to England in 1548 from the churches in Zürich that had been reformed by Zwingli and Heinrich Bullinger in a highly iconoclastic fashion. Hooper was invited to give a series of Lenten sermons before the king in February 1550, he spoke against Cranmer's 1549 ordinal whose oath mentioned "all saints" and required newly elected bishops and those attending the ordination ceremony to wear a cope and surplice. Hooper's view, these requirements were vestiges of Judaism and Roman Catholicism, which had no biblical warrant for Christians since they were not used in the early Christian church.[10] Heinrich Bullinger, a major influence on John Hooper, Ridley's opponent in the vestments controversy. to answer to the Privy Council and archbishop—who were primarily concerned with Hooper's willingness to accept the royal supremacy, which was also part of the oath for newly ordained clergy—Hooper evidently made sufficient reassurances, as he was soon appointed to the bishopric of Gloucester. declined the office, however, because of the required vestments and oath by the saints. king accepted Hooper's position, but the Privy Council did not. Called before them on 15 May 1550, a compromise was reached. Vestments were to be considered a matter of adiaphora, or Res Indifferentes ("things indifferent", as opposed to an article of faith), and Hooper could be ordained without them at his discretion, but he must allow that others could wear them. Hooper passed confirmation of the new office again before the king and council on 20 July 1550 when the issue was raised again, and Cranmer was instructed that Hooper was not to be charged "with an oath burdensome to his conscience".[10] assigned Ridley to perform the consecration, and Ridley refused to do anything but follow the form of the ordinal as it had been prescribed by Parliament. Ridley, it seems likely, had some particular objection to Hooper. It has been suggested that Henrician exiles like Hooper, who had experienced some of the more radically reformed churches on the continent, were at odds with English clergy who had accepted and never left the established church. John Henry Primus also notes that on 24 July 1550, the day after receiving instructions for Hooper's unique consecration, the church of the Austin Friars in London had been granted to Jan Laski for use as a Stranger church. This was to be a designated place of worship for Continental Protestant refugees, a church with forms and practices that had taken reforms much further than Ridley would have liked. This development—the use of a London church virtually outside Ridley's jurisdiction—was one that Hooper had had a hand in.[11] Privy Council reiterated its position, and Ridley responded in person, agreeing that vestments are indifferent but making a compelling argument that the monarch may require indifferent things without exception. The council became divided in opinion, and the issue dragged on for months without Hooper now insisted that vestments were not indifferent, since they obscured the priesthood of Christ by encouraging hypocrisy and superstition. disagreed, emphasising that the king must be obeyed in things indifferent, and he pointed to St Paul's concessions to Jewish traditions in the early church. an acrimonious debate with Ridley went against Hooper. Ridley's position centred on maintaining order and authority; not the vestments themselves, Hooper's primary concern.[10] –Ridley debate John Hooper clashed with Ridley as he advocated more radical reforms. Portrait by Henry Bryan Hall, 1839. a Latin letter dated 3 October 1550, Hooper laid out his argument contra usum vestium.[12] With Ridley's reply (in English), it marks the first written representation of a split in the English Reformation. Hooper's argument is that vestments should not be used as they are not indifferent, nor is their use supported by scripture, a point he takes as self-evident. He contends that church practices must either have express biblical support or be things indifferent, approval for which is implied by scripture. Furthermore, an indifferent thing, if used, causes no profit or loss. Ridley objected in his response, saying that indifferent things do have profitable effects, which is the only reason they are used. Failing to distinguish between conditions for indifferent things in general and the church's use of indifferent things, Hooper then all but excludes the possibility of anything being indifferent in the four conditions he sets: An indifferent thing has either an express justification in scripture or is implied by it, finding its origin and foundation in scripture. Hooper cites Romans 14:23 (whatever is not faith is sin), Romans 10:17 (faith comes from hearing the word of God), and Matthew 15:13 (everything not "planted" by God will be "rooted up") to argue that indifferent things must be done in faith, and since what cannot be proved from scripture is not of faith, indifferent things must be proved from scripture, which is both necessary and sufficient authority, as opposed to tradition. Hooper maintains that priestly garb distinguishing clergy from laity is not indicated by scripture; there is no mention of it in the New Testament as being in use in the early church, and the use of priestly clothing in the Old Testament is a Hebrew practice, a type or foreshadowing that finds its antitype in Christ, who abolishes the old order and recognises the spiritual equality, or priesthood, of all Christians. The historicity of these claims is further supported by Hooper with a reference to Polydore Vergil's De Inventoribus Rerum. response, Ridley rejected Hooper's insistence on biblical origins and countered Hooper's interpretations of his chosen biblical texts. He points out that many non-controversial practices are not mentioned or implied in scripture. Ridley denies that early church practices are normative for the present situation, and he links such primitivist arguments with the Anabaptists. Joking that Hooper's reference to Christ's nakedness on the cross is as insignificant as the clothing King Herod put Christ in and "a jolly argument" for the Adamites, Ridley does not dispute Hooper's main typological argument, but neither does he accept that vestments are necessarily or exclusively identified with Israel and the Roman church. On Hooper's point about the priesthood of all believers, Ridley says it does not follow from this doctrine that all Christians must wear the same clothes. An indifferent thing must be left to individual discretion; if required, it is no longer indifferent. For Ridley, on matters of indifference, one must defer conscience to the authorities of the church, or else "thou showest thyself a disordered person, disobedient, as [a] contemner of lawful authority, and a wounder of thy weak brother his conscience." For him, the debate was finally about legitimate authority, not the merits and demerits of vestments themselves. He contended that it is only accidental that the compulsory ceases to be indifferent; the degeneration of a practice into non-indifference can be corrected without throwing out the practice. Things are not, "because they have been abused, to be taken away, but to be reformed and amended, and so kept still." An indifferent thing's usefulness must be demonstrated and not introduced arbitrarily. For this point, Hooper cites 1 Corinthians 14 and 2 Corinthians 13. As it contradicts the first point above, Primus contends that Hooper must now refer to indifferent things in the church and earlier meant indifferent things in general, in the abstract. Regardless, the apparent contradiction was seized by Ridley and undoubtedly hurt Hooper's case with the council. Indifferent things must be introduced into the church with apostolic and evangelical lenity, not violent tyranny. making such an inflammatory, risky statement (he later may have called his opponents "papists" in a part of his argument that is lost), Hooper may not have been suggesting England was tyrannical but that Rome was—and that England could become like Rome. Ridley warned Hooper of the implications of an attack on English ecclesiastical and civil authority and of the consequences of radical individual liberties, while also reminding him that it was Parliament that established the "Book of Common Prayer in the church of England". closing, Hooper asks that the dispute be resolved by church authorities without looking to civil authorities for support—although the monarch was the head of both the church and the state. This hint of a plea for a separation of church and state would later be elaborated by Thomas Cartwright, but for Hooper, although the word of God was the highest authority, the state could still impose upon men's consciences (such as requiring them not to be Roman Catholic) when it had a biblical warrant. Hooper himself addressed the civil magistrates, suggesting that the clergy supporting vestments were a threat to the state, and he declared his willingness to be martyred for his cause. by contrast, responds with humour, calling this "a magnifical promise set forth with a stout style". He invites Hooper to agree that vestments are indifferent, not to condemn them as sinful, and then he will ordain him even if he wears street clothes to the ceremony.[10] of the controversy weaknesses in Hooper's argument, Ridley's laconic and temperate rejoinder, and Ridley's offer of a compromise no doubt turned the council against Hooper's inflexible convictions when he did not accept it. Heinrich Bullinger, Pietro Martire Vermigli, and Martin Bucer, while agreeing with Hooper's views, ceased to support him for the pragmatic sake of unity and slower reform. Only Jan Laski remained a constant ally. time in mid-December 1550, Hooper was put under house arrest, during which time he wrote and published A godly Confession and protestation of the Christian faith. Because of this publication, his persistent nonconformism, and violations of the terms of his house arrest, Hooper was placed in Thomas Cranmer's custody at Lambeth Palace for two weeks by the Privy Council on 13 January 1551. Hooper was then sent to Fleet Prison by the council, who made that decision on 27 January. On 15 February, Hooper submitted to consecration in vestments in a letter to Cranmer. He was consecrated Bishop of Gloucester on 8 March 1551, and shortly thereafter, preached before the king in vestments.[10] (1553–5) death of Edward VI, here as Prince of Wales, brought about Ridley's downfall. 2 February 1553 Cranmer was ordered to appoint John Knox, a Scot, as vicar of All Hallows, Bread Street in London, placing him under the authority of Ridley. Knox returned to London in order to deliver a sermon before the king and the court during Lent after which he refused to take his assigned post.[13] That same year, Ridley pleaded with Edward VI to give some of his empty palaces over to the city to house homeless women and children. One such foundation was Bridewell Royal Hospital, which is today known as King Edward's School, Witley.[14] VI became seriously ill from tuberculosis and in mid-June the councillors were told that he did not have long to live. They set to work to convince several judges to put on the throne Lady Jane Grey, Edward's cousin, instead of Mary, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon and a Roman Catholic. On 17 June 1553 the king made his will noting Jane would succeed him, contravening the Third Succession Act.[15] signed the letters patent giving the English throne to Lady Jane Grey. On 9 July 1553 he preached a sermon at St Paul's cross in which he affirmed that the princesses Mary and Elizabeth were bastards. By mid-July, there were serious provincial revolts in Mary's favour and support for Jane in the council fell. As Mary was proclaimed queen, Ridley, Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk and others were imprisoned. Ridley was sent to the Tower of London.[16] February 1554 Jane and her leading supporters were executed. After that, there was time to deal with the religious leaders of the English Reformation and so on 8 March 1554 the Privy Council ordered Cranmer, Ridley, and Hugh Latimer to be transferred to Bocardo prison in Oxford to await trial for heresy. The trial of Latimer and Ridley started shortly after Cranmer's with John Jewel acting as notary to Ridley. Their verdicts came almost immediately and they were to be burned at the stake.[17] and legacy Ridley being burned at the stake, together with Hugh Latimer. From John Foxe's Book of Martyrs. sentence was carried out on 16 October 1555 in Oxford. Cranmer was taken to a tower to watch the proceedings. Ridley burned extremely slowly and suffered a great deal: his brother-in-law had put more tinder on the pyre in order to speed his death, but this only caused his lower parts to burn. Latimer is supposed to have said to Ridley, "Be of good comfort, and play the man, Master Ridley; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." This was quoted in Foxe's Book of Martyrs.[18] metal cross in a cobbled patch of road in Broad Street, Oxford, marks the site. Eventually Ridley and Latimer were seen as martyrs for their support of a Church of England independent from the Roman Catholic Church. Along with Thomas Cranmer, they are known as the Oxford Martyrs. the Victorian era, his death was commemorated by the Martyrs' Memorial, located near the site of his execution. As well as being a monument to the English Reformation and the doctrines of the Protestant and Reformed doctrines, the memorial is a landmark of the 19th century, a monument stoutly resisted by John Keble, John Henry Newman and others of the Tractarian Movement and Oxford Movement. Profoundly alarmed at the Romewardizing intrusions and efforts at realignment that the movement was attempting to bring into the Church of England, Protestant and Reformed Anglican clergymen raised the funds for erecting the monument, with its highly anti-Roman Catholic inscription, a memorial to over three hundred years of history and reformation. As a result, the monument was built 300 years after the events it commemorates.[19] Stained glass window depicting Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, the Oxford Martyrs 1881, Ridley Hall in Cambridge, England, was founded in his memory for the training of Anglican priests. Ridley College, a private University-preparatory school located in St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada, was founded in his honour in 1889. Also named after him is Ridley Melbourne, a theological college in Australia, founded in 1910. There is a Church of England church dedicated to him in Welling, southeast London. The words spoken to Ridley by Latimer at their execution are used. Ridley and Latimer are remembered with a commemoration in the Calendar of saints in some parts of the Anglican Communion on 16 October.[20] Cambridge; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); JOHN MASON NEALE, PRIEST, SCHOLAR, AND TRANSLATOR (7 AUGUST 1866); JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667); Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; NICHOLAS RIDLEY, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555) ; HENRY MARTYN, MISSIONARY AND TRANSLATOR (19 OCT 1812) ; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); WILLIAM BYRD of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; C S LEWIS, SCHOLAR AND SPIRITUAL WRITER (22 NOV 1963) ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26 ; FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761) ; NICHOLAS FERRAR, DEACON, MAN OF PRAYER (1 DEC 1637) ; ROBERT McDONALD, Commemorated December 15 ; CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ; GEORGE HERBERT, PRIEST AND POET (27 FEBRUARY 1633); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631); FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872) ; WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761; GEORGE AUGUSTUS SELWYN, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (11 APR 1878); DAME JULIAN OF NORWICH, CONTEMPLATIVE (8 MAY 1417); JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 1690;

England, 1532-1540, Thomas Cromwell, Chief Minister to Henry VIII, arranged the marriages, executed for treason
England, 1532-1540, Thomas Cromwell, Chief Minister to Henry VIII ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, 1549, Commemorated May 22 ;

England, 1533-1555, Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, reformer, book of C P, r supremacy, 39 A, executed
England, 1533-1555, Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer; John Merbecke of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585; Thomas Tallis of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE, and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER , Commemorated May 22;

England, 1539, House of Lords
England, 1539, House of Lords; GEORGE BELL, BISHOP OF CHICHESTER, AND ECUMENIST, 3 October 1958;

England, 1542-1567, King of Scotland, Mary, Queen of Scots, and France, married the Dauhin
England, 1542-1567, King of England, Mary, Queen of Scots ; HUGH LATIMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555), NICHOLAS RIDLEY, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555) ; John Merbecke of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; Thomas Tallis of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE, and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; William Byrd of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; RICHARD HOOKER, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (3 NOV 1600);

England, 1547-1553, King of England, Edward VI, never reached maturity, social problems, protestant
England, 1547-1553, King of England, Edward VI ; Tudor Dynasty, Lancaster York; Palace of Whitehall; Miles Coverdale of WILLIAM TYNDALE [AND MILES COVERDALE], TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569); William Tyndale of WILLIAM TYNDALE [AND MILES COVERDALE], TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569); HUGH LATIMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555), NICHOLAS RIDLEY, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555) ; John Merbecke of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; Thomas Tallis of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE, and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, Commemorated May 22 ;

England, 1549, First Book of Common Prayer
England, 1549, First Book of Common Prayer; Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, 1549, Commemorated May 22 ;

England, 1553-1558, King of England, Queen Mary 1, Tudor, Bloody Mary, to reverse reformation
England, 1553-1558, King of England, Queen Mary 1, Bloody Mary ; Tudor Dynasty, Lancaster York; Palace of Whitehall; HUGH LATIMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555), NICHOLAS RIDLEY, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555) ; John Merbecke of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; Thomas Tallis of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE, and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ;

England, 1558-1603, Queen of England, Queen Elizabeth 1, established E protestant church
England, 1558-1603, Queen of England, Queen Elizabeth 1; England, 1509-1547, King of England, Henry VIII ; Tudor Dynasty, Lancaster York; Palace of Whitehall; Miles Coverdale of WILLIAM TYNDALE [AND MILES COVERDALE], TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569); William Tyndale of WILLIAM TYNDALE [AND MILES COVERDALE], TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE (6 OCT 1536, 1569); HUGH LATIMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555), NICHOLAS RIDLEY, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555) ; John Merbecke of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; Thomas Tallis of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE, and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; William Byrd of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE, and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ;

England, 1560-1617, Thomas Egerton, 1st Viscount Brackley, legal advocate for the Crown
England, 1560-1617, Thomas Egerton, 1st Viscount Brackley; Egerton, 1st Viscount Brackley, PC (1540 - 15 March 1617), known as 1st Baron Ellesmere from 1603 to 1616, was an English nobleman, judge and statesman from the Egerton family who served as Lord Keeper and Lord Chancellor for twenty-one years. JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631);

England, 1567-1625, King of Scotland and England, James VI and I, S and E Union, Literature
England, 1567-1625, King of England, James I ; VI and I (James Charles Stuart; 19 June 1566-“ 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death in 1625. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciaries, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and a great-great-grandson of Henry VII, King of England and Lord of Ireland, and thus a potential successor to all three thrones. James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583. In 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died childless. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England (the largest of the three realms) from 1603, returning to Scotland only once, in 1617, and styled himself "King of Great Britain and Ireland". He was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonisation of the Americas began. 57 years and 246 days, James's reign in Scotland was the longest of any Scottish monarch. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament. Under James, the "Golden Age" of Elizabethan literature and drama continued, with writers such as William Shakespeare, John Donne, Ben Jonson, and Sir Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture.[1] James himself was a talented scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie (1597), The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), and Basilikon Doron (1599). He sponsored the translation of the Bible into English that would later be named after him: the Authorized King James Version.[2] Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed "the wisest fool in Christendom", an epithet associated with his character ever since.[3] Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise James's reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch.[4] He was strongly committed to a peace policy, and tried to avoid involvement in religious wars, especially the Thirty Years' War (1618-“1648) that devastated much of Central Europe. He tried but failed to prevent the rise of hawkish elements in the English Parliament who wanted war with Spain.[5] RICHARD HOOKER, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (3 NOV 1600); John Merbecke of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; Thomas Tallis of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE, and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; William Byrd of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585. Commemorated on November 21 ; NICHOLAS FERRAR, DEACON, MAN OF PRAYER (1 DEC 1637); WILLIAM LAUD, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (10 JANUARY 1645); Anne Hutchinson of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; GEORGE HERBERT, PRIEST AND POET (27 FEBRUARY 1633); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631); WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Playwright, 23 April, 1616; ROBERT HUNT, PRIEST & FIRST CHAPLAIN AT JAMESTOWN, 1608, Commemorated April 26 ; JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 169;

England, 1574-1600, Richard Hooker, Theologian, redemed reason, revelation, reason and tradition, natural law, Aristotelian
England, 1574-1600, Richard Hooker, Theologian; Hooker (25 March, 1554 - 2 November 1600)[2] was an English priest in the Church of England and an influential theologian.[3] was one of the most important English theologians of the sixteenth century.[4] His defence of the role of redeemed reason informed the theology of the seventeenth century Caroline Divines and later provided many members of the Church of England with a theological method which combined the claims of revelation, reason and tradition.[4] disagree regarding Hooker's relationship with what would later be called "Anglicanism" and the Reformed theological tradition. Traditionally, he has been regarded as the originator of the Anglican via media between Protestantism and Catholicism.[5]:1 However, a growing number of scholars have argued that he should be considered as being in the mainstream Reformed theology of his time and that he only sought to oppose the extremists (Puritans), rather than moving the Church of England away from Protestantism.[5]:4 The term "Anglican" is not found in his writings and indeed first appears early in the reign of Charles I as the Church of England moved towards an Arminian position doctrinally and a more "Catholic" look liturgically under the leadership of Archbishop William Laud. RICHARD HOOKER, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (3 NOV 1600); any list of great English theologians, the name of Richard Hooker would appear at or near the top. His masterpiece is The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. Its philosophical base is Aristotelian, with a strong emphasis on natural law eternally planted by God in creation. On this foundation, all positive laws of Church and State are developed from Scriptural revelation, ancient tradition, reason, and experience. The occasion of his writing was the demand of English Puritans for a reformation of Church government. Calvin had established in Geneva a system whereby each congregation was ruled by a commission comprising two thirds laymen elected annually by the congregation and one third clergy serving for life. The English Puritans (by arguments more curious than convincing) held that no church not so governed could claim to be Christian. Hooker replies to this assertion, but in the process he raises and considers fundamental questions about the authority and legitimacy of government (religious and secular), about the nature of law, and about various kinds of law, including the laws of physics as well as the laws of England. In the course of his book he sets forth the Anglican view of the Church, and the Anglican approach to the discovery of religious truth (the so-called via media, or middle road), and explains how this differs from the position of the Puritans, on the one hand, and the adherents of the Pope, on the other. He is very heavy reading, but well worth it. (He says, on the first page of Chapter I: "Those unto whom we shall seem tedious are in no wise injuried by us, seeing that it lies in their own hands to spare themselves the labor they are unwilling to endure." This translates into modern English as: "If you can't take the intellectual heat, get out of the kitchen. If you can't stand a book that makes you think, go read the funny papers.") The effect of the book has been considerable. Hooker greatly influenced John Locke, and (both directly and through Locke), American political philosophy in the late 1700's. Although Hooker is unsparing in his censure of what he believes to be the errors of Rome, his contemporary, Pope Clement VIII (died 1605), said of the book: "It has in it such seeds of eternity that it will abide until the last fire shall consume all learning." best short work is his sermon, "A Learned discourse of Justification." In an earlier sermon, Hooker had expressed the hope of seeing in Heaven many who had been Romanists on earth. A Puritan preacher took him to task for this, saying that since the Romanists did not believe the doctrine of Justification by Faith, they could not be justified. Hooker replied at length in this sermon, in which (1) he sets forth the Doctrine of Justification by Faith, and agrees with his opponent that the official theology of Rome is defective on this point; (2) he defends his assertion that those who do not rightly understand the means that God has provided for our salvation may nonetheless be saved by it, in which connection he says (I quote from memory): "God is no captious sophister, eager to trip us up whenever we say amiss, but a courteous tutor, ready to amend what, in our weakness or our ignorance, we say ill, and to make the most of what we say aright." His sermon is often bound with the Laws, and is also available in the paperback volume Faith and Works (ed. Philip Edgecumbe Hughes, Morehouse-Barlow, Wilton CN 06897, ISBN 0-8192-1315-2) [Note: this book is out of print but should be available used] by James Kiefer England, 1574-1618, Sir Walter Raleigh; England, 1575-1626, Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, King James Bible; England, King of England, 1567-1625, James I ; LANCELOT ANDREWES, BISHOP AND SCHOLAR (26 SEPT 1626); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631);

England, 1574-1618, Sir Walter Raleigh, statesman, soldier, spy, writer, poet, explorer, landed gentleman, America, S Armada
England, 1574-1618, Sir Walter Raleigh; Walter Raleigh, ( c. 1552 - 29 October 1618) also spelled Ralegh,[a] was an English statesman, soldier, spy, writer, poet, explorer and landed gentleman. One of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, he played a leading part in English colonisation of North America, suppressed rebellion in Ireland, helped defend England during the Spanish Armada and held political positions under Elizabeth I. was born to a Protestant family in Devon, the son of Walter Raleigh and Catherine Champernowne, and a cousin of Sir Richard Grenville and younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Little is known of his early life, though in his late teens he spent some time in France taking part in the religious civil wars. In his 20s he took part in the suppression of rebellion in the colonisation of Ireland; he also participated in the siege of Smerwick. Later, he became a landlord of property in Ireland and mayor of Youghal in East Munster, where his house still stands in Myrtle Grove.[2] rose rapidly in the favour of Queen Elizabeth I and was knighted in 1585. He was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia, paving the way for future English settlements. In 1591, he secretly married Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting, without the Queen's permission, for which he and his wife were sent to the Tower of London. After his release, they retired to his estate at Sherborne, Dorset. 1594, Raleigh heard of a "City of Gold" in South America and sailed to find it, publishing an exaggerated account of his experiences in a book that contributed to the legend of "El Dorado". Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, Raleigh was again imprisoned in the Tower, this time for being involved in the Main Plot against King James I, who was not favourably disposed towards him. 1616, he was released to lead a second expedition in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, men led by his top commander ransacked a Spanish outpost, in violation of both the terms of his pardon and the 1604 peace treaty with Spain. Raleigh returned to England and, to appease the Spanish, he was arrested and executed in 1618. England, 1575-1626, Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, King James Bible; England, King of England, 1567-1625, James I ; LANCELOT ANDREWES, BISHOP AND SCHOLAR (26 SEPT 1626); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631);

England, 1575-1626, Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, King James Bible
England, 1575-1626, Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, King James Bible; England, King of England, 1567-1625, James I ; LANCELOT ANDREWES, BISHOP AND SCHOLAR (26 SEPT 1626);

England, 1584-1616, William Shakesphere, Poet and Playwright
England, 1584-1616, William Shakesphere, Poet and Playwright; England, 1584-1616, William Shakesphere, Poet and Playwright;

England, 1585-1601, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, favorite of Q Eliz, general, coup, executed by Q Eliz for treason
England, 1585-1601, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex; Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, KG, PC (10 November 1565[1] - 25 February 1601) was an English nobleman and a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I. Politically ambitious, and a committed general, he was placed under house arrest following a poor campaign in Ireland during the Nine Years' War in 1599. In 1601, he led an abortive coup d'état against the government of Elizabeth I and was executed for treason. England, 1574-1618, Sir Walter Raleigh; England, 1575-1626, Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, King James Bible; England, King of England, 1567-1625, James I ; LANCELOT ANDREWES, BISHOP AND SCHOLAR (26 SEPT 1626); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631);

England, 1593-1631, JOHN DONNE, all mankind is one volume...pages...translated...several translators...bind up again... open
England, 1593-1631, JOHN DONNE: England, 1574-1618, Sir Walter Raleigh; England, 1575-1626, Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, King James Bible; England, King of England, 1567-1625, James I ; LANCELOT ANDREWES, BISHOP AND SCHOLAR (26 SEPT 1626); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631); “All mankind is one volume. When one man dies, one chapter is torn out of the book and translated into a better language. And every chapter must be so translated. God employs several translators. Some pieces are translated by age, some by sickness, some by war, some by justice. But God's hand shall bind up all our scattered leaves again for that library where every book shall lie open to another.” Donne (rhymes with “sun”) was born in 1573 (his father died in 1576) into a Roman Catholic family, and from 1584 to 1594 was educated at Oxford and Cambridge and Lincoln's Inn (this last a highly regarded law school). He became an Anglican (probably around 1594) and aimed at a career in government. He joined with Raleigh and Essex in raids on Cadiz and the Azores, and became private secretary to Sir Thomas Egerton. But in 1601 he secretly married Anne More, the 16-year-old niece of Egerton, and her enraged father had Donne imprisoned. The years following were years of poverty, debt, illness, and frustration. In 1615 he was ordained, perhaps largely because he had given up hope of a career in Parliament. From the above information, the reader might conclude that Donne's professed religious belief was mere opportunism. But the evidence of his poetry is that, long before his ordination, and probably beginning with his marriage, his thoughts were turned toward holiness, and he saw in his wife Anne (as Dante had earlier seen in Beatrice) a glimpse of the glory of God, and in human love a revelation of the nature of Divine Love. His poetry, mostly written before his ordination, includes poems both sacred and secular, full of wit, puns, paradoxes, and obscure allusions at whose meanings we can sometimes only guess, presenting amorous experience in religious terms and devotional experience in erotic terms, so that I have seen one poem of his both in a manual of devotion and in a pornography collection. After his ordination, his reputation as a preacher grew steadily. From 1622 until his death he was Dean of St. Paul's Cathedral in London, and drew huge crowds to hear him, both at the Cathedral and at Paul's Cross, an outdoor pulpit nearby. His prose style is in some ways outdated, but his theme continues to fascinate: “the paradoxical and complex predicament of man as he both seeks and yet draws away from the inescapable claim of God on him.” Various collections of his sermons (a ten-volume complete edition and a one-volume selection) have been published. Most anthologies of English poetry contain at least a few of his poems, and it is a poor college library that does not have a complete set of them. His friend Izaak Walton (author of The Compleat Angler) has written a biography. Three poems and a portion of a meditation follow. THREE POEMS BY JOHN DONNE portrait of a younger John DonneNOTES ON PRONUNCIATION: Since this is an international list, and not all listmembers are familiar with the traditional conventions of English poetry, a few explanations may be useful. All of the poems that follow are written in iambic pentameter. That is, a line normally has ten syllables, with five stresses, which normally fall on the even-numbered syllables, although their position may vary (in particular, the stress on the second syllable is often transferred to the first). A sonnet has fourteen lines: an octet of eight lines, followed by a sestet of six. In some of these poems, Donne uses a convention that is a requirement of classical Latin poetry: the elision. If a word ends in a vowel (or diphthong) and the next word begins with one, the first vowel is omitted and the number of syllables in the line reduced by one. As an aid to the reader, I have inserted an “=” sign at each elision. In modern English the “e” in the ending “-ed” of a verb is usually silent. Sometimes in older English it is sounded, creating an extra syllable. When this happens, I have capitalized the “-ED” SONNET XIV Batter my heart, three-personed God, for you As yet but knock, breathe, shine, and seek to mend; That I may rise and stand, o'erthrow me= and bend Your force to break, blow, burn, and make me new. I, like a usurped town to= another due, Labor to= admit you, but oh, to no end; Reason, your viceroy= in me, me should defend, But is captived, and proves weak or untrue. Yet dearly= I love you,= and would be lov-ED fain, But am betrothed unto your enemy Divorce me,= untie or break that knot again; Take me to you, imprison me, for I Except you= enthrall me, never shall be free, Nor ever chaste, except you ravish me. SONNET X Death, be not proud, though some have call-ED thee Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so; For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow Die not, poor Death; nor yet canst thou kill me. From rest and sleep, which but thy picture be, Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow; And soonest our best men with thee do go-- Rest of their bones and souls' delivery! Thou= art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men, And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell; And poppy= or charms can make us sleep as well And better than thy stroke, Why swell'st thou then? One short sleep past, we wake eternally, And Death shall be no more: Death, thou shalt die! HYMN TO GOD, MY GOD, IN MY SICKNESS (Numbered footnotes below.) Since I am coming to that holy room Where, with thy choir of saints for evermore I shall be made thy music, as I come I tune the instrument here at the door, And what I must do then, think here before.(1) Whilst my physicians by their love are grown Cosmographers(2), and I their map, who lie Flat on this bed, that by them may be shown That this is my southwest discovery,(3) PER FRETUM FEBRIS,(4) by these straits to die,(5) I joy that in these straits I see my west; For though their currents yield return to none, What shall my west hurt me? As west and east In all flat maps (and I am one) are one, So death doth touch the resurrection. (6) Is the Pacific Sea my home? Or are The eastern riches? Is Jerusalem? Anyan,(7) and Magellan, and Gibraltar,(8) All straits, and none but straits, are ways to them,(9) Whether where Japhet dwelt, or Cham, or Shem.(10) We think that Paradise, and Calvary, Christ's cross, and Adam's tree, stood in one place;(11) Look, Lord, and find both Adams met in me; As the first Adam's sweat surrounds my face, May the last Adam's blood my soul embrace. So, in his purple wrapp'd receive me, Lord, By these his thorns give me his other crown; And as to others' souls I preached thy word, Be this my text, my sermon to mine own: “Therefore, that he may raise, the Lord throws down.” NOTES: (1) That is: “Since I am on the verge of death, let me prepare my thoughts.” (2) Cosmography is the study of the basic structure and constitution of the world. (3) “Southwest discovery” refers to the fact that from England one can reach the riches of the Orient by sailing southwest around South America through the Straits of Magellan, or northwest around North America through the Bering Straits, or southeast around Africa, or northeast around Norway and Siberia. One can also go east through the Straits of Gibraltar and then across land, either across the Isthmus of Suez and then again by sea to India or else by the Silk Road to China along the route of Marco Polo. Donne here speaks of the “southwest discovery,” the route taken by the explorer Magellan. (4) “Per fretum febris,” by the wearing away of a fever (Latin). The explorer Magellan, who made the “southwest discovery,” died “per fretum febris” before he could complete his goal of sailing around the earth. Donne, at the time of this writing, is ill with a fever. (5) “Strait” means “narrow, constricted, or tight” (as in “strait-laced,” referring to the extremely tight corsets that were once fashionable, and thence by analogy to someone considered to be inflexible in his behavior). It is not to be confused with “straight”, meaning “not crooked”. A strait is a narrow passage, a tight squeeze, especially a narrow sea passage connecting two larger bodies of water, and bounded closely on either side by land. The word also refers, especially in the plural, to a situation of distress, deprivation, difficulty, perplexity, misfortune, or the like. (A man lost in the desert is said to be “in dire straits”.) Hence Donne, playing on the double meaning of the word “strait,” says that he is about to die of his present distress, meaning his fever and his illness. (6) On a flat map of the whole world the far east (the rightmost edge of the map) and the far west (the leftmost edge of the map) are places that touch on a globe or in the real world. (7) “Anyan” is another name for the Bering Straits. (8) We place the stresses in this line as follows: “AN-yan, and MA-gel-LAN, and GIB-ral-TAR”. (9) No matter what desirable and fabled country is my destiny, I must sail through a narrow strait to reach it. The same is true of Heaven, which I shall reach by passing through the strait of death. (10) The three sons of Noah were named Shem, Ham and Japheth. (The initial sound of “Ham,” or “Cham” is a throaty breathing as in the name “Bach.” Neither Greek nor Hebrew nor Latin has the sound of “ch” used in English words like “church,” and therefore a name in the Bible with a “CH” in it should always be pronounced in English with a “K” sound or a German “CH” sound, unless the name has been thoroughly assimilated into English (like “Rachel”, for example). The three sons are thought of as ancestors of the inhabitants of the thee continents known to the ancients: Asia, Africa, and Europe. (11) A common Christian usage, going back to the Apostle Paul (see 1 Corinthians 15:20-22,45-49), is to contrast Adam and Christ, or to call Christ the new Adam. The old Adam is the beginning of the fallen and wounded race of humanity; the new Adam is the beginning of the restored and healed race. What Adam did, Christ has undone. Hence the common supposition in poetry that the Cross was cut from the wood of the Forbidden Tree that once stood in the Garden of Eden, and that the hill of Calvary (“Skull Hill”) where Christ was crucified was so called because that was where Adam was buried. MEDITATION 17, BY JOHN DONNE NUNC LENTO SONITU DICUNT, MORIERIS [Now this bell tolling softly for another, says to me, Thou must die.] Perchance he for whom this bell tolls may be so ill as that he know not it tolls for him; and perchance I may think myself so much better than I am, as that they who are about me and see my state may have caused it to toll for me, and I know not that. The church is catholic, universal, so are all her actions; all that she does, belongs to all. When she baptizes a child, that action concerns me; for that child is thereby connected to that body which is my head too, and ingrafted into that body whereof I am a member. And when she buries a man, that action concerns me: all mankind is of one author and is one volume; when one man dies, one chapter is not torn out of the book, but translated into a better language; and every chapter must be so translated. God employs several translators; some pieces are translated by age, some by sickness, some by war, some by justice; but God's hand is in every translation, and his hand shall bind up all our scattered leaves again for that library where every book shall lie open to one another. As therefore the bell that rings to a sermon calls not upon the preacher only, but upon the congregation to come, so this bell calls us all; but how much more me, who am brought so near the door by this sickness. There was a contention as far as a suit (in which piety and dignity, religion and estimation, were mingled) which of the religious orders should ring to prayers first in the morning; and it was determined that they should ring first that rose earliest. If we understand aright the dignity of this bell that tolls for our evening prayer, we would be glad to make it ours by rising early, in that application, that it might be ours as well as his whose indeed it is. The bell doth toll for him that thinks it doth; and though it intermit again, yet from that minute that that occasion wrought upon him, he is united to God. Who casts not up his eye to the sun when it rises? but who takes off his eye from a comet when that breaks out? Who bends not his ear to any bell which upon any occasion rings? but who can remove it from that bell which is passing a piece of himself out of this world? No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory were, as well as if a manor of thy friend's or of thine own were. Any man's death diminishes me because I am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee. Neither can we call this a begging of misery or a borrowing of misery, as though we were not miserable enough of ourselves but must fetch in more from the next house, in taking upon us the misery of our neighbors. Truly it were an excusable covetousness if we did; for affliction is a treasure, and scarcely any man hath enough of it. No man hath affliction enough that is not matured and ripened by it and made fit for God by that affliction. If a man carry treasure in bullion, or in a wedge of gold, and have none coined into current money, his treasure will not defray him as he travels. Tribulation is treasure in the nature of it, but it is not current money in the use of it, except we get nearer and nearer our home, heaven, by it. Another man may be sick too, and sick unto death, and this affliction may lie in his bowels as gold in a mine and be no use to him; but this bell that tells me of his affliction digs out and applies that gold to me, if by this consideration of another's danger I take mine own into contemplation and so secure myself by making my recourse to my God, who is our only security. by James Kiefer

England, 1593-1645, ARCHBISHOP WILLIAM LAUD, martyr, killed by the protestants
England, 1593-1645, ARCHBISHOP WILLIAM LAUD; WILLIAM LAUD, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (10 JANUARY 1645);

England, 1600-1699, London, 17th Century History Folder, English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell

England, 1601, Essex House, London, Earl of Essex Rebellion
Essex House, London, Earl of Essex Rebellion 1601; JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631);

England, 1604-1610, Archbishop of Canterbury, Richard Bancroft, chief overseer of King James Bible
England, 1604-1610, Archbishop of Canterbury, Richard Bancroft ; Bancroft (1544 - 2 November 1610) was an English churchman, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1604 to 1610 and "chief overseer" of the King James Bible. ROBERT HUNT, PRIEST & FIRST CHAPLAIN AT JAMESTOWN, 1608, Commemorated April 26 ;

England, 1613-1633, Priest and Poet, George Herbert, remembered for his book of poems
England, 1613-1633, Priest and Poet, George Herbert; Herbert (3 April 1593 – 1 March 1633)[1] was a Welsh-born poet, orator, and priest of the Church of England. poetry is associated with the writings of the metaphysical poets, and he is recognised as "one of the foremost British devotional lyricists."[2] was born into an artistic and wealthy family and largely raised in England. He received a good education that led to his admission to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1609. He went there with the intention of becoming a priest, but he became the University's Public Orator and attracted the attention of King James I. He served in the Parliament of England in 1624 and briefly in 1625.[3] the death of King James, Herbert renewed his interest in ordination. He gave up his secular ambitions in his mid-thirties and took holy orders in the Church of England, spending the rest of his life as the rector of the rural parish of Fugglestone St Peter, just outside Salisbury. He was noted for unfailing care for his parishioners, bringing the sacraments to them when they were ill and providing food and clothing for those in need. Henry Vaughan called him "a most glorious saint and seer".[4] He was never a healthy man and died of consumption at age 39. GEORGE HERBERT, PRIEST AND POET (27 FEBRUARY 1633); Herbert was born in 1593, a cousin of the Earl of Pembroke. His mother was a friend of the poet John Donne. George attended Trinity College, Cambridge, and became the Public Orator of the University, responsible for giving speeches of welcome in Latin to famous visitors, and writing letters of thanks, also in Latin, to acknowledge gifts of books for the University Library. brought him to the attention of King James I, who granted him an annual allowance, and seemed likely to make him an ambassador. However, in 1625 the king died, and George Herbert, who had originally gone to college with the intention of becoming a priest, but had his head turned by the prospect of a career at Court, determined anew to seek ordination. In 1626 he was ordained, and became vicar and then rector of the parish of Bemerton and neighboring Fugglestone, not far from Salisbury. He served faithfully as a parish priest, diligently visiting his parishioners and bringing them the sacraments when they were ill, and food and clothing when they were in want. He read Morning and Evening Prayer daily in the church, encouraging the congregation to join him when possible, and ringing the church bell before each service so that those who could not come might hear it and pause in their work to join their prayers with his. He used to go once a week to Salisbury to hear Evening Prayer sung there in the cathedral. On one occasion he was late because he had met a man whose horse had fallen with a heavy load, and he stopped, took off his coat, and helped the man to unload the cart, get the horse back on its feet, and then reload the cart. His spontaneous generosity and good will won him the affection of his parishioners. Today, however, he is remembered chiefly for his book of poems, The Temple, which he sent shortly before his death to his friend Nicholas Ferrar, to publish if he thought them suitable. They were published after Herbert's death, and have influenced the style of other poets, including Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Several of them have been used as hymns, in particular "Teach me, my God and King," and "Let all the world in every corner sing." Another of his poems contains the lines: Prayer, the Church's banquet, Angel's age, God's breath in man returning to his birth, The soul in paraphrase, the heart in pilgrimage, The Christian plummet sounding heav'n and earth. more of his poems follow: THE FLOWER How fresh, O Lord, how sweet and clean are Thy returns! Even as the flowers in spring, to which, besides their own demean, the late-past frosts tributes of pleasure bring. Grief melts away like snow in May, As if there were no such cold thing. Who would have thought my shrivelled heart could have recovered greenness? It was gone quite underground, as flowers depart to see their mother-root, when they have blown; where they together all the hard weather, dead to the world, keep house unknown. These are Thy wonders, Lord of power, killing and quickening, bringing down to hell and up to heaven in an hour; making a chiming of a passing-bell. We say amiss this or that is; Thy word is all, if we could spell. Oh, that I once past changing were, fast in Thy paradise, where no flower can wither! Many a spring I shoot up fair, offering at heaven, growing and groaning thither; nor doth my flower want a spring shower, my sins and I joining together. But while I grow in a straight line, still upwards bent, as if heaven were mine own, Thy anger comes, and I decline. What frost to that? What pole is not the zone where all things burn, when Thou dost turn, and the least frown of Thine is shown? And now in age I bud again; after so many deaths I love and write; I once more smell the dew and rain, and relish versing. O my only Light, it cannot be that I am he on whom Thy tempests fell all night. These are Thy wonders, Lord of love, to make us see we are but flowers that glide; which when we once can find and prove, Thou hast a garden for us where to bide. Who would be more, swelling through store, forfeit their paradise by their pride. LOVE (III) Love bade me welcome: yet my soul drew back, guilty of dust and sin. But quicked-ey'd Love, Observing me grow slack from my first entrance in, Drew near to me, sweetly questioning, if I lack'd any thing. A guest, I answer'd, worthy to be here: Love said, You should be he. I the unkinde, engrateful? ah my deare, I can not look on thee. Love took my hand, and smiling did reply, Who made the eyes but I? Truth Lord, but I hav marr'd them: let my shame go where it doth deserve. And know you not, sayes Love, who bore the blame? My deare, then I will serve. You must sit down, sayes love, and taste my meat: So I did sit and eat. Glory to God on High And on earth Peace good will toward man. George Herbert (1595-1633) He also wrote a volume for parish clergy called A Priest to the Temple, or the Country Parson. died on 1 March 1633, but is commemorated two days earlier, to avoid conflict with other commemorations. by James Kiefer

England, 1625-1649, Charles I, King, divine right of k, high church, civil war, killed
England, 1625-1649, King of England, Charles I ; I (19 November 1600-“ 30 January 1649)[a] was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603 (as James I), he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1612 on the death of his elder brother Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to the Spanish Habsburg princess Maria Anna culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiations. Two years later he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France. his succession in 1625, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. believed in the divine right of kings, and was determined to govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated antipathy and mistrust from Reformed religious groups such as the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters, who thought his views were too Catholic. supported high church Anglican ecclesiastics such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid continental Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments, and helped precipitate his own downfall. 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and the Commonwealth of England was established as a republic. The monarchy would be restored to Charles's son, Charles II, in 1660. JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667); NICHOLAS FERRAR, DEACON, MAN OF PRAYER (1 DEC 1637); RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; WILLIAM LAUD, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (10 JANUARY 1645); Anne Hutchinson of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; Roger Williams of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; GEORGE HERBERT, PRIEST AND POET (27 FEBRUARY 1633); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631); JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 169;

England, 1633-1667, Jeremy Taylor, many books on theological, moral, and devotional subjects, freedom of speech and conscience
England, 1633-1667, Jeremy Taylor, Cambridge, many books on theological, moral, and devotional subjects, freedom of speech and conscience; Taylor (1613–1667) was a cleric in the Church of England who achieved fame as an author during the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. He is sometimes known as the "Shakespeare of Divines" for his poetic style of expression, and he is frequently cited as one of the greatest prose writers in the English language. He is remembered in the Church of England's calendar of saints with a Lesser Festival on 13 August. was under the patronage of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. He went on to become chaplain in ordinary to King Charles I as a result of Laud's sponsorship. This made him politically suspect when Laud was tried for treason and executed in January 1644/5 by the Puritan parliament during the English Civil War. After the parliamentary victory over the King, he was briefly imprisoned several times. he was allowed to live quietly in Wales, where he became the private chaplain of the Earl of Carbery. After the Restoration, he was made Bishop of Down and Connor in Ireland. He also became vice-chancellor of the University of Dublin. Cambridge; JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667); Taylor was born at Cambridge in 1613 and ordained in 1633. In the years between 1633 and the ascendency of the Puritans in 1645, he was a Fellow of two Cambridge colleges, and chaplain to Archbishop Laud and to King Charles. Puritan rule, he was imprisoned three times, and forced into retirement as a family chaplain in Wales. the Restoration, in 1661, he became Bishop of Down and Connor in Ireland. his many books on theological, moral, and devotional subjects, the best known are The Rule and Exercises of Holy Living (1650) and The Rule and Exercises of Holy Dying (1651), usually cited simply as Holy Living and Holy Dying. Many readers, including Charles Wesley a century later, have reported finding these books of great spiritual benefit. work of his, Liberty of Prophesying, argues for freedom of conscience and freedom of speech in a religious context. Being stationed in an area that was largely Roman Catholic, he was, perhaps inevitably, drawn into controversy, and he wrote a book called Dissuasion (or Dissuasive) against Popery.

England, 1635-1691, RICHARD BAXTER, protestant writer
England, 1635-1691, RICHARD BAXTER; Baxter (12 November 1615 - 8 December 1691) was an English Puritan church leader, theologian and controversialist, called by Dean Stanley "the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen". After some false starts, he made his reputation by his ministry at Kidderminster, and at around the same time began a long and prolific career as theological writer. After the Restoration he refused preferment [i. e., an appointment within the Church of England], while retaining a non-separatist presbyterian approach, and became one of the most influential leaders of the nonconformists, spending time in prison. ministry at Kidderminster continued, with many interruptions, for about nineteen years; and during that time he accomplished many reforms. He formed the ministers in the country around him into an association, uniting them irrespective of their differences as Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Independents. The Reformed Pastor was a book which Baxter published in relation to the general ministerial efforts he promoted. the outbreak of the English Civil War, Baxter blamed both parties and recommended the Protestation, an attempt to avert civil war. In 1647, Baxter was staying at the home of Lady Rouse, wife of Sir Thomas Rouse, 1st Baronet, of Rouse Lench in Warwickshire. There, though debilated by illness, he wrote the most of a major work, The Saints' Everlasting Rest (1650). the Restoration in 1660 Baxter, who had helped to bring about that event, settled in London. He preached there till the Act of Uniformity 1662 took effect, and looked for such terms of comprehension as would have permitted the moderate dissenters with whom he acted to have remained in the Church of England. In this hope he was sadly disappointed. The Savoy conference [which formed the basis of the 1662 BCP] resulted in Baxter's Reformed Liturgy, though it was cast aside without consideration. 1662 until the indulgence of 1687, Baxter's life was constantly disturbed by persecution of one kind or another. Baxter's health had grown even worse, yet this was the period of his greatest activity as a writer. He wrote 168 or so separate works -- such treatises as the Christian Directory, the Methodus Theologiae Christianae, and the Catholic Theology, might each have represented the life's work of an ordinary man. Without doubt, however, his most famous and enduring contribution to Christian literature was a devotional work published in 1658 under the title Call to the Unconverted to Turn and Live. This slim volume was credited with the conversion of thousands and formed one of the core extra-biblical texts of evangelicalism until at least the middle of the nineteenth century. from Wikipedia RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ;

England, 1642-1651, English Civil War
England, 1642-“1651, English Civil War; JOHN BUNYAN, WRITER, 30 August 1688; WILLIAM LAUD, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (10 JANUARY 1645);

England, 1648-1688, John Bunyan, lay preacher and writer, Pilgrim's Progress
England, 1648-1688, John Bunyan, lay preacher and writer, Pilgrim's Progress; Bunyan (baptised 30 November 1628 – 31 August 1688) was an English writer and Puritan preacher best remembered as the author of the Christian allegory The Pilgrim's Progress. In addition to The Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan wrote nearly sixty titles, many of them expanded sermons. came from the village of Elstow, near Bedford. He had some schooling and at the age of sixteen joined the Parliamentary Army during the first stage of the English Civil War. After three years in the army he returned to Elstow and took up the trade of tinker, which he had learned from his father. He became interested in religion after his marriage, attending first the parish church and then joining the Bedford Meeting, a nonconformist group in Bedford, and becoming a preacher. After the restoration of the monarch, when the freedom of nonconformists was curtailed, Bunyan was arrested and spent the next twelve years in jail as he refused to give up preaching. During this time he wrote a spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, and began work on his most famous book, The Pilgrim's Progress, which was not published until some years after his release. later years, in spite of another shorter term of imprisonment, were spent in relative comfort as a popular author and preacher, and pastor of the Bedford Meeting. He died aged 59 after falling ill on a journey to London and is buried in Bunhill Fields. The Pilgrim's Progress became one of the most published books in the English language; 1,300 editions having been printed by 1938, 250 years after the author's death. is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 30 August,[1] and on the liturgical calendar of the United States Episcopal Church on 29 August. Some other churches of the Anglican Communion, such as the Anglican Church of Australia, honour him on the day of his death (31 August). life Bunyan's High Street cottage Bunyan was born in 1628 to Thomas and Margaret Bunyan at Bunyan's End in the parish of Elstow, Bedfordshire. Bunyan's End is about halfway between the hamlet of Harrowden (one mile south-east of Bedford) and Elstow High Street. Bunyan's date of birth is not known, but he was baptised on 30 November 1628, the baptismal entry in the parish register reading "John the sonne of Thomas Bunnion Jun., the 30 November".[2] The name Bunyan was spelt in many ways (there are 34 variants in Bedfordshire Record Office) and probably had its origins in the Norman-French name Buignon.[3] There had been Bunyans in Bedfordshire since at least 1199.[4] father was a brazier or tinker who travelled around the area mending pots and pans, and his grandfather had been a chapman or small trader.[4] The Bunyans owned land and properties in Elstow, so Bunyan's origins were not quite as humble as he suggested in his autobiographical work Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners when he wrote that his father's house was "of that rank that is meanest and most despised in the country".[5] a child Bunyan learned his father's trade of tinker and was given some schooling[6] but it is not known which school he attended. In Grace Abounding Bunyan recorded few details of his upbringing, but he did note how he picked up the habit of swearing (from his father), suffered from nightmares, and read the popular stories of the day in cheap chap-books. In the summer of 1644 Bunyan lost both his mother and his sister Margaret.[7] That autumn, shortly before or after his sixteenth birthday, Bunyan enlisted in the Parliamentary army when an edict demanded 225 recruits from the town of Bedford. There are few details available about his military service, which took place during the first stage of the English Civil War. A muster roll for the garrison of Newport Pagnell shows him as private "John Bunnian".[8] In Grace Abounding, he recounted an incident from this time, as evidence of the grace of God: I was a Souldier, I, with others, were drawn out to go to such a place to besiege it; But when I was just ready to go, one of the company desired to go in my room, to which, when I had consented, he took my place; and coming to the siege, as he stood Sentinel, he was shot into the head with a Musket bullet and died.[9] army service provided him with a knowledge of military language which he then used in his book The Holy War, and also exposed him to the ideas of the various religious sects and radical groups he came across in Newport Pagnell.[10] The garrison town also gave him opportunities to indulge in the sort of behaviour he would later confess to in Grace Abounding: "So that until I came to the state of Marriage, I was the very ringleader of all the Youth that kept me company, in all manner of vice and ungodliness".[11] Bunyan spent nearly three years in the army, leaving in 1647 to return to Elstow and his trade as a tinker. His father had remarried and had more children and Bunyan moved from Bunyan's End to a cottage in Elstow High Street. and conversion two years of leaving the army, Bunyan married. The name of his wife and the exact date of his marriage are not known, but Bunyan did recall that his wife, a pious young woman, brought with her into the marriage two books that she had inherited from her father: Arthur Dent's Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven and Lewis Bayly's Practice of Piety. He also recalled that, apart from these two books, the newly-weds possessed little: "not having so much household-stuff as a Dish or a Spoon betwixt us both".[12] The couple's first daughter, Mary, was born in 1650, and it soon became apparent that she was blind. They would have three more children, Elizabeth, Thomas and John. his own account, Bunyan had as a youth enjoyed bell-ringing, dancing and playing games including on Sunday, which was forbidden by the Puritans, who held a particularly high view of Sunday, called the Lord's Day. One Sunday the vicar of Elstow preached a sermon against Sabbath breaking, and Bunyan took this sermon to heart. That afternoon, as he was playing tip-cat (a game in which a small piece of wood is hit with a bat) on Elstow village green, he heard a voice from the heavens "Wilt thou leave thy sins, and go to Heaven? Or have thy sins, and go to Hell?"[13] The next few years were a time of intense spiritual conflict for Bunyan as he struggled with his doubts and fears over religion and guilt over what he saw as his state of sin.[14] this time Bunyan, whilst on his travels as a tinker, happened to be in Bedford and pass a group of women who were talking about spiritual matters on their doorstep. The women were in fact some of the founding members of the Bedford Free Church or Meeting and Bunyan, who had been attending the parish church of Elstow, was so impressed by their talk that he joined their church.[15] At that time the nonconformist group was meeting in St John's church in Bedford under the leadership of former Royalist army officer John Gifford.[16] At the instigation of other members of the congregation Bunyan began to preach, both in the church and to groups of people in the surrounding countryside.[17] In 1656, having by this time moved his family to St Cuthbert's Street in Bedford, he published his first book, Gospel Truths Opened, which was inspired by a dispute with Ranters and Quakers.[18] 1658 Bunyan's wife died, leaving him with four small children, one of them blind. A year later he married an eighteen-year-old woman named Elizabeth.[19] in prison as imagined in 1881 religious tolerance which had allowed Bunyan the freedom to preach became curtailed with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. The members of the Bedford Meeting were no longer able to meet in St John's church, which they had been sharing with the Anglican congregation.[20] That November, Bunyan was preaching at Lower Samsell, a farm near the village of Harlington, thirteen miles from Bedford, when he was warned that a warrant was out for his arrest. Deciding not to make an escape, he was arrested and brought before the local magistrate Sir Francis Wingate, at Harlington House. Bunyan was arrested under the Conventicle Act of 1593, which made it an offence to attend a religious gathering other than at the parish church with more than five people outside their family. The offence was punishable by 3 months' imprisonment followed by banishment or execution if the person then failed to promise not to re-offend. The Act had been little used, and Bunyan's arrest was probably due in part to concerns that non-conformist religious meetings were being held as a cover for people plotting against the king (although this was not the case with Bunyan's meetings). The Act of Uniformity, which made it compulsory for preachers to be ordained by an Anglican bishop and for the revised Book of Common Prayer to be used in church services, was still two years away, and the Act of Conventicles, which made it illegal to hold religious meetings of five or more people outside the Church of England was not passed until 1664.[21] trial of Bunyan took place in January 1661 at the quarter sessions in Bedford, before a group of magistrates under John Kelynge, who would later help to draw up the Act of Uniformity.[22] Bunyan, who had been held in prison since his arrest, was indicted of having "devilishly and perniciousy abstained from coming to church to hear divine service" and having held "several unlawful meetings and conventicles, to the great disturbance and distraction of the good subjects of this kingdom".[23] He was sentenced to three months imprisonment with transportation to follow if at the end of this time he did not agree to attend the parish church and desist from preaching.[24] Bunyan refused to agree to give up preaching, his period of imprisonment eventually extended to 12 years and brought great hardship to his family. Elizabeth, who made strenuous attempts to obtain his release, had been pregnant when her husband was arrested and she subsequently gave birth prematurely to a still-born child.[25] Left to bring up four step-children, one of whom was blind, she had to rely on the charity of Bunyan's fellow members of the Bedford Meeting and other supporters and on what little her husband could earn in gaol by making shoelaces. But Bunyan remained resolute: "O I saw in this condition I was a man who was pulling down his house upon the head of his Wife and Children; yet thought I, I must do it, I must do it".[26] spent his 12 years' imprisonment in Bedford County Gaol, which stood on the corner of the High Street and Silver Street. There were however occasions when he was allowed out of prison, depending on the gaolers and the mood of the authorities at the time, and he was able to attend the Bedford Meeting and even preach. His daughter Sarah was born during his imprisonment (the other child of his second marriage, Joseph, was born after his release in 1672).[27] prison, Bunyan had a copy of the Bible and of John Foxe's Book of Martyrs, as well as writing materials. He also had at times the company of other preachers who had been imprisoned. It was in Bedford Gaol that he wrote Grace Abounding and started work on The Pilgrim's Progress, as well as penning several tracts that may have brought him a little money.[28] In 1671, while still in prison, he was chosen as pastor of the Bedford Meeting.[29] By that time there was a mood of increasing religious toleration in the country and in March 1672 the king issued a declaration of indulgence which suspended penal laws against nonconformists. Thousands of nonconformists were released from prison, amongst them Bunyan and five of his fellow inmates of Bedford Gaol. Bunyan was freed in May 1672 and immediately obtained a licence to preach under the declaration of indulgence.[30] life his release from jail in 1672 Bunyan probably did not return to his former occupation of a tinker. Instead, he devoted his time to writing and preaching.[31] He continued as pastor of the Bedford Meeting and traveled over Bedfordshire and adjoining counties on horseback to preach, becoming known affectionately as "Bishop Bunyan". His preaching also took him to London, where Lord Mayor Sir John Shorter became a friend and presented him with a silver-mounted walking stick.[31] The Pilgrim's Progress was published in 1678 by Nathaniel Ponder and immediately became popular, though probably making more money for its publisher than for its author.[31] events marred Bunyan's life during the later 1670s. Firstly he became embroiled in a scandal concerning a young woman called Agnes Beaumont. When going to preach in Gamlingay in 1674 he allowed Beaumont, a member of the Bedford Meeting, to ride pillion on his horse, much to the anger of her father, who then died suddenly. His daughter was initially suspected of poisoning him, though the coroner found he had died of natural causes.[32] In 1676-7 he underwent a second term of imprisonment, probably for refusing to attend the parish church.[33] This second imprisonment lasted six months.[34] effigy on his grave in Bunhill Fields 1688, on his way to London, Bunyan made a detour to Reading, Berkshire, to try and resolve a quarrel between a father and son. Continuing to London to the house of his friend, grocer John Strudwick of Snow Hill in the City of London, he was caught in a storm and fell ill with a fever. He died in Strudwick's house on the morning of 31 August 1688 and was buried in the tomb belonging to Strudwick in Bunhill Fields nonconformist burial ground in London.[35] estate at his death was worth £42 19s 0d. His widow Elizabeth died in 1691.[36] Progress, first edition 1678. Between 1656, when he published his first work, Some Gospel Truths Opened (a tract against the Ranters and Quakers—has—who at the time were somewhat indistinguishable), and his death in 1688, Bunyan published 42 titles. A further two works, including his Last Sermon, were published the following year by George Larkin. In 1692 Southwark comb-maker Charles Doe, who was a friend of Bunyan's later years, brought out, with the collaboration of Bunyan's widow, a collection of the author's works, including 12 previously unpublished titles, mostly sermons. Six years later Doe published The Heavenly Footman and finally in 1765 Relation of My Imprisonment was published, giving a total of 58 published titles.[37] is the allegory The Pilgrim's Progress, written during Bunyan's twelve-year imprisonment although not published until 1678 six years after his release, that made Bunyan's name as an author with its immediate success. It remains the book for which Bunyan is best remembered.[37] The images Bunyan uses in The Pilgrim's Progress are reflections of images from his own world; the strait gate is a version of the wicket gate at Elstow Abbey church,[38] the Slough of Despond is a reflection of Squitch Fen, a wet and mossy area near his cottage in Harrowden, the Delectable Mountains are an image of the Chiltern Hills surrounding Bedfordshire. Even his characters, like the Evangelist as influenced by John Gifford, are reflections of real people. allegorical works were to follow: The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), Pilgrim's Progress Part II and The Holy War (1682). Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, a spiritual autobiography, was published in 1666, when he was still in jail. There is a small obelisk marking his birthplace in a field beside 'Bumpy Lane', which is inbetween Elstow and Old Harrowden Lane Bunhill Fields funerary monument In 1862 a recumbent statue was created to adorn Bunyan's grave; it was restored in 1922.[39] 1874, a bronze statue of John Bunyan, sculpted by Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm, was erected in Bedford. This stands at the south-western corner of St Peter's Green, facing down Bedford's High Street. The site was chosen by Boehm for its significance as a crossroads. Bunyan is depicted expounding the Bible, to an invisible congregation, with a broken fetter representing his imprisonment by his left foot. There are three scenes from "The Pilgrim's Progress" on the stone plinth: Christian at the wicket gate; his fight with Apollyon; and losing his burden at the foot of the cross of Jesus. The statue was unveiled by Lady Augusta Stanley, wife of the Dean of Westminster, on Wednesday 10 June 1874.[40] In 1876 the Duke of Bedford gave bronze doors by Frederick Thrupp depicting scenes from The Pilgrim's Progress to the John Bunyan Meeting (the former Bedford Meeting which had been renamed in Bunyan's honour, and now houses the John Bunyan Museum).[41] is another statue of him in Kingsway, London, and there are memorial windows in Westminster Abbey, Southwark Cathedral and various churches, including Elstow Abbey (the parish church of Elstow) and the Bunyan Meeting Free Church in Bedford.[42] is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 30 August, and on the liturgical calendar of the United States Episcopal Church on 29 August. Some other churches of the Anglican Communion, such as the Anglican Church of Australia, honour him on the day of his death (31 August). is best remembered for The Pilgrim's Progress, a book which gained immediate popularity. By 1692, four years after the author's death, publisher Charles Doe estimated that 100,000 copies had been printed in England, as well as editions "in France, Holland, New England and Welch".[43] By 1938, 250 years after Bunyan's death, more than 1,300 editions of the book had been printed.[44] the 18th century Bunyan's unpolished style fell out of favour, but his popularity returned with Romanticism, poet Robert Southey writing a lengthy appreciative biography in 1830 to accompany an edition of The Pilgrim's Progress that many critics deem a turning point in Bunyan scholarship.[45] Bunyan's reputation was further enhanced by the evangelical revival and he became a favourite author of the Victorians.[46] The tercentenary of Bunyan's birth, celebrated in 1928, elicited praise from his former adversary, the Church of England.[47] Although popular interest in Bunyan waned during the second half of the twentieth century, academic interest in the writer has increased and Oxford University Press brought out a new edition of his works, beginning in 1976.[48] Authors who have been influenced by Bunyan include C. S. Lewis, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Charles Dickens, Louisa May Alcott and George Bernard Shaw.[47] work, in particular The Pilgrim's Progress, has reached a wider audience through stage productions, film, TV, and radio. A stage work by Ralph Vaughan Williams, which the composer styled a Morality, based on The Pilgrim's Progress was first performed at the Royal Opera House in 1951 as part of the Festival of Britain and revived in 2012 by the English National Opera.[49] Bunyan had six children, five of whom are known to have married, of whom four had children. Moot Hall Museum (in Elstow) has a record of John's descendants, down to the nineteenth century but as of September 2013, no verifiable trace of later descendants has been found.[50][page needed] Bedford ; JOHN BUNYAN, WRITER, 30 August 1688; was born in 1628 near Bedford, in the agricultural midlands of England. He was the son of a tinker (a maker and mender of metal pots). He had little schooling. During the English Civil War, he served in the Parliamentary Army. He underwent a period of acute spiritual anxiety, and finally found peace in a Baptist congregation. He became a lay preacher, while earning his living as a tinker. the Restoration in 1660, Bunyan (under suspicion for having fought on the anti-Anglican side) was ordered to preach no more, and, since he refused to desist, he was several times sentenced to jail, where he spent his time studying, preaching to his fellow prisoners, and writing. His first substantial work was an autobiography, Grace Abounding To the Chief of Sinners. This was followed by other works, of which by far the most read and most loved is his The Pilgrim's Progress From This World To That Which Is To Come, usually called Pilgrim's Progress. The work recounts in allegorical form the experience of a person (called Christian), from his his first awareness of his sinfulness and spiritual need, to his personal conversion to Christ, to his walk as a believer. He is shown as a pilgrim in this world on his way to the "Celestial City," which will be his true home forever. The work was an immediate sensation, and its popularity endured. For a century and more thereafter, there were many English-speaking Christians who were thoroughly familiar with only two books, The Bible and Pilgrim's Progress. (Those who have read the book or seen the movie Little Women, portraying the life of an American family in the 1860's, will remember that the book was a family favorite.) extracts follow: Pilgrim's Progress In the Similitude of A Dream I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on A certain place where was a Den, and I laid me down in that place to sleep: and, as I slept, I dreamed a dream. I dreamed, and behold, I saw a man clothed with rags, standing in a certain place, with his face from his own house, a book in his hand, and a great burden upon his back. I looked, and saw him open the book, and read therein; and, as he read, he wept, and trembled; and, not being able longer to contain, he brake out with a lamentable cry, saying, What shall I do? this plight, therefore, he went home and refrained himself As long as he could, that his wife and children should not perceive his distress; but he could not be silent long, because that his trouble increased. Wherefore at length he brake his mind to his wife and children; and thus he began to talk to them: O my dear wife, said he, and you the children of my bowels, I, your dear friend, am in my self undone by reason of a burden that lieth hard upon me; moreover, I am for certain informed that this our city will be burned with fire from heaven; in which fearful overthrow, both myself, with thee my wife, and you my sweet babes, shall miserably come to ruin, except (the which yet I see not) some way of escape can be found, whereby we may be delivered. At this his relations were sore amazed; not for that they believed that what he had said to them was true, but because they thought that some frenzy distemper had got into his head; therefore, it drawing towards night, and they hoping that sleep might settle his brains, with all haste they got him to bed. But the night was as troublesome to him as the day; wherefore, instead of sleeping, he spent it in sighs and tears. So, when the morning was come, they would know how he did. He told them, Worse and worse: he also set to talking to them again; but they began to be hardened. They also sought to drive away his distemper by harsh and surly carriages to him; sometimes they would deride, sometimes they would chide, and sometimes they would quite neglect him. Wherefore he began to retire himself to his chamber, to pray for and pity them, and also to condole his own misery; he would also walk solitarily in the fields, sometimes reading, and sometimes praying: and thus for some days he spent his time. I saw, upon a time, when he was walking in the fields, That he was, as he was wont, reading in his book, and greatly distressed in his mind; and, as he read, he burst out, as he had done before, crying, What shall I do to be saved? saw also that he looked this way and that way, as if he would Run; yet he stood still, because, as I perceived, he could not tell which way to go. I looked then, and saw a man named Evangelist coming to him, who asked, Wherefore dost thou cry? He answered, Sir, I perceive by the book in my hand, at I am condemned to die, and after that to come to judgment; and I find that I am not willing to do the first, nor able to do the second. said Evangelist, Why not willing to die, since this life Is attended with so many evils? The man answered, Because I fear that this burden that is upon my back will sink me lower than the grave, and I shall fall into Tophet. And, Sir, if I be not fit to go to prison, I am not fit, I am sure, to go to judgment, and from thence to execution; and the thoughts of these things make me cry. said Evangelist, If this be thy condition, why standest Thou still? He answered, Because I know not whither to go. Then he gave him a parchment roll, and there was written within, Flee from the wrath to come. when he [Christian] was got up to the top of the Hill, There came two men running up against him amain; the name of the one was Timorous, and the name of the other Mistrust. To whom Christian said, "Sirs, what's the matter you run the wrong way?" Timorous answered that they were going to the city of Sion, and had got up that difficult place; "But," said he, "the further we go, the more danger we meet with, wherefore we turned, and are going back again." said Mistrust, 'for just before us lie a couple of Lions in the way, whether sleeping or waking we know not and we could not think, if we came within reach, but they would presently pull us in pieces." said Christian, "You make me afraid, but whither Shall I fly to be safe? If I go back to mine own country, that is prepared for fire and brimstone, and I shall certainly perish there. If I can get to the Celestial City, I am sure to be in safety there. I must venture: to go back is nothing but death, to go forward is fear of death, and life everlasting beyond it. I will yet go forward." So Mistrust and Timorous ran down the Hill, and Christian went on his way. I saw in my dream, that these two men [Christian and Hopeful] went in at the Gate; and lo, as these entered they were transfigured, and they had raiment put on that shone like gold. There was also that met them, with harps and crowns, and gave them to them, the harp to praise withal, and the crowns in token of honour. Then I heard in my dream, that all the bells in the City rang again for joy; and that it was said unto them, "Enter Ye Into the Joy of Your Lord." I also heard the men themselves, that they sang with a loud voice, saying, "Blessing, Honour, Glory, and Power, Be To Him That Sitteth Upon the Throne and To the Lamb For Ever and Ever." just as the Gates were opened to let in the men, I Looked in after them; and behold, the City shone like the sun, the streets also were paved with gold, and in them walked many men with crowns on their heads, palms in their hands, and golden harps to sing praises withal. were also of them that had wings, and they answered One another without intermission, saying, Holy, Holy, Holy, Is The Lord. And after that, they shut up the Gates: which when I had seen, I wished myself among them. died 31 August 1688, and is remembered on the 30th. [August 29th in the Episcopal Church.] by James Kiefer

England, 1649-1651, Charles II, 1660-1685, King, defeated by Cromwell, reinstated after C's death, Clarendon Code laws, 2nd Dutch war
England, 1649-1651, 1660-1685, King of England, Charles II ; II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685)[c] was King of Scotland from 1649 until 1651, and King of Scotland, England and Ireland from the 1660 Restoration of the monarchy until his death in 1685. II was the eldest surviving child of Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland and Henrietta Maria of France. After Charles I's execution at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War, the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II king on 5 February 1649. But England entered the period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth, and the country was a de facto republic led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, and Charles fled to mainland Europe. Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. The political crisis that followed Cromwell's death in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all legal documents stating a regnal year did so as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England. Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the Treaty of Dover, an alliance with his cousin King Louis XIV of France. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date. Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oates's revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charles's brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, was Catholic. The crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and after the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681 and ruled alone until his death in 1685. He was allegedly received into the Catholic Church on his deathbed. considered one of the most popular English kings,[1] Charles is known as the Merry Monarch, a reference to the liveliness and hedonism of his court. He acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses, but left no legitimate children and was succeeded by his brother, James. Palace of Whitehall; JOHN BUNYAN, WRITER, 30 August 1688; JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667); RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; Anne Hutchinson of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 169;

England, 1649-1660, King of England, English Interregnum
England, 1649-1660, King of England, English Interregnum Palace of Whitehall; JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667); RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; Anne Hutchinson of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 169;

England, 1653-1658, Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell, Cromwell's (Parliment's) Army, E Civil War
England, 1653-1658, Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell, Cromwell's Army ; Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599-“ 3 September 1658)[note 1] was an English general and statesman who led the Parliament of England's armies against King Charles I during the English Civil War and ruled the British Isles as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658. He acted simultaneously as head of state and head of government of the new republican commonwealth. Cromwell was born into the middle gentry to a family descended from the sister of Henry VIII's minister Thomas Cromwell. Little is known of the first 40 years of his life, as only four of his personal letters survive along with a summary of a speech that he delivered in 1628.[2] He became an Independent Puritan after undergoing a religious conversion in the 1630s, taking a generally tolerant view towards the many Protestant sects of his period.[3] He was an intensely religious man, and he fervently believed that God was guiding his victories. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640-“1649) Parliaments. He entered the English Civil Wars on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians. His nickname was "Old Ironsides". He demonstrated his ability as a commander and was quickly promoted from leading a single cavalry troop to being one of the principal commanders of the New Model Army, playing an important role under General Sir Thomas Fairfax in the defeat of the Royalist ("Cavalier") forces. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles I's death warrant in 1649, and he dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England as a member of the Rump Parliament (1649-“1653). He was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649-“1650. Cromwell's forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, bringing to an end the Irish Confederate Wars. During this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics (a significant minority in England and Scotland but the vast majority in Ireland), and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651. On 20 April 1653, he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as Barebone's Parliament before being invited by his fellow leaders to rule as Lord Protector of England (which included Wales at the time), Scotland, and Ireland from 16 December 1653.[4] As a ruler, he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. He died from natural causes in 1658 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The Royalists returned to power along with King Charles II in 1660, and they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in the history of the British Isles, considered a regicidal dictator by historians such as David Sharp,[5] a military dictator by Winston Churchill,[6] and a hero of liberty by John Milton, Thomas Carlyle, and Samuel Rawson Gardiner. His tolerance of Protestant sects did not extend to Catholics; his measures against them in Ireland have been characterised by some as genocidal or near-genocidal,[7] and his record is strongly criticised in Ireland.[8] He was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time in a 2002 BBC poll.[9] JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667); NICHOLAS FERRAR, DEACON, MAN OF PRAYER (1 DEC 1637); RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; Anne Hutchinson of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; Roger Williams of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711); JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 169;

England, 1656-1674, Thomas Traherne, Progressive Poet, Discovered in 1902
England, 1656-1674, Thomas Traherne, Progressive Poet, Discovered in 1902; THOMAS TRAHERNE, PRIEST AND POET, 27 Sept. 1674;

England, 1659, Christian Commonwealth, Pure Biblical Republic
England, 1659, Christian Commonwealth, Pure Biblical Republic ; JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 169;

England, 1660, The Restoration, Charles II Crowned in Westminster Abby
England, 1660, The Restoration, Charles II Crowned in Westminster Abby; JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667);

England, 1660-1685, Charles II, King, restoration
England, 1660-1685, King of England, Charles II of England; Henry Purcell of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; Roger Williams of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711);

England, 1662, Act of Uniformity 1662 (to Book of Common Prayer)
England, 1662, Act of Uniformity 1662 (to Book of Common Prayer); RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; Anne Hutchinson of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5;

England, 1682-1742, Elie Neau, French Huguenot and American Catechist
France, 1682-1742, Elie Neau, French Huguenot and American Catechist; ELIE NAUD, (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722, Commemoratedd 7 September; most effective work of the Society [for the Propogation of the Gospel] among Negroes of the Northern colonies was accomplished in New York. In that colony, the instruction of the Negro and Indian slaves to prepare them for conversion, baptism, and communion was a primary charge oft repeated to every missionary and schoolmaster of the Society. In addition to the general efforts put forth in the colonies, there was in New York a special provision for the employment of sixteen clergymen and thirteen lay teachers mainly for the evangelization of the slaves and the free Indians. For the Negro slaves a catechizing school was opened in New York City in 1704 under the charge of Elias Neau. This benevolent man, after several years’ imprisonment because of his Protestant faith, had come to New York to try his fortunes as a trader. As early as 1703 he called the attention of the Society to the great number, of slaves in New York “who were without God in the world, and of whose souls there was no manner of care taken” and proposed the appointment of a catechist to undertake their instruction. He himself finally being prevailed upon to accept this position, obtained a license from the Governor, resigned his position as elder in the French church [Église du Saint Esprit] and conformed to the Established Church of England, “not upon any worldly account but through a principle of conscience and hearty approbation of the English liturgy.” He was later licensed by the Bishop of London. Neau’s task was not an easy one. At first he went from house to house, but afterwards arranged for some of the slaves to attend him. He succeeded, however, in obtaining gratifying results. He was commended to the Society by Rev. Mr. Vesey in 1706 as a “constant communicant of our church, and a most zealous and prudent servant of Christ, in proselyting the miserable Negroes and Indians among them to the Christian Religion, whereby he does great service to God and his church.” Further confidence in him was attested by an act of the Society in preparing at his request “a Bill to be offered to Parliament for the more effectual Conversion of the Negro and other Servants in the Plantations, to compell Owners of Slaves to cause children to be baptized within 3 months after their birth and to permit them when come to years of discretion to be instructed in the Christian Religion on our Lord’s day by the Missionaries under whose ministry they live.” Neau’s school suffered greatly in 1712 because of the prejudice engendered by the declaration that instruction was the main cause of the Negro riot in that city. For some days Neau dared not show himself, so bitter was the feeling of the masters. Upon being assured, however, that only one Negro connected with the school had participated in the affair and that the most criminal belonged to the masters who were openly opposed to educating them, the institution was permitted to continue its endeavors, and the Governor extended to it his protection and recommended that masters have their slaves instructed. Yet Neau had still to complain thereafter of the struggle and opposition of the generality of the inhabitants, who were strongly prejudiced with a horrid motive thinking that Christian knowledge “would be a means to make the slave more cunning and apter to wickedness.” Not so long thereafter, however, the support of the best people and officials of the community made his task easier. Neau could say in 1714 that “if the slaves and domestics in New York were not instructed it was not his fault.” The Governor, the Council, Mayor, the Recorder and the Chief Justice informed the Society that Neau had performed his work “to the great advancement of religion in general and the particular benefit of the free Indians, Negro slaves, and other Heathens in those parts, with indefatigable zeal and application.” Elias Neau signature Neau died in 1722. His work was carried on by Mr. Huddlestone, Rev. Mr. Whitmore, Rev. Mr. Colgan, Rev. R. Charlton, and Rev. S. Auchmutty.

England, 1685-1688, James II & VIII, King, last catholic monarch
England, 1685-1688, King of England, James II & VIII ; Palace of Whitehall; Henry Purcell of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; JOHN BUNYAN, WRITER, 30 August 1688; SAMUEL SEABURY, BISHOP (14 NOV 1784), (BESTOWAL OF THE AMERICAN EPISCOPATE); RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 169;

England, 1687, Declaration of Indulgence, for freedom of religion
England, 1687, Declaration of Indulgence (1687); RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ;

England, 1689-1702, William and Mary, King and Queen, William of Orange, Protestant, Glorious Revolution
England, 1689-1702, King of England, William and Mary, King and Queen ; III (William Henry; Dutch: Willem Hendrik; 4 November 1650 – 8 March 1702),[b] also widely known as William of Orange, was sovereign Prince of Orange from birth, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel in the Dutch Republic from the 1670s and King of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1689 until his death. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II.[1] He is sometimes informally known as "King Billy" in Ireland and Scotland.[2] His victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is commemorated by unionists, who display orange colours in his honour. Popular histories usually refer to his joint reign with his wife, Queen Mary II, as that of William and Mary. was the only child of William II, Prince of Orange, who died a week before his birth, and Mary, Princess of Orange, the daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In 1677, during the reign of his uncle King Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland, he married his cousin Mary, the fifteen-year-old daughter of his maternal uncle James, Duke of York. A Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic King Louis XIV of France, in coalition with both Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith. In 1685, his Catholic uncle and father-in-law, James, became king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. James's reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain, who feared a revival of Catholicism. by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, William invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. In 1688, he landed at the south-western English port of Brixham. Shortly afterwards, James was deposed. reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him and his wife to take power. During the early years of his reign, William was occupied abroad with the Nine Years' War (1688–97), leaving Mary to govern the kingdom alone. She died in 1694. 1696, the Jacobites plotted unsuccessfully to assassinate William and return his father-in-law to the throne. lack of children and the death in 1700 of his nephew Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, the son of his sister-in-law Anne, threatened the Protestant succession. The danger was averted by placing distant relatives, the Protestant Hanoverians, in line to the throne with the Act of Settlement 1701. his death in 1702, the king was succeeded in Britain by Anne and as titular Prince of Orange by his cousin, John William Friso. Palace of Whitehall; Henry Purcell of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; SAMUEL SEABURY, BISHOP (14 NOV 1784), (BESTOWAL OF THE AMERICAN EPISCOPATE); RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) , Commemorated June 16 ; ISABEL FLORENCE HAPGOOD, ECUMENIST and JOURNALIST, 1929, Commemorated June 26;

England, 1690-1748, Isaac Watts, Hymnographer, new poetry
England, 1690-1748, Isaac Watts, Hymnographer, new poetry; Stoke Newington; ISAAC WATTS HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26 ;

England, 1697-1737, Prime Minister, Robert Walpole
Houghton, Norfolk (Robert Walpole); Robert Walpole; England, 1712-1752, Saint, Joseph Butler, Butler's Analogy; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16;

England, 1700-Present, Folder 18th - 21st Century, Great Britain

England, 1701-1799, 18th Century Folder, Great Britain, Methodists

England, 1702-1714, Queen Anne, 1st King of Great Britain, 17 pregnancies no h, protestant
England, 1702-1714, King of Great Britain, Queen Anne ; George Frederick Handel of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; Timothy Cutler of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; ELIE NAUD (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722 ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761); George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) , Commemorated June 16 ; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, 1705-1753, Saint, George Berkeley (to be is to be perceived)
England, 1705-1753, Saint, George Berkeley (to be is to be perceived); George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) ;

England, 1703-1737, Caroline of Ansbach, Queen to George II, Protector of the Realm
Leicester House Square, home of Caroline and George II; Caroline of Ansbach. Queen to George II; of Brandenburg-Ansbach (Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline; 1 March 1683 – 20 November 1737[1]) was Queen of Great Britain and Ireland as the wife of King George II. father, Margrave John Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach, belonged to a branch of the House of Hohenzollern and was the ruler of a small German state, the Principality of Ansbach. Caroline was orphaned at a young age and moved to the enlightened court of her guardians, King Frederick I and Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia. At the Prussian court, her previously limited education was widened, and she adopted the liberal outlook possessed by Sophia Charlotte, who became her good friend and whose views influenced Caroline all her life. a young woman, Caroline was much sought-after as a bride. After rejecting the suit of the nominal King of Spain, Archduke Charles of Austria, she married George Augustus, the third-in-line to the British throne and heir apparent to the Electorate of Hanover. They had eight children, seven of whom grew to adulthood. moved permanently to Britain in 1714 when her husband became Prince of Wales. As Princess of Wales, she joined her husband in rallying political opposition to his father King George I. In 1717, her husband was expelled from court after a family row. Caroline came to be associated with Robert Walpole, an opposition politician who was a former government minister. Walpole rejoined the government in 1720, and Caroline's husband and King George I reconciled publicly, on Walpole's advice. Over the next few years, Walpole rose to become the leading minister. became queen and electress consort upon her husband's accession in 1727. Her eldest son, Frederick, became Prince of Wales. He was a focus for the opposition, like his father before him, and Caroline's relationship with him was strained. princess and as queen, Caroline was known for her political influence, which she exercised through and for Walpole. Her tenure included four regencies during her husband's stays in Hanover, and she is credited with strengthening the House of Hanover's place in Britain during a period of political instability. Caroline was widely mourned by her political allies following her death in 1737, as well as by the King, who refused to remarry. 1 Early life 1.1 Education 2 Marriage 3 Princess of Wales 4 Queen and regent 5 Final years 6 Legacy 7 Titles, styles, honours and arms 7.1 Titles and styles 7.2 Honours 7.3 Arms 8 Issue 9 Ancestry 10 Notes 11 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links life[edit] in the 17th century Caroline was born on 1 March 1683 at Ansbach, the daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, and his second wife, Princess Eleonore Erdmuthe of Saxe-Eisenach.[2][3] Her father was the ruler of one of the smallest German states; he died of smallpox at the age of 32, when Caroline was three years old. Caroline and her only full sibling, her younger brother Margrave William Frederick, left Ansbach with their mother, who returned to her native Eisenach.[4] In 1692, Caroline's widowed mother was pushed into an unhappy marriage with the Elector of Saxony, and she and her two children moved to the Saxon court at Dresden. Eleonore Erdmuthe was widowed again two years later, after her unfaithful husband contracted smallpox from his mistress.[5] Eleonore remained in Saxony for another two years, until her death in 1696.[3][6] The orphaned Caroline and William Frederick returned to Ansbach to stay with their elder half-brother, Margrave George Frederick II. George Frederick was a youth with little interest in parenting a girl, and so Caroline soon moved to Lützenburg outside Berlin, where she entered into the care of her new guardians, Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg, and his wife, Sophia Charlotte, who had been a friend of Eleonore Erdmuthe.[7] and Sophia Charlotte became king and queen of Prussia in 1701. The queen was the daughter of Dowager Electress Sophia of Hanover, and the sister of George, Elector of Hanover. She was renowned for her intelligence and strong character, and her uncensored and liberal court attracted a great many scholars, including philosopher Gottfried Leibniz.[8] Caroline was exposed to a lively intellectual environment quite different from anything she had experienced previously. Before she began her education under Sophia Charlotte's care, Caroline had received little formal education; her handwriting remained poor throughout her life.[3][9] With her lively mind, Caroline developed into a scholar of considerable ability.[8] She and Sophia Charlotte developed a strong relationship in which Caroline was treated as a surrogate daughter;[10] the queen once declared Berlin was "a desert" without Caroline whenever she left temporarily for Ansbach.[3][9] of the royal couple and their seven children who survived infancy intelligent and attractive woman, Caroline was much sought-after as a bride. Dowager Electress Sophia called her "the most agreeable Princess in Germany".[11] She was considered for the hand of Archduke Charles of Austria, who was a candidate for the throne of Spain and later became Holy Roman Emperor. Charles made official overtures to her in 1703, and the match was encouraged by King Frederick of Prussia. After some consideration, Caroline refused in 1704, as she would not convert from Lutheranism to Catholicism.[3][12] Early in the following year, Queen Sophia Charlotte died on a visit to her native Hanover.[13] Caroline was devastated, writing to Leibniz, "The calamity has overwhelmed me with grief and sickness, and it is only the hope that I may soon follow her that consoles me."[13] June 1705, Queen Sophia Charlotte's nephew, Prince George Augustus of Hanover, visited the Ansbach court, supposedly incognito, to inspect Caroline, as his father the Elector did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he himself had.[14] The nephew of three childless uncles, George Augustus was under pressure to marry and father an heir to prevent endangering the Hanoverian succession.[15] He had heard reports of Caroline's "incomparable beauty and mental attributes".[16] He immediately took a liking to her "good character" and the British envoy reported that George Augustus "would not think of anybody else after her".[3][17] For her part, Caroline was not fooled by the prince's disguise, and found her suitor attractive.[18] He was the heir apparent of his father's Electorate of Hanover and third-in-line to the British throne of his distant cousin Queen Anne, after his grandmother Dowager Electress Sophia and his father the Elector.[18] 22 August 1705, Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding to George Augustus; they were married that evening in the palace chapel at Herrenhausen.[2][3][19] By May of the following year, Caroline was pregnant, and her first child Prince Frederick was born on 20 January 1707.[20] A few months after the birth, in July, Caroline fell seriously ill with smallpox followed by pneumonia. Her baby was kept away from her, but George Augustus remained at her side devotedly, and caught and survived the infection himself.[21] Over the next seven years, Caroline had three more children, Anne, Amelia, and Caroline, all of whom were born in Hanover.[22] Howard, Countess of Suffolk (pictured) was one of Caroline's Women of the Bedchamber in addition to being one of Caroline's husband's mistresses. Augustus and Caroline had a successful and loving marriage, though he continued to keep mistresses, as was customary for the time.[23] Caroline was well aware of his infidelities, as they were well known and he told her about them. His two best-known mistresses were Henrietta Howard, later Countess of Suffolk, and, from 1735, Amalie von Wallmoden, Countess of Yarmouth. Howard was one of Caroline's Women of the Bedchamber and became Mistress of the Robes when her husband inherited a peerage in 1731; she retired in 1734.[24] In contrast with her mother-in-law and husband, Caroline was known for her marital fidelity; she never made any embarrassing scenes nor did she take lovers.[23] She preferred her husband's mistresses to be ladies-in-waiting, as that way she believed she could keep a closer eye on them.[25] succession of her husband's family to the British throne was still insecure, as Queen Anne's half-brother James Stuart contested the Hanoverian claim, and Queen Anne and Caroline's grandmother-in-law Dowager Electress Sophia had fallen out. refused permission for any of the Hanoverians to visit Britain in her lifetime.[26] Caroline wrote to Leibniz, "I accept the comparison which you draw, though all too flattering, between me and Queen Elizabeth as a good omen. Like Elizabeth, the Electress's rights are denied her by a jealous sister [Queen Anne], and she will never be sure of the English crown until her accession to the throne."[27] June 1714, Dowager Electress Sophia died in Caroline's arms at the age of 83, and Caroline's father-in-law became heir presumptive to Queen Anne. Just weeks later, Anne died and the Elector of Hanover was proclaimed as her successor, becoming George I of Great Britain.[28] of Wales[edit] Princess of Wales, painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller in 1716 Augustus sailed to England in September 1714, and Caroline and two of her daughters followed in October.[29] Her journey across the North Sea from The Hague to Margate was the only sea voyage she took in her life.[30] Their young son, Prince Frederick, remained in Hanover for the rest of George I's reign to be brought up by private tutors.[22] the accession of George I in 1714, Caroline's husband automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay. Shortly afterwards, he was invested as Prince of Wales, whereupon she became Princess of Wales. was the first woman to receive the title at the same time as her husband received his.[18] She was the first Princess of Wales in over two hundred years, the last one being Catherine of Aragon. As George I had repudiated his wife Sophia Dorothea of Celle in 1694 prior to his becoming King of Great Britain, there was no queen consort, and Caroline was the highest-ranking woman in the kingdom.[22] Augustus and Caroline made a concerted effort to "anglicise" by acquiring knowledge of England's language, people, politics and customs.[31] Two separate courts developed with strong contrasts; the old king's had German courtiers and government ministers, while the Wales's court attracted English nobles out of favour with the King, and was considerably more popular with the British people. George Augustus and Caroline gradually became centres of the political opposition to the King.[32] years after their arrival in England, Caroline suffered a stillbirth, which her friend the Countess of Buckeburg blamed on the incompetence of English doctors,[33] but the following year she had another son, Prince George William in November. the baptism, her husband fell out with his father over the choice of godparents, leading to the couple's placement under house arrest at St. James's Palace prior to their banishment from court.[34] was originally allowed to stay with their children, but refused as she believed her place was with her husband.[35] She and her husband moved into Leicester House, while their children remained in the care of the King.[36] Caroline fell sick with worry, and fainted during a secret visit to her children made without the King's approval.[37] By January, the King had relented and allowed Caroline unrestricted access. February, Prince George William fell ill, and the King allowed both George Augustus and Caroline to see him at Kensington Palace without any conditions. When the baby died, a post-mortem was conducted to prove that the cause of death was disease (a polyp on the heart) rather than the separation from his mother.[38] tragedy occurred in 1718, when she miscarried at Richmond Lodge, her country residence,[39] after being startled by a violent storm.[40] Over the next few years, Caroline had three more children: William, Mary and Louise.[41] In July 1725, her 11th and final pregnancy ended in a second miscarriage.[42] House became a frequent meeting place for the ministry's political opponents. Caroline struck up a friendship with politician Sir Robert Walpole, a former minister in the Whig government who led a disgruntled faction of the party. In April 1720, Walpole's wing of the Whig party reconciled with the governing wing, and Walpole and Caroline helped to effect a reconciliation between the King and her husband for the sake of public unity.[3][43] Caroline wanted to regain her three eldest daughters, who remained in the care of the King, and thought the reconciliation would lead to their return, but negotiations came to nothing. George Augustus came to believe that Walpole had tricked him into the reconciliation as part of a scheme to gain power. The prince was isolated politically when Walpole's Whigs joined the government,[44] and Leicester House played host to literary figures and wits, such as John Arbuthnot and Jonathan Swift, rather than politicians.[45] Arbuthnot told Swift that Caroline had enjoyed his Gulliver's Travels, particularly the tale of the crown prince who wore one high-heel and one low-heel in a country where the King and his party wore low heels, and the opposition wore high ones: a barely veiled reference to the political leanings of the Prince of Wales.[46] intellect far outstripped her husband's, and she read avidly. She established an extensive library at St. James's Palace. As a young woman, she corresponded with Gottfried Leibniz, the intellectual colossus who was courtier and factotum to the House of Hanover. She later facilitated the Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, arguably the most important philosophy of physics discussion of the 18th century. She helped to popularise the practice of variolation (an early type of immunisation), which had been witnessed by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Charles Maitland in Constantinople. At the direction of Caroline, six condemned prisoners were offered the chance to undergo variolation instead of execution: they all survived, as did six orphan children given the same treatment as a further test. Convinced of its medical value, Caroline had her children Amelia, Caroline and Frederick inoculated against smallpox in the same manner.[47] In praising her support for smallpox inoculation, Voltaire wrote of her, "I must say that despite all her titles and crowns, this princess was born to encourage the arts and the well-being of mankind; even on the throne she is a benevolent philosopher; and she has never lost an opportunity to learn or to manifest her generosity."[48] and regent[edit] Coronation medal of Queen Caroline in 1727 by J. Croker by Jacopo Amigoni, 1735 became queen consort on the death of her father-in-law in 1727, and she was crowned alongside her husband at Westminster Abbey on 11 October that year.[49] She was the first queen consort to be crowned since Anne of Denmark in 1603.[50] George II denounced Walpole as a "rogue and rascal" over the terms of the reconciliation with his father, Caroline advised her husband to retain Walpole as the leading minister.[3] commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George II had little choice but to accept him or risk ministerial instability.[51] secured a civil list payment of £100,000 a year for Caroline, and she was given both Somerset House and Richmond Lodge.[52] Lord Hervey called Walpole "the Queen's minister" in recognition of their close relationship.[3] the next ten years, Caroline had immense influence. She persuaded the King to adopt policies at the behest of Walpole, and persuaded Walpole against taking inflammatory actions. had absorbed the liberal opinions of her mentor, Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia, and supported clemency for the Jacobites (supporters of the rival Stuart claim to the throne), freedom of the press, and freedom of speech in Parliament.[53] the next few years, she and her husband fought a constant battle against their eldest son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, who had been left behind in Germany when they came to England. He joined the family in 1728, by which time he was an adult, had mistresses and debts, and was fond of gambling and practical jokes. He opposed his father's political beliefs, and complained of his lack of influence in government.[3][54] Regency Act 1728 made Caroline rather than Frederick regent when her husband was in Hanover for five months from May 1729. During her regency, a diplomatic incident with Portugal (where a British ship had been seized on the Tagus) was defused, and the negotiation of the Treaty of Seville between Britain and Spain was concluded.[54][55] May 1732, she was regent for four months while George II was again away in Hanover. An investigation into the penal system uncovered widespread abuses, including cruel treatment and conspiracy in the escape of wealthy convicts. Caroline pressed Walpole for reform, largely unsuccessfully.[56] In March 1733, Walpole introduced an unpopular Excise Bill to parliament, which the Queen supported, but it gathered such strong opposition that it was eventually dropped.[57] entire life in Britain was spent in the South-East of England in or around London.[58] As queen, she continued to surround herself with artists, writers and intellectuals. She collected jewellery, especially cameos and intaglios, acquired important portraits and miniatures, and enjoyed the visual arts. She commissioned works such as terracotta busts of the kings and queens of England from Michael Rysbrack,[59] and supervised a more naturalistic design of the royal gardens by William Kent and Charles Bridgeman.[60] In 1728, she rediscovered sets of sketches by Leonardo da Vinci and Hans Holbein that had been hidden in a drawer since the reign of William III.[61] eldest daughter Anne married William IV of Orange in 1734, and moved with her husband to the Netherlands. Caroline wrote to her daughter of her "indescribable" sadness at the parting.[62] Anne soon felt homesick, and travelled back to England when her husband went on campaign. Eventually, her husband and father commanded her to return to Holland.[63] years[edit] by Joseph Highmore, 1735 mid-1735, Frederick, Prince of Wales, was further dismayed when Caroline, rather than himself, again acted as regent while the King was absent in Hanover.[64] King and Queen arranged Frederick's marriage, in 1736, to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. Shortly after the wedding, George went to Hanover, and Caroline resumed her role as "Protector of the Realm". As regent, Caroline considered the reprieve of Captain John Porteous, who had been convicted of murder in Edinburgh. Before she could act, a mob stormed the jail where he was held and killed him. Caroline was appalled.[65] King's absences abroad were leading to unpopularity, and in late 1736 he made plans to return, but his ship was caught in poor weather, and it was rumoured that he had been lost at sea. Caroline was devastated, and disgusted by the insensitivity of her son, who hosted a grand dinner while the gale was blowing.[66] her regency, the Prince of Wales attempted to start a number of quarrels with his mother, whom he saw as a useful proxy to irritate the King.[3] George eventually returned in January 1737.[67] Frederick applied to Parliament unsuccessfully for an increased financial allowance that had hitherto been denied him by the King, and public disagreement over the money drove a further wedge between parents and son. the advice of Walpole, Frederick's allowance was raised in an attempt to mitigate further conflict, but by less than he had asked.[68] June 1737, Frederick informed his parents that Augusta was pregnant, and due to give birth in October. In fact, Augusta's due date was earlier and a peculiar episode followed in July in which the prince, on discovering that his wife had gone into labour, sneaked her out of Hampton Court Palace in the middle of the night, to ensure that the King and Queen could not be present at the birth.[69] and Caroline were horrified. Traditionally, royal births were witnessed by members of the family and senior courtiers to guard against supposititious children, and Augusta had been forced by her husband to ride in a rattling carriage for an hour and a half while heavily pregnant and in pain. a party including two of her daughters and Lord Hervey, the Queen raced over to St. James's Palace, where Frederick had taken Augusta.[70] Caroline was relieved to discover that Augusta had given birth to a "poor, ugly little she-mouse" rather than a "large, fat, healthy boy" as the pitiful nature of the baby made a supposititious child unlikely.[71] circumstances of the birth deepened the estrangement between mother and son.[71] According to Lord Hervey, she once remarked after seeing Frederick, "Look, there he goes—that wretch!—that villain!—I wish the ground would open this moment and sink the monster to the lowest hole in hell!"[3][72] the final years of her life, Caroline was troubled by gout in her feet,[73] but more seriously she had suffered an umbilical hernia at the birth of her final child in 1724.[74] On 9 November 1737, she felt an intense pain and, after struggling through a formal reception, took to her bed. Part of her small intestine had poked through the hernia opening.[75] Over the next few days she was bled, purged, and operated on, without anaesthetic, but there was no improvement in her condition.[76] King refused Frederick permission to see his mother,[77] a decision with which she complied; she sent her son a message of forgiveness through She asked her husband to remarry after her death, which he rejected saying he would take only mistresses; she replied "Ah, mon Dieu, cela n'empêche pas" ("My God, that doesn't prevent it").[79] 17 November, her strangulated bowel burst.[80][81] She died on 20 November 1737 at St. James's Palace.[2] was buried in Westminster Abbey on 17 December.[82] Frederick was not invited to the funeral. George Frideric Handel composed an anthem for the occasion, The Ways of Zion Do Mourn / Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline. The King arranged for a pair of matching coffins with removable sides, so that when he followed her to the grave (23 years later), they could lie together again.[83] to Caroline on the bank of the Serpentine, a picturesque lake in London created at her request was widely mourned. The Protestants lauded her moral example, and even the Jacobites acknowledged her compassion, and her intervention on the side of mercy for their compatriots.[84] During her lifetime her refusal to convert when offered the hand of Archduke Charles was used to portray her as a strong adherent to Protestantism.[3] For example, John Gay wrote of Caroline in A Letter to A Lady (1714): The pomp of titles easy faith might shake, She scorn'd an empire for religion's sake: For this, on earth, the British crown is giv'n, And an immortal crown decreed in heav'n. She was widely seen by both the public and the court as having great influence over her husband.[85] A satirical verse of the period went:[86] You may strut, dapper George, but 'twill all be in vain, We all know 'tis Queen Caroline, not you, that reign – You govern no more than Don Philip of Spain. Then if you would have us fall down and adore you, Lock up your fat spouse, as your dad did before you. memoirs of the 18th century, particularly those of John, Lord Hervey, fed perceptions that Caroline and Walpole governed her husband. Peter Quennell wrote that Hervey was the "chronicler of this remarkable coalition" and that she was Hervey's "heroine".[87] Using such sources, biographers of the 19th and 20th centuries credit her with aiding the establishment of the House of Hanover in Britain, in the face of Jacobite opposition. R. L. Arkell wrote "by her acumen and geniality, [Caroline] ensured the dynasty's rooting itself in England", and William Henry Wilkins said her "gracious and dignified personality, her lofty ideals and pure life did much to counteract the unpopularity of her husband and father-in-law, and redeem the early Georgian era from utter grossness."[88] Although modern historians tend to believe that Hervey, Wilkins and Arkell have overestimated her importance, it is nevertheless probable that Caroline of Ansbach was one of the most influential consorts in British history.[3] JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOP and THEOLOGIAN (1752) , Commemorated June 16;

England, 1707-1800, Kingdom of Great Britain, united England (including Wales) and Scotland
England, 1707-1800, Kingdom of Great Britain;

England, 1712, New York Slave Riot, 1712, Maiden Lane and Broadway
New York Slave Riot, 1712, Maiden Lane and Broadway; New York Slave Revolt of 1712 was an uprising in New York City, in the Province of New York, of 23 enslaved Africans. They killed nine whites and injured another six before they were stopped. More than three times that number of black people, 70, were arrested and jailed. Of these, 27 were put on trial, and 21 convicted and executed. the early 18th century, New York City had one of the largest enslaved populations of any of the settlements in the Thirteen Colonies. Slavery in the city differed from some of the other colonies because there were no plantations producing cash crops. Slaves worked as domestic servants, artisans, dock workers, and various skilled laborers.[1] Enslaved Africans lived near each other, making communication easy. They also often worked among free black people, a situation that did not exist on most Southern plantations. Slaves in the city could communicate and plan a conspiracy more easily than among those on plantations.[2] the seizure of New Netherland in 1667 and it's incorporation into the Province of New York, the rights of the Free Negro social group were gradually eroded. In 1702, the first of the New York slave codes were passed, which further limited the rights enjoyed by the African community in New York; many of these legal rights, such as the right to own land and marry, were granted during the Dutch colonial period.[3] On December 13, 1711, the New York City Common Council established the city's first slave market near Wall Street for the sale and rental of enslaved Africans and Native Americans.[4][5] the early 1700s, about 20 percent of the population were enslaved black people. The colonial government in New York restricted this group through several measures: requiring slaves to carry a pass if traveling more than a mile (1.6 km) from home; discouraging marriage among them; prohibiting gatherings in groups of more than three persons; and requiring them to sit in separate galleries at church services.[6] group of more than twenty black slaves gathered on the night of April 6, 1712, and set fire to a building on Maiden Lane near Broadway.[2] While the white colonists tried to put out the fire, the enslaved blacks, armed with guns, hatchets, and swords, attacked the whites then ran off. Almost immediately all runaway slaves were captured and returned to their owners.[7] forces arrested seventy blacks and jailed them. Six are reported to have committed suicide. Twenty-seven were put on trial, 21 of whom were convicted and sentenced to death, including one woman with child.[7] Twenty were burned to death and one was executed on a breaking wheel.[8][citation needed] the revolt, the city and colony passed more restrictive laws governing black and Indian slaves. Slaves were not permitted to gather in groups of more than three, they were not permitted to carry firearms, and gambling was outlawed. Crimes of property damage, rape, and conspiracy to kill qualified for the death penalty. Free blacks were still allowed to own land, however. Anthony Portuguese (alternately spelled Portugies),[3] owned land that makes up a portion of present-day Washington Square Park; this continued to be owned by his daughter and grandchildren.[9] colony required slave owners who wanted to free their slaves to pay a tax of £200 per person, then an amount much higher than the cost of a slave. In 1715 Governor Robert Hunter argued in London before the Lords of Trade that manumission and the chance for a slave to inherit part of a master's wealth was important to maintain in New York. He said that this was a proper reward for a slave who had helped a master earn a lifetime's fortune, and that it could keep the slave from descending into despair.[7] ELIE NAUD, (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722, Commemoratedd 7 September; most effective work of the Society [for the Propogation of the Gospel] among Negroes of the Northern colonies was accomplished in New York. In that colony, the instruction of the Negro and Indian slaves to prepare them for conversion, baptism, and communion was a primary charge oft repeated to every missionary and schoolmaster of the Society. In addition to the general efforts put forth in the colonies, there was in New York a special provision for the employment of sixteen clergymen and thirteen lay teachers mainly for the evangelization of the slaves and the free Indians. For the Negro slaves a catechizing school was opened in New York City in 1704 under the charge of Elias Neau. This benevolent man, after several years’ imprisonment because of his Protestant faith, had come to New York to try his fortunes as a trader. As early as 1703 he called the attention of the Society to the great number, of slaves in New York “who were without God in the world, and of whose souls there was no manner of care taken” and proposed the appointment of a catechist to undertake their instruction. He himself finally being prevailed upon to accept this position, obtained a license from the Governor, resigned his position as elder in the French church [Église du Saint Esprit] and conformed to the Established Church of England, “not upon any worldly account but through a principle of conscience and hearty approbation of the English liturgy.” He was later licensed by the Bishop of London. Neau’s task was not an easy one. At first he went from house to house, but afterwards arranged for some of the slaves to attend him. He succeeded, however, in obtaining gratifying results. He was commended to the Society by Rev. Mr. Vesey in 1706 as a “constant communicant of our church, and a most zealous and prudent servant of Christ, in proselyting the miserable Negroes and Indians among them to the Christian Religion, whereby he does great service to God and his church.” Further confidence in him was attested by an act of the Society in preparing at his request “a Bill to be offered to Parliament for the more effectual Conversion of the Negro and other Servants in the Plantations, to compell Owners of Slaves to cause children to be baptized within 3 months after their birth and to permit them when come to years of discretion to be instructed in the Christian Religion on our Lord’s day by the Missionaries under whose ministry they live.” Neau’s school suffered greatly in 1712 because of the prejudice engendered by the declaration that instruction was the main cause of the Negro riot in that city. For some days Neau dared not show himself, so bitter was the feeling of the masters. Upon being assured, however, that only one Negro connected with the school had participated in the affair and that the most criminal belonged to the masters who were openly opposed to educating them, the institution was permitted to continue its endeavors, and the Governor extended to it his protection and recommended that masters have their slaves instructed. Yet Neau had still to complain thereafter of the struggle and opposition of the generality of the inhabitants, who were strongly prejudiced with a horrid motive thinking that Christian knowledge “would be a means to make the slave more cunning and apter to wickedness.” Not so long thereafter, however, the support of the best people and officials of the community made his task easier. Neau could say in 1714 that “if the slaves and domestics in New York were not instructed it was not his fault.” The Governor, the Council, Mayor, the Recorder and the Chief Justice informed the Society that Neau had performed his work “to the great advancement of religion in general and the particular benefit of the free Indians, Negro slaves, and other Heathens in those parts, with indefatigable zeal and application.” Elias Neau signature Neau died in 1722. His work was carried on by Mr. Huddlestone, Rev. Mr. Whitmore, Rev. Mr. Colgan, Rev. R. Charlton, and Rev. S. Auchmutty.

England, 1712-1752, Saint, Joseph Butler, Butler's Analogy
England, 1712-1752, Saint, Joseph Butler, Butler's Analogy; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16;

England, 1714-1727, King of GB, George I, Hanover in HRE, European Wars, o jacobites, parliment
King of Great Britain, 1714-1727, George I ; CONRAD WEISER, WITNESS TO PEACE and RECONCILIATION, 1760, Commemorated July 13; George Frederick Handel of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; Samuel Johnson of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; Timothy Cutler of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; ELIE NAUD (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722 ; ELIE NAUD (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722 ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761); George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) , Commemorated June 16 ; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, 1727-1791, Salina Hastings, Calvinist Methodist Church Builder
England, 1727-1791, Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, built Calvanist Methodist Churches; Donnington Hall, Salina Hastings, Calvinist Methodist Church Builder; George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15 ;

England, 1727-1760, King of GB, George II, Summers in Hanover G, H Succession, little domestic control, war hero
England, King of Great Britain, 1727-1760, George II; CONRAD WEISER, WITNESS TO PEACE and RECONCILIATION, 1760, Commemorated July 13; SAMSON OCCUM, WITNESS TO THE FAITH IN NEW ENGLAND, 1792, Commemorated July 14 ; George Frederick Handel of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; Samuel Johnson of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; Timothy Cutler of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 1787 ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26; JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761); NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ; George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) , Commemorated June 16 ; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, 1729, Holy Club at Christ Church Oxford (The Methodists)
Holy Club at Christ Church Oxford (The Methodists); FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15;

England, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive
Switzerland, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive; Rousseau; 28 June 1712 - 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the development of modern political, economic and educational thought.[1] Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. Rousseau's sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise (1761) was important to the development of preromanticism and romanticism in fiction.[2][3] His Emile, or On Education (1762) is an educational treatise on the place of the individual in society. Rousseau's autobiographical writings—the posthumously published Confessions (composed in 1769), which initiated the modern autobiography, and the unfinished Reveries of the Solitary Walker (composed 1776–1778)—exemplified the late-18th-century "Age of Sensibility", and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern writing. befriended fellow philosopher Denis Diderot in 1742, and would later write about Diderot's romantic troubles in his Confessions. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophers among members of the Jacobin Club. He was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, 16 years after his death. Absolved From Being Good-Mannered: The Romantic Totalitarianism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, May 20, 2021 ;

England, 1755-1774, Major General William Johnson, Husband of Mohawk Molly Bryant
Major General William Johnson, Husband of Molly Bryant, served 1755-1774; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796, Commemorated April 16 ;

England, 1760-1820, King of GB and UK, George III, conflicts, his Kingdom, Europe, Colonies, Africa, Asia
England, 1760-1820, King of Great Britain, George III of the United Kingdom; WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30; Samuel Johnson of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; Timothy Cutler of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 1787 ; HENRY MARTYN, MISSIONARY AND TRANSLATOR (19 OCT 1812); WILLIAM CAREY, MISSIONARY TO INDIA, 19 October 1834; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); SAMUEL SEABURY, BISHOP (14 NOV 1784), (BESTOWAL OF THE AMERICAN EPISCOPATE); Francis Ashbury of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770; George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770; JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866), Commemorated March 29; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796, Commemorated April 16;

England, 1776, Declaration of Independence, Independence Hall (Philidelphia's State House)
England, 1776, Declaration of Independence, Independence Hall (Philidelphia's State House); Independence Hall (Philidelphia's State House); Continental Congress; INDEPENDENCE DAY, (United States of America) (4 JULY 1776);

England, 1779-1836, CHARLES SIMEON, Teacher
England, 1779-1836, CHARLES SIMEON, Teacher; Holy Trinity Church, Cambridge; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836) ;

England, 1780, Bampton Lectures, Oxford, new Christian theology
Bampton Lectures; CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ;

England, 1780-1834, William Carey, Baptist Missionary to India
England, 1795, London Missionary Society, Baptist Missionary Society; WILLIAM CAREY, MISSIONARY TO INDIA, 19 October 1834;

England, 1780-1825, Parlimentarian, William Wilberforce, social reformer, abolition of slavery
England, 1780-1825, Parlimentarian, William Wilberforce ; WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30;

England, 1795-1966, London Missionary Society, Baptist Missionary Society
England, 1795, London Missionary Society, Baptist Missionary Society; WILLIAM CAREY, MISSIONARY TO INDIA, 19 October 1834; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;

England, 1800-1899, 19th Century Folder, Q Victria, C Socialism, Smith Wigglesworth, Salvatn Army

England, 1801-1812 , Henry Martyn, Sr Wrangler, Cambridge, Translator, C Simeon, India, Pakistan, Hindi, Persian, Arabic
England, 1801-1812 , Henry Martyn, Senior Wrangler, Cambridge, Translator, Charles Simeon, India, Pakistan, Hindi, Persian, Arabic; Martyn (18 February 1781 - 16 October 1812) was an Anglican priest and missionary to the peoples of India and Persia. Born in Truro, Cornwall, he was educated at Truro Grammar School and St John's College, Cambridge.[1] A chance encounter with Charles Simeon led him to become a missionary. He was ordained a priest in the Church of England and became a chaplain for the British East India Company. arrived in India in April 1806, where he preached and occupied himself in the study of linguistics. He translated the whole of the New Testament into Urdu, Persian and Judaeo-Persic. He also translated the Psalms into Persian and the Book of Common Prayer into Urdu. From India, he set out for Bushire, Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz. was seized with fever, and, though the plague was raging at Tokat, he was forced to stop there, unable to continue. On 16 October 1812, he died. He was remembered for his courage, selflessness and his religious devotion. In parts of the Anglican Communion he is celebrated with a Lesser Festival on 19 October. Martyn's papers and private letters are held at the Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide at Westminster College in Cambridge, England. University of Cambridge; HENRY MARTYN, MISSIONARY AND TRANSLATOR (19 OCT 1812) ; Martyn was born in 1781, studied at Cambridge, and became Senior Wrangler. (That is, he won the Cambridge University annual mathematics problem-solving competition, and was accordingly recognized as the University's best undergraduate mathematician. "Wrangling" is a British University expression for solving mathematical problems.) He had, moreover, a considerable facility in languages. Under the encouragement of Charles Simeon (see 12 Nov 1836), he abandoned his intention of going into law and instead went to India as a chaplain in 1806. In the six remaining years of his life, he translated the New Testament into Hindi and Persian, revised an Arabic translation of the New Testament, and translated the Psalter into Persian and the Prayer Book into Hindi. In 1811 he left India for Persia, hoping to do further translations and to improve his existing ones, there and in Arabia. But travel in those days was not a healthy occupation, and he fell ill and eventually died at Tokat on October 16, 1812. (The American Calendar commemorates him on 19 October.) He was buried by the Armenian church there, with the honors ordinarily reserved for one of their own bishops. His diary (vol. 1, vol. 2) has been called "one of the most precious treasures of Anglican devotion." by James Kiefer

England, 1803-1815, Napoleonic Wars
England, 1803-1815, Napoleonic Wars; JOHN HENRY NEWMAN, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN, 1890, Commemorated February 21;

England, 1820-1830,George IV of the United Kingdom, extravagant, regency f 1810, L Liverpool
England, 1820-1830, King of Great Britain, George IV of the United Kingdom; IV (George Augustus Frederick; 12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from the death of his father, King George III, on 29 January 1820 until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as regent during his father's final mental illness. IV was the eldest child of King George III and Queen Charlotte. He led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era. He was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace, and commissioned Sir Jeffry Wyatville to rebuild Windsor Castle. George's charm and culture earned him the title "the first gentleman of England", but his dissolute way of life and poor relationships with his parents and his wife, Caroline of Brunswick, earned him the contempt of the people and dimmed the prestige of the monarchy. He excluded Caroline from his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in an unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. presiding over the British Empire's emergence as a global hegemon, George IV's rule was tarnished by scandal and financial extravagance. His ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible, and he was strongly influenced by favourites.[1] Taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending during the Napoleonic Wars. During most of George's regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Liverpool's government presided over Britain's ultimate victory over Napoleon and negotiated a peace settlement with the French. After Liverpool's retirement, George IV was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only legitimate child, Princess Charlotte, predeceased him in 1817; on his death, he was succeeded by his younger brother, King William IV. WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30; WILLIAM CAREY, MISSIONARY TO INDIA, 19 October 1834; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866), Commemorated March 29; FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872);

England, 1820-1882, John Nelson Darby, Bible Translation and Plymouth Brethern
Ireland, 1820-1882, John Nelson Darby, Bible Translation and Plymouth Brethern; Leap Castle (Barrow River Source); PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Smith Wigglesworth, Commemorated March 12;

England, 1825-1872, F.D. Maurice, Anglican theologian, Christian Socialism
England, Broads, 1825-1872, F.D. Maurice, Anglican theologian, Christian Socialism; PAUL JONES, BISHOP (4 SEP 1941);

England, 1830-1837, William IV of the United Kingdom, reforms, child labor, slavery, electoral sys
England, 1830-1837, King of Great Britain, William IV of the United Kingdom ; IV (William Henry; 21 August 1765 – 20 June 1837) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death in 1837. The third son of George III, William succeeded his elder brother George IV, becoming the last king and penultimate monarch of Britain's House of Hanover. served in the Royal Navy in his youth, spending time in North America and the Caribbean, and was later nicknamed the "Sailor King".[1][2] 1789, he was created Duke of Clarence and St Andrews. In 1827, he was appointed as Britain's first Lord High Admiral since 1709. As his two older brothers died without leaving legitimate issue, he inherited the throne when he was 64 years old. reign saw several reforms: the poor law was updated, child labour restricted, slavery abolished in nearly all of the British Empire, and the British electoral system refashioned by the Reform Act 1832. William did not engage in politics as much as his brother or his father, he was the last monarch to appoint a British prime minister contrary to the will of Parliament. He granted his German kingdom a short-lived liberal constitution. the time of his death, William had no surviving legitimate children, but he was survived by eight of the ten illegitimate children he had by the actress Dorothea Jordan, with whom he cohabited for twenty years. Late in life, he married and apparently remained faithful to the young princess who would become Queen Adelaide. was succeeded by his niece Queen Victoria in the United Kingdom, and his brother King Ernest Augustus in Hanover. WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30; EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); WILLIAM CAREY, MISSIONARY TO INDIA, 19 October 1834; Richard Meau Benson of RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, AND CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866), Commemorated March 29; FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872); GEORGE AUGUSTUS SELWYN, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (11 APR 1878);

England, 1833-1841, Oxford Tracts, Eucharist every Sunday, Sermon at Devine Liturgy
England, 1833-1841, Oxford Tracts, Eucharist every Sunday, Sermon at Devine Liturgy; Tracts for the Times were a series of 90 theological publications, varying in length from a few pages to book-length, produced by members of the English Oxford Movement, an Anglo-Catholic revival group, from 1833 to 1841. were about a dozen authors, including Oxford Movement leaders John Keble, John Henry Newman and Edward Bouverie Pusey, with Newman taking the initiative in the series, and making the largest contribution. the wide distribution associated with the tract form, and a price in pennies, the Tracts succeeded in drawing attention to the views of the Oxford Movement on points of doctrine, but also to its overall approach, to the extent that Tractarian became a synonym for supporter of the movement. Oxford Movement; CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; John Henry Newman EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); Other well-known Tractarians included John Keble, Charles Marriott, Richard Hurrell Froude, Robert Wilberforce, Isaac Williams and William Palmer. RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, Commemorated January 16; JOHN HENRY NEWMAN, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN, 1890, Commemorated February 21; JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866), Commemorated March 29; BERNARD MIZEKI, CATECHIST AND MARTYR IN AFRICA (18 JUNE 1896);

England, 1833-1841, Oxford Movement, High Church doctrine and discipline
Oxford Movement; CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; John Henry Newman EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); Other well-known Tractarians included John Keble, Charles Marriott, Richard Hurrell Froude, Robert Wilberforce, Isaac Williams and William Palmer. RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, Commemorated January 16; JOHN HENRY NEWMAN, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN, 1890, Commemorated February 21; JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866), Commemorated March 29; BERNARD MIZEKI, CATECHIST AND MARTYR IN AFRICA (18 JUNE 1896);

England, 1837-1901, Victoria, Queen and King, Victorian Era, expansion, industry, science
England, 1837-1901, King of Great Britain, Queen Victoria ; (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death, in 1901. Known as the Victorian era, her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than that of any of her predecessors. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, Parliament voted her the additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After both the Duke and his father died in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Though a constitutional monarch, privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality. Victoria married her first cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism in the United Kingdom temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30; CATHERINE WINKWORTH, Poet, Commemorated August 7 ; CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); JOHN COLERIDGE PATTESON, BISHOP OF MELANESIA, AND HIS COMPANIONS, MARTYRS (20 SEP 1871) ; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940; JAMES HANNINGTON AND THE MARTYRS OF UGANDA, (29 OCT 1885); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); JOHN HORDEN, Commemorated December 15 ; ROBERT McDONALD, PRIEST, 1913, Commemorated December 15; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; VEDANAYAGAM SAMUEL AZARIAH, FIRST INDIAN ANGLICAN BISHOP, DORNAKAL, 1945, Commemorated January 2 ; Charles Gore of RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915 AND CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ; Richard Meau Benson of RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, AND CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16; JOHN HENRY NEWMAN, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN, 1890, Commemorated February 21; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated March 12; JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866), Commemorated March 29; FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872); PANDITA MARY RAMABAI, PROPHETIC WITNESS AND EVANGELIST IN INDIA, 1922. Commemorated April 5; GEORGE AUGUSTUS SELWYN, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (11 APR 1878); CHRISTINA ROSSETTI, POET, 1894, Commemorated April 27 ; GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, APOLOGIST and WRITER, 1936, Commemorated June 12 ;

England, 1838, Christian Socialists Movement (CSM), F.D. Maurice
England, 1838, Christian Socialists Movement (CSM), F.D. Maurice; FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872);

England, 1840-1910, Florence Nightingale, Nurse, N school, medical knowledge, hunger relief, infographics
England, 1840-1910, Florence Nightingale, Nurse; Nightingale, OM, RRC, DStJ (12 May 1820 - 13 August 1910) was a British social reformer, statistician and the founder of modern nursing. Nightingale came to prominence while serving as a manager and trainer of nurses during the Crimean War, in which she organised care for wounded soldiers at Constantinople.[3] She gave nursing a favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of "The Lady with the Lamp" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.[4][5] commentators have asserted that Nightingale's Crimean War achievements were exaggerated by the media at the time, but critics agree on the importance of her later work in professionalising nursing roles for women.[6] 1860, she laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, and is now part of King's College London.[7] In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses, and the Florence Nightingale Medal, the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated on her birthday. Her social reforms included improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to abolish prostitution laws that were harsh for women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce. was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. She was also a pioneer in data visualization with the use of infographics, effectively using graphical presentations of statistical data.[6] Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and mysticism, has only been published posthumously. Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery; FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE, NURSE, RENEWER OF SOCIETY (12 AUGUST 1910); commemoration of Florence Nightingale is controversial. On the one hand, she doubted or denied many of the central articles of the Creed. On the other hand, she believed in God and devoted her life to His service as she understood it. was born in Florence on 12 May 1820 of upper-class English parents travelling through Italy, and named for her native city. ("Florence" was not an accepted first name at the time. Her sister was born in Naples and named "Parthenope," the Greek name for that city.) Florence was reared in the Unitarian Church, but later joined the Church of England. her diary, an entry shortly before her seventeenth birthday reads: "On February 7th, 1837, God spoke to me and called me to his service." She did not know what the service would be, and therefore decided that she must remain single, so as to have no encumbrances and be ready for anything. With this in mind, she rejected a proposal of marriage from a young man whom she dearly loved. She suffered from "trances" or "dreaming" spells, in which she would lose consciousness for several minutes or longer, and be unaware when she recovered that time had passed. (Could this be a form of petit mal epilepsy? No biographer of hers that I have read uses the word.) She found the knowledge that she was subject to such spells terrifying, and feared that they meant that she was unworthy of her calling, particularly since she did not hear the voice of God again for many years. In the spring of 1844 she came to believe that her calling was to nurse the sick. In 1850 her family sent her on a tour of Egypt for her health. Some extracts from her diary follow: 7. God called me in the morning and asked me would I do good for Him, for Him alone without the reputation. 9. During half an hour I had by myself in my cabin, settled the question with God. 1. Not able to go out but wished God to have it all His own way. I like Him to do exactly as He likes without even telling me the reason. 12. Today I am thirty--the age Christ began his mission. no more childish things. No more love. No more marriage. Now Lord let me think only of Thy Will, what Thou willest me to do. Oh Lord Thy Will, Thy Will. June 10. The Lord spoke to me; he said, Give five minutes every hour to the thought of Me. Coudst thou but love Me as Lizzie loves her husband, how happy wouldst thou be." But Lizzie does not give five minutes every hour to the thought of her husband, she thinks of him every minute, spontaneously. decided that she must train to be a nurse. Her family was horrified. In her day, nursing was done mostly by disabled army veterans or by women with no other means of support. It was common for nurses of either sex to be drunk on the job most of the time, and they had no training at all. It was common practice never to wash or change the sheets on a bed, not even when a patient died and his bed was given to a new patient. Florence was told to go to Kaiserswerth, Germany, to learn and train with the Lutheran order of Deaconesses who were running a hospital there. Back in England again, she used the influence of Sidney Herbert, a family friend and Member of Parliament, to be appointed supervisor of a sanatorium in London. Under her able guidance, it turned from a chamber of horrors into a model hospital. The innovations introduced by Miss Nightingale were, for their day, little short of revolutionary. She demanded, and got, a system of dumb-waiters that enabled food to be sent directly to every floor, so that nurses did not exhaust themselves carrying trays up numerous flights of stairs. She also invented and had installed a system of call bells by which a patient could ring from his bed and the bell would sound in the corridor, with a valve attached to the bell which opened when the bell rang, and remained open so that the nurse could see who had rung. "Without a system of this kind," she wrote, "a nurse is converted to a pair of legs." working in the poorer districts of London, Miss Nightingale encountered a Roman Catholic priest, Henry Edward Manning (later Cardinal Manning), who was working among the poor of London. She was impressed by the assistance he gave to many who had nowhere else to turn, and they became friends for life. She was greatly attracted by Roman Catholicism, but rejected much of its theology, and so reluctantly decided against joining it. Nightingale attending patientsThen war broke out in the Crimea (in Russia, on the north edge of the Black Sea), and Sir Sidney Herbert, now Secretary of War, obtained permission for Florence to lead a group of 38 nurses there. Of these, 10 were Roman Catholic nuns, 14 were Anglican nuns, and the remaining 14 were "of no particular religion, unless one counts the worship of Bacchus." They found conditions appalling. Blankets were rotting in warehouses while the men did without, because no one had issued the proper forms for their distribution. The lavatories in the hospitals had no running water, and the latrines were tubs to be emptied by hand. But no one emptied them, since official regulations did not specify which department was responsible for doing so. The result was that the hospital had a foul stench that could be smelled for some distance outside its walls. Far more men were dying in hospitals of infection than of wounds. The chief concern of many of the Army doctors was that the nurses might usurp some of their authority. Florence gradually managed to win the doctors and other authorities over, and to reform hospital procedures, with spectacular results. Once the medical situation had ceased to be an acute problem, she turned her attention to other aspects of the soldiers' welfare. For example, most of them squandered all their pay on drink. She noted that there was no trustworthy way for them to send money home to their families, and she set up facilities for them to do so. First, she undertook to send money home herself for any soldier in the hospital that wanted it sent, and the soldiers brought in about 1000 pounds a month. She asked the authorities to set up an official service to do this, and they refused. By appealing to Queen Victoria herself, she overcame opposition to the idea, and the men sent home 71,000 pounds sterling in less than six months. She established with her own money a reading-room with tables for writing letters, and the men used it enthusiastically. She imported four schoolmasters to give lectures, and the halls were filled to overflowing. All this was done despite opposition from officers who said, "The men are hopeless brutes. You cannot expect anything from them." night, she would often patrol the wards, carrying a dim lamp, to make sure that all was well and no one was in need of help. She became famous as "the Lady with the Lamp." Nightingale, "The lady with the lamp"In April 1856 the war was over, and by mid-July the hospital was emptied and her work in Crimea over. She returned to England a national hero, with a great welcome prepared for her; but she slipped into the country unnoticed and went to a convent that had supplied some of her nurses. There, she spent the day in prayer before coming out to face the public and beginning to lobby Parliament for suitable legislation. She wrote pamphlet after pamphlet, pointing out by pie charts, for example, that the major cause of deaths in the Army was not wounds caused by enemy action but disease caused by lack of proper sanitation. She is perhaps the first person to use pie charts and similar graphic devices to convey statistical information. She obtained the formation of an Army Medical Staff Corps and a Sanitary Commission to oversee military health conditions. these efforts, she relied on the help of Sidney Herbert, insisting that he must work hard and long to get the legislation she needed through Parliament. When he protested that she was asking too much, she would not listen. His health broke, and he died in August 1861. Florence prayed God to raise him from the dead, explaining that she needed him for the job. When God failed to comply, her faith was badly shaken. She wrote a book called, Suggestions for Thought: An Address to the Artisans of England, in which she explained that God was less of a Person and more of a Cosmic Force than is generally supposed by Christians. (But note that she was working on this book before Sir Sidney died, and one cannot call it simply a response to his death.) Advance copies were given to a few friends, such as John Stuart Mill, who praised it highly. However, it was never published (I have not seen it, and neither the Library of Congress nor the National library of Medicine has a copy, nor any other library in the United States that I have been able to learn of), since Florence kept revising it -- arguably, because her beliefs on the nature of God were simply not internally consistent. Eventually, it seems, God spoke to her again and said, "You are here to carry out my program. I am not here to carry out yours." She wrote in her diary, "I must remember that God is not my private secretary." his death, Sir Sidney had gotten her involved in Indian affairs. She served on the Indian Sanitary Commission. In May 1859, she decided that there were insufficient data available in England on conditions in the Indian Army, and she wrote to 200 military stations there, asking for copies of all regulations and all documents relating to the health and sanitary administration of the army. The reports that came back filled two vans. She read them all and summarized them for the Report of the Commission. Her conclusion was that the death toll from disease in the Indian Army was appallingly high (69 out of 1000 annually), and that this was largely due, not to the climate, but to lack of sanitation, and that preventive measures included sanitation not just for army posts but for neighboring villages and, in the long run, for all of India. was a friend of General Charles George Gordon, who captured the British imagination when he and his troops were beseiged at Khartoum in the Sudan, and finally captured and killed. After his death, Florence wrote to a friend that suffering, disappointment, and lack of success are the tribute which it is the soul's greatest privilege to present to God. In Gordon's death, she wrote, we see "the triumph of failure, the triumph of the Cross. With him, all is well." met the scholar Benjamin Jowett, who was translating Plato into English. They became fast friends, and she contributed to the translation. She also began an anthology of mystical writings, called "Notes from Devotional Authors of the Middle Ages, Collected, Chosen, and Freely Translated by Florence Nightingale." It was her contention that mystical prayer is not just for monks and nuns, but should form a part of the every-day life of ordinary persons. the strain of ceaseless overwork, her own health broke, and she was an invalid for the latter half of her life. On Christmas Day when she was sixty-five, she wrote: "Today, O Lord, let me dedicate this crumbling old woman to thee. Behold the handmaid of the Lord. I was thy handmaid as a girl. Since then, I have backslid." She wrote a manual called Notes for Nurses, and a set of instructions for the matron in charge of training nurses, emphasizing the importance for a nurse of a schedule of daily prayer. A few years before her death, she was the first woman to receive the Order of Merit from the British government. She died at ninety, and, by her directions, her tombstone read simply, "F.N. 1820-1910". Nightingale died on 13 August 1910, and is commemorated on this day on the Lutheran Calendar. The Episcopal calendar commemorates Jeremy Taylor on 13 August, and accordingly has shifted the commemoration of Nightingale to 18 May. I am not sure of the significance of this date, but it is the date (or nearly) of the opening of the Nightingale Training School for Nurses in 1860. [Note: the current date in the Episcopal Church for her commemoration is 12 Aug.] by James Kiefer

England, 1840, World Antislavery Convention, Exeter Hall, London
World Antislavery Convention, Exeter Hall, London, 1840 (Elizabeth Cady Stanton's Honeymoon); Elizabeth Cady Stanton of ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, AMELIA BLOOMER, SOJOURNER TRUTH, HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN: FOUR AMERICAN PIONEERS OF BLACK RIGHTS AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS, Commemorated July 20; Cady Stanton (November 12, 1815 - October 26, 1902) was a leader of the women's rights movement in the U.S. during the mid- to late-1800s. Anti-Slavery Convention Mott on their honeymoon in England in 1840, the Stantons attended the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. Elizabeth was appalled by the convention's male delegates, who voted to prevent women from participating even if they had been appointed as delegates of their respective abolitionist societies. The men required the women to sit in a separate section, hidden by curtains from the convention's proceedings. William Lloyd Garrison, a prominent American abolitionist and supporter of women's rights who arrived after the vote had been taken, refused to sit with the men and sat with the women instead.[26] Mott, a Quaker minister, abolitionist and women's rights advocate, was one of the women who had been sent as a delegate. Although Mott was much older than Stanton, they quickly bonded in an enduring friendship, with Stanton eagerly learning from the more experienced activist. While in London, Stanton heard Mott preach in a Unitarian chapel, the first time Stanton had heard a woman give a sermon or even speak in public.[27] Stanton later gave credit to this convention for focusing her interests on women's rights.[28]

England, 1847-1871, John C Patteson, Melanesia, Polynesia, L 23 languages, f school, d ended slave trade there
England, 1847-1871, John Coleridge Patteson, Bishop, Melanesia; Balliol College, Oxford; JOHN COLERIDGE PATTESON, BISHOP OF MELANESIA, AND HIS COMPANIONS, MARTYRS (20 SEP 1871) ; Coleridge Patteson was born in London in 1827. attended Balliol College, Oxford, and graduated in 1849. a tour of Europe and a study of languages, he became a fellow of Merton College, Oxford, in 1852. 1855, he heard Bishop George Selwyn of New Zealand (see 11 Apr.) call for volunteers to go the South Pacific to preach the Gospel. He went there, and founded a school for the education of native Christian workers. He was adept at languages, and learned twenty-three of the languages spoken in the Polynesian and Melanesian Islands of the South Pacific. In 1861 he was consecrated Bishop of Melanesia. The slave-trade was technically illegal in the South Pacific at that time, but the laws were only laxly enforced and in fact slave-raiding was a flourishing business. Patteson was actively engaged in the effort to stamp it out. However, injured men do not always distinguish friends from foes. After slave-raiders had attacked the island of Nakapu, in the Santa Cruz group, Patteson and several companions visited the area. They were assumed to be connected with the raiders, and Patteson's body was floated back to his ship with five hatchet wounds in the chest, one for each native who had been killed in the earlier raid. The death of Bishop Patteson caused an uproar back in England, and stimulated the government there to take firm measures to stamp out slavery and the slave trade in its Pacific territories. It was also the seed of a strong and vigorous Church in Melanesia today. Patteson and his companions died on 20 September 1871. by James Kiefer

England, 1849-1912, William Boothe, Founder Salvation Army
England, 1849-1912, William Boothe, Founder Salvation Army; PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Smith Wigglesworth, Commemorated March 12;

England, 1852, William Palmer, Theologian, Orthodox communion
English Theologian, 1852, William Palmer, Orthodox communion; ISABEL FLORENCE HAPGOOD, ECUMENIST and JOURNALIST, 1929, Commemorated June 26;

England, 1859, Charles Darwin and his book On the Origin of Species, Theory of Evolution
England, 1859, Charles Darwin and his book On the Origin of Species;

England, 1865, Salvation Army, Blind Beggar Tavern, London
Salvation Army, 1865, Blind Beggar Tavern, London; Salvation Army, 1865, Blind Beggar Tavern, London; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1947, Commemorated March 12 ;

England, 1866, Cowley, Oxfordshire, Society of St. John the Evangelist, Anglican monasteries
Society of St. John the Evangelist; CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, Commemorated January 16 ; BERNARD MIZEKI, CATECHIST AND MARTYR IN AFRICA (18 JUNE 1896);

England, 1867-1942, WILSON CARLILE, THE CHURCH ARMY
England, 1867-1942, WILSON CARLILE, THE CHURCH ARMY; WILSON CARLILE, PRIEST, FOUNDER OF THE CHURCH ARMY, 26 September 1942.;

England, 1867, First Lambeth Conference, Anglican, expressing mind of communion on issues of day
England, 1937, Lambeth Conference of 1937; Lambeth Conference is a decennial assembly of bishops of the Anglican Communion convened by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The first such conference took place at Lambeth in 1867. the Anglican Communion is an international association of autonomous national and regional churches and is not a governing body, the Lambeth Conferences serve a collaborative and consultative function, expressing "the mind of the communion" on issues of the day.[1] which a Lambeth Conference may pass are without legal effect, but they are nonetheless influential. So, although the resolutions of conferences carry no legislative authority, they "do carry great moral and spiritual authority."[This quote needs a citation] "Its statements on social issues have influenced church policy in the churches."[2] conferences form one of the communion's four "Instruments of Communion".[3] Lambeth; Lambeth Convention; PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911), Commemorated November 8 ;

England, 1867-1885, James Hannington and Martyrs of Uganda, East Africa
Uganda; JAMES HANNINGTON AND THE MARTYRS OF UGANDA, (29 OCT 1885) ; the new nations of Africa, Uganda is the most predominantly Christian. Mission work began there in the 1870's with the favor of King Mutesa, who died in 1884. However, his son and successor, King Mwanga, opposed all foreign presence, including the missions. Hannington, born 1847, was sent out from England in 1884 by the Anglican Church as missionary Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa. As he was travelling toward Uganda, he was apprehended by emissaries of King Mwanga. He and his companions were brutally treated and, a week later, 29 October 1885, most of them were put to death. Hannington's last words were: "Go tell your master that I have purchased the road to Uganda with my blood." first native martyr was the Roman Catholic Joseph Mkasa Balikuddembe, who was beheaded after having rebuked the king for his debauchery and for the murder of Bishop Hannington. On 3 June 1886, a group of 32 men and boys, 22 Roman Catholic and 10 Anglican, were burned at the stake. Most of them were young pages in Mwanga's household, from their head-man, Charles Lwanga, to the thirteen-year-old Kizito, who went to his death "laughing and chattering." These and many other Ugandan Christians suffered for their faith then and in the next few years. 1977, the Anglican Archbishop Janani Luwum and many other Christians suffered death for their faith under the tyrant Idi Amin. largely to their common heritage of suffering for their Master, Christians of various communions in Uganda have always been on excellent terms. by James Kiefer JANANI LUWUM, ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA, MARTYR (16 FEB 1977); MARTYRS OF SUDAN, (16 May 1983); THE MARTYRS OF UGANDA, (3 JUNE 1886) ;

England, 1877, Cambridge Brotherhood to Deli (Cambridge Mission to Delhi) 1877
Cambridge Brotherhood to Deli (Cambridge Mission to Delhi) 1877; St. Stephen's College, Delhi, located at the University of Delhi; CHARLES FREER ANDREWS, PRIEST AND ÂœFRIEND OF THE POORIN INDIA, 1940, Commemorated February 12;

England, 1879-1947, Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT
England, 1879-1947, Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT; Menston, Yorkshire, birthplace of Smith Wigglesworth; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1947, Commemorated March 12 ;

England, 1882, Church Army, St Pauls Cathedral, Westminster Slums
England, 1882, Church Army, St Pauls Cathedral, Westminster Slums; WILSON CARLILE PRIEST, FOUNDER OF THE CHURCH ARMY, 26 September 1942 ; JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631);

England, 1889, Christian Social Union (UK) 1889 at Oxford
Christian Social Union (UK) 1889 at Oxford; CHARLES FREER ANDREWS, PRIEST AND ÂœFRIEND OF THE POORÂ IN INDIA, 1940. Commemorated February 12;

England, 1894-1936, G K Chesterton, Writer and Apologist in defense of Roman Catholicism
England, 1894-1936, G K Chesterton, Writer and Apologist in defense of Roman Catholicism; Keith Chesterton KC*SG (29 May 1874 - 14 June 1936) was an English writer,[2] philosopher, lay theologian, and literary and art critic. He has been referred to as the "prince of paradox".[3] Time magazine observed of his writing style: "Whenever possible Chesterton made his points with popular sayings, proverbs, allegories—first carefully turning them inside out."[4] created the fictional priest-detective Father Brown,[5] and wrote on apologetics. Even some of those who disagree with him have recognised the wide appeal of such works as Orthodoxy and The Everlasting Man.[4][6] Chesterton routinely referred to himself as an "orthodox" Christian, and came to identify this position more and more with Catholicism, eventually converting to Catholicism from High Church Anglicanism. Biographers have identified him as a successor to such Victorian authors as Matthew Arnold, Thomas Carlyle, John Henry Newman, and John Ruskin.[7] On his contributions, T. S. Eliot wrote: was importantly and consistently on the side of the angels. Behind the Johnsonian fancy-dress, so reassuring to the British public, he concealed the most serious and revolutionary designs—concealing them by exposure ... Chesterton's social and economic ideas...were fundamentally Christian and Catholic. He did more, I think, than any man of his time—and was able to do more than anyone else, because of his particular background, development and abilities as a public performer—to maintain the existence of the important minority in the modern world. He leaves behind a permanent claim upon our loyalty, to see that the work that he did in his time is continued in ours.[8] GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, APOLOGIST and WRITER, 1936, Commemorated June 12; Keith Chesterton was born in London in 1874. He became a well-known writer and lecturer. He was officially received into the Roman Catholic Church in 1922, but had been writing from a Romanist point of view for a long time before that. Some of his writing is specifically Roman Catholic, and (in my judgement) he sometimes attacks Protestant positions without troubling to understand them. However, much of his writing is "generic Christian," and is read with profit and delight by many theologically well-informed Protestant readers. If you are a Protestant, you will have to read him with your mind in gear, but then you have no business to read anything whatsoever with your mind out of gear.

England, 1900-1999, 20th Century Folder, Oxford Group, World Wars I and II, Queen Elizabeth

England, 1901-1944, WILLIAM TEMPLE, Archbishop of Canterbury, Dialectic, Socialist, Progressive, Ecumenical Movement
England, 1900-1944, WILLIAM TEMPLE, Archbishop of Canterbury; WILLIAM TEMPLE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (6 NOV. 1944; admirers have called him "a philosopher, theologian, social teacher, educational reformer, and the leader of the ecumenical movement of his generation," "the most significant Anglican churchman of the twentieth century," "the most renowned Primate in the Church of England since the English Reformation," "Anglican's most creative and comprehensive contribution to the theological enterprise of the West." of his biographers lists him (along with Richard Hooker, Joseph Butler, and Frederick Denison Maurice) as one of the Four Great Doctors of the (post-Reformation) Anglican Communion. Knox, in a satiric poem, described him thus: A man so broad, to some he seem'd to be Not one, but all Mankind in Effigy. Who, brisk in Term, a Whirlwind in the Long, Did everything by turns, and nothing wrong. Bill'd at each Lecture-Hall from Thames to Tyne, As Thinker, Usher, Statesman, or Divine. George Bernard Shaw called him, "a realized impossibility." Who was this remarkable person? Temple, 98th Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1881, the second son of Frederick Temple (born 1821, priest 1847, headmaster of Rugby 1857, Bishop of Exeter 1869, Bishop of London 1884, Archbishop of Canterbury 1897, died 1902). At the age of two, he had the first attack of the gout that would be with him throughout life and eventually kill him. His eyesight was bad, and a cataract, present from infancy, left him completely blind in the right eye when he was 40. However, he was an avid reader, with a near-photographic memory, and once he had read a book, it was his. He was a passionate lover of the music of Bach. In literature, his special enthusiasms were poetry (Browning and Shelley), drama (the Greeks and Shakespeare), and a few novels, especially The Brothers Karamazov. He believed that theological ideas were often explored most effectively by writers who were not explicitly writing theology. was at Oxford (Balliol) from 1900 to 1904, and was president of the Oxford Union (the debating society of the University). Here he developed a remarkable ability to sum up an issue, expressing the pros and cons so clearly and fairly that the original opponents often ended up agreeing with each other. This ability served him in good stead later when he moderated conferences on theological and social issues. However, it was not just a useful talent for settling disputes. It was, or developed into, an important part of his philosophy, a belief in Dialectic, derived from Hegel and from Plato. He thought that beliefs and ideas reach their full maturity through their response to opposing ideas. 1906, he applied for ordination, but the Bishop of Oxford would not ordain him because he admitted that his belief in the Virgin Birth and the Bodily Resurrection of Jesus was shaky. However, Davidson, the Archbishop of Canterbury, after a careful examination, decided that Temple's thought was developing in a direction that would inevitably bring him into an orthodox position, and decided to take a chance on ordaining him (deacon 1909, priest 1910). He may be said to have won his bet, in that by 1913 Temple had indeed committed himself fully to the orthodox position, and could write: "I believe in the Virgin Birth...it wonderfully holds before the imagination the truth of Our Lord's Deity and so I am glad that it is in the Creed. Similarly I believe in our Lord's Bodily Resurrection." 1908 he became president of the Workers' Educational Association (founded by Frederick Denison Maurice), and in 1918 joined the British Labour Party, and worked actively for the implementing of its platform. He also became vigorously involved in movements for Christian co-operation and unity, in missions, in the British Council of Churches, in the World Council of Churches, in the Church of South India (a merger of Anglican, Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches into a single church, with provisions for safeguarding what each group thought essential). 1916 he married Frances Anson, and the night before the wedding he stayed up late to finish writing his first major theological treatise, Mens Creatrix (the Creative Mind). Eight years later he published a companion volume, expanding and clarifying the ideas of the first, called Christus Veritas (Christ the Truth). In 1921 he was made Bishop of Manchester, a heavily industrial city. In 1926 Britain experienced what was known as the General Strike, in which most workmen in all trades and industries went on strike, not against their particular employers, but against the social and economic policies of the country as a whole. In Manchester this meant primarily a coal stoppage. Temple worked extensively to mediate between the parties, and helped to bring about a settlement that both sides regarded as basically fair. excelled, it would seem, not as a scholar, but as a moderator, and above all as a teacher and preacher. In 1931, at the end of the Oxford Mission (what is known in many Protestant circles as a Revival Meeting), he led a congregation in the University Church, St Mary the Virgin, in the singing of the hymn, "When I Survey the Wondrous Cross." Just before the last stanza, he stopped them and asked them to read the words to themselves. "Now," he said, if you mean them with all your heart, sing them as loud as you can. If you don't mean them at all, keep silent. If you mean them even a little and want to mean them more, sing them very softly." The organ played, and two thousand voices whispered: Were the whole realm of nature mine, That were an offering far too small; Love so amazing, so divine, Demands my soul, my life, my all. many who participated, it was a never-forgotten experience. became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1942, when a German invasion seemed likely. He worked for the relief of Jewish refugees from Naziism, and publicly supported a negotiated peace, as opposed to the unconditional surrender that the Allied leaders were demanding. gout worsened. His last public appearance was at a clergy retreat (a time spent in a secluded place, with silence, prayer, meditation, reading, and listening to sermons), where he was taken by ambulance and spoke standing on his one good foot. He died on 26 October 1944. current issue of Books in Print (American) shows the following works available by him. in St. John's Gospel, 1985, Morehouse Pub, 391 pp, paper, LC 84-62374, ISBN 0-8192-1360-8 (a bargain! Highly recommended) [currently out of print but should be avilable used] of a New World, ISBN 0-8369-1778-2 Faith and Life, Morehouse, 150pp, pap, ISBN 0-8192-1631-3 (originally delivered as the Oxford Mission addresses, first published in 1931 from shorthand notes of the addresses) [currently out of print but should be avilable used] Man, and God (the Gifford Lectures 1932-33). Ams Press. (The Gifford Lectures are an endowed annual series of lectures on Natural Theology--that is, the lecturer is to take his evidence from the observed facts of nature and not ask his listeners to accept the genuineness of any particular revelation to Moses or David or Mohammed or.... The series is prestigious. William James's The Varieties of Religious Experience and Edwyn Bevan's Symbolism and Belief were both originally Gifford's Lectures.) Works in 4 Volumes. (out of print) Other works of his, not listed as being in print, but presumably included in the Works mentioned above (although the title does not explicitly say Complete Works), include the following: Christus Veritas: An Essay, London, Macmillan, 1924. [currently out of print but should be available used] Mens Creatrix: An Essay, London, Macmillan, 1917. Christianity and the Social Order, New York, Penguin Books, 1942. by James Kiefer

England, 1901-1910, King of Great Britain, Edward VII, military modernization, peacemaker, socialism
England, 1901-1910, King of Great Britain, Edward VII ; VII (Albert Edward; 9 November 1841 – 6 May 1910) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and nicknamed Bertie, Edward was related to royalty throughout Europe. He was Prince of Wales and heir apparent to the British throne for almost 60 years. During the long reign of his mother, he was largely excluded from political power, and came to personify the fashionable, leisured elite. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial public duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, but, despite public approval, his reputation as a playboy prince soured his relationship with his mother. king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised. He fostered good relations between Britain and other European countries, especially France, for which he was popularly called Peacemaker, but his relationship with his nephew, the German Emperor Wilhelm II, was poor. The Edwardian era, which covered Edward's reign and was named after him, coincided with the start of a new century and heralded significant changes in technology and society, including steam turbine propulsion and the rise of socialism. He died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940; WILLIAM TEMPLE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (6 NOV. 1944); VEDANAYAGAM SAMUEL AZARIAH, FIRST INDIAN ANGLICAN BISHOP, DORNAKAL, 1945, Commemorated January 2 ; Charles Gore of RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915 AND CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ; Richard Meau Benson of RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, AND CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16; CHARLES FREER ANDREWS, PRIEST AND ÂœFRIEND OF THE POORÂ IN INDIA, 1940. Commemorated February 12 ; Woodbine Willie aka GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated March 12; PANDITA MARY RAMABAI, PROPHETIC WITNESS AND EVANGELIST IN INDIA, 1922. Commemorated April 5; GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, APOLOGIST and WRITER, 1936, Commemorated June 12 ; EVELYN UNDERHILL, THEOLOGIAN AND MYSTIC (15 JUNE 1941);

England, 1904-1905, Welsh Revival, Swansea, Wales
Wales, 1904-1905, Welsh Revival, Swansea, Wales ; 1904-1905 Welsh Revival; George Jeffreys, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1962, Commemorated January 26 ;

England, 1910-1936, GB King, George V, socialism, communism, fascism, Irish Republicism, Indian Indepence
England, 1910-1936, King of Great Britain, George V; V (George Frederick Ernest Albert; 3 June 1865 – 20 January 1936) was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. during the reign of his grandmother Queen Victoria, George was third in the line of succession behind his father, Prince Albert Edward, and his own elder brother, Prince Albert Victor. From 1877 to 1892, George served in the Royal Navy, until the unexpected death of his elder brother in early 1892 put him directly in line for the throne. On the death of Victoria in 1901, George's father ascended the throne as Edward VII, and George was created Prince of Wales. He became king-emperor on his father's death in 1910. V's reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, and the Indian independence movement, all of which radically changed the political landscape of the British Empire. The Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. As a result of the First World War (1914–1918), the empires of his first cousins Nicholas II of Russia and Wilhelm II of Germany fell, while the British Empire expanded to its greatest effective extent. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, which he renamed from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as a result of anti-German public sentiment. 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the British Commonwealth of Nations. He had smoking-related health problems throughout much of his later reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward VIII. GEORGE BELL, BISHOP OF CHICHESTER, AND ECUMENIST, 3 October 1958; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940; WILLIAM TEMPLE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (6 NOV. 1944); C S LEWIS, SCHOLAR AND SPIRITUAL WRITER (22 NOV 1963); VEDANAYAGAM SAMUEL AZARIAH, FIRST INDIAN ANGLICAN BISHOP, DORNAKAL, 1945, Commemorated January 2 ; Charles Gore of RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915 AND CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ; Richard Meau Benson of RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, AND CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16; George Jeffreys, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1962, Commemorated January 26 ; ERIC LIDDELL, MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22; Woodbine Willie aka GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated March 12; St Ambrose the Confessor, Commemorated on March 16; PANDITA MARY RAMABAI, PROPHETIC WITNESS AND EVANGELIST IN INDIA, 1922. Commemorated April 5; INI KOPURIA, FOUNDER OF THE MELANESIAN BROTHERHOOD, 1945; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8; GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, APOLOGIST and WRITER, 1936, Commemorated June 12 ; EVELYN UNDERHILL, THEOLOGIAN AND MYSTIC (15 JUNE 1941);

England, 1921, Oxford Group, First Century Christian Fellowship
England, 1921, Oxford Group, First Century Christian Fellowship Keswick, England ; Keswik, England, home of the Oxford Group; SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20;

England, 1936-1952, King of Great Britain, George VI, WWII, Empire decline after the war
England, 1936-1952, King of Great Britain, George VI; GEORGE BELL, BISHOP OF CHICHESTER, AND ECUMENIST, 3 October 1958; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940; WILLIAM TEMPLE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (6 NOV. 1944); C S LEWIS, SCHOLAR AND SPIRITUAL WRITER (22 NOV 1963); VEDANAYAGAM SAMUEL AZARIAH, FIRST INDIAN ANGLICAN BISHOP, DORNAKAL, 1945, Commemorated January 2 ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944; George Jeffreys, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1962, Commemorated January 26 ; CHARLES FREER ANDREWS, PRIEST AND "ÂœFRIEND OF THE POOR"Â IN INDIA, 1940. Commemorated February 12 ; JANANI LUWUM, ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA, MARTYR (16 FEB 1977); ERIC LIDDELL, MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated March 12; OSCAR ROMERO, ARCHBISHOP OF SAN SALVADOR, AND THE MARTYRS OF EL SALVADOR, (24 March 1980) ; INI KOPURIA, FOUNDER OF THE MELANESIAN BROTHERHOOD, 1945; EVELYN UNDERHILL, THEOLOGIAN AND MYSTIC (15 JUNE 1941);

England, 1937, Lambeth Conference of 1937 (1930?) remarrige, contraception, abortion, war, Orthodox unity, women deacons
England, 1937, Lambeth Conference of 1937; Lambeth Conference is a decennial assembly of bishops of the Anglican Communion convened by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The first such conference took place at Lambeth in 1867. the Anglican Communion is an international association of autonomous national and regional churches and is not a governing body, the Lambeth Conferences serve a collaborative and consultative function, expressing "the mind of the communion" on issues of the day.[1] which a Lambeth Conference may pass are without legal effect, but they are nonetheless influential. So, although the resolutions of conferences carry no legislative authority, they "do carry great moral and spiritual authority."[This quote needs a citation] "Its statements on social issues have influenced church policy in the churches."[2] conferences form one of the communion's four "Instruments of Communion".[3] 1930[edit] Presided over by: Cosmo Gordon Lang[10] 308 bishops attended.[a] had been ill prior to the Conference and had to rest the month of June to be in shape to preside over the Conference. Lang said that he weathered the five weeks without "illness" or "undue fatigue"[23] conference opened with a "day of devotion" at Fulham Palace, the residence of the Bishop of London. Holy Communion was celebrated at 8:30 am with an address by 86-year-old Edward Talbot, retired Bishop of Winchester.[19] conference's "manner of deliberations" followed the pattern used in earlier conferences. six subjects (see the list of subjects in the Resolutions section below) proposed for consideration were brought before sessions of the whole Conference for six days, from July 7 to July 12. subjects were all referred to committees. The work of the committees was aided by the essays and papers that had been prepared for them in advance. After their two-weeks of deliberations, the committees presented their reports and resolutions to the whole conference from July 28 to August 9.[24] resolutions passed The subjects on which resolutions were passed at the Conference are the following:[25] I. the Christian Doctrine of God II. the Life and Witness of the Christian Community III. the Unity of the Church IV. the Anglican Communion V. the Ministry of the Church VI. Youth and Its Vocation Sampling of Resolutions by subject The Conference adopted seventy-five Resolutions. They can all be seen at Anglican Communion Document Library: 1930 Conference. I. Christian Doctrine of God: Resolutions 1-8 Resolution 2 expressed an "urgent need in the face of many erroneous conceptions for a fresh presentation of the Christian doctrine of God". Resolution 3 admonished "Christian people" to banish "from their minds the ideas concerning the character of God which are inconsistent with the character of Jesus Christ." II. Life and Witness of the Christian Community (1) Marriage and Sex: Resolutions 9-20 Resolution 11 recommended that "the marriage of one, whose former partner is still living, should not be celebrated according to the rites of the Church," and when "an innocent person has remarried under civil sanction and desires to receive the Holy Communion," the case should be referred to the bishop. Resolution 15 allowed "in those cases where there is such a clearly felt moral obligation to limit or avoid parenthood, and where there is a morally sound reason for avoiding complete abstinence, the Conference agrees that other methods may be used, provided that this is done in the light of the same Christian principles." The vote for this Resolution was 193 for it, 67 against it, and 47 not voting. This was the only Resolution for which a record of the numbers voting was required.[25] The London Times of June 30, 1930, predicted that the Lambeth Conference would change the "social and moral life" of humanity. This was done by the Conference's Resolution 15 in which in contradiction to earlier Resolutions (1908 Resolution 41 and 1920 Resolution 66) allowed the use of contraception in marriage.[26] Walter Carey, Bishop of Bloemfontein, withdrew from the Conference in protest and even sent a petition to the King on the subject.[27] Resolution 16 expressed "abhorrence of the sinful practice of abortion." Resolution 18 reckoned "sexual intercourse between persons who are not legally married" to be "a grievous sin." (2) Race: Resolutions 21-24 Resolution 22 affirmed the Conference's "conviction that all communicants without distinction of race or colour should have access in any church to the Holy Table of the Lord, and that no one should be excluded from worship in any church on account of colour or race." (3) Peace and War: Resolutions 25-30 Resolution 25 affirmed that "war as a method of settling international disputes is incompatible with the teaching and example of our Lord Jesus Christ." Resolution 26 noted with approval the work of the League of Nations. III. Unity of the Church: Resolutions 31-47 "The Conference encouraged the Unity of the Church in all parts of the world."[citation needed] It was primarily concerned (1) with the relations of the Churches of the Anglican Communion to the Orthodox Churches of the East, and (2) with the Proposed Scheme of Union in South India, and (3) with the problems arising in Special Areas.[25] Various Churches sent delegations to consult with the Conference, notably the Old Catholics.[25] Resolution 31 recorded, "with deep thanks to Almighty God, the signs of a growing movement towards Christian unity in all parts of the world since the issue of the "Appeal to All Christian People" by the Lambeth Conference in 1920 and reaffirmed "the principles contained in it and in the Resolutions dealing with reunion adopted by that Conference." Resolution 47 applied the call for Unity of the Church to the Anglican Communion by calling on its members "to promote the cause of union by fostering and deepening in all possible ways the fellowship of the Anglican Communion itself." IV. Anglican Communion: Resolutions 48-60 Resolution 49 approved a statement of the "nature and status of the Anglican Communion," namely that "the Anglican Communion is a fellowship, within the one Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, of those duly constituted dioceses, provinces or regional Churches in communion with the See of Canterbury," which have three things in common: (a) "they uphold and propagate the Catholic and Apostolic faith and order as they are generally set forth in the Book of Common Prayer as authorised in their several Churches" (b) "they are particular or national Churches, and, as such, promote within each of their territories a national expression of Christian faith, life and worship" (c) they are bound together "by mutual loyalty sustained through the common counsel of the bishops in conference." This Resolution was a Lambeth Conference's first attempts at defining the Anglican Communion.[28] Resolution 50 reaffirmed Resolution 44 of the Lambeth Conference of 1920, "that the Consultative Body is of the nature of a continuation committee of the Lambeth Conference, and neither possesses nor claims any executive or administrative power" and added further directions for its operation. V. Ministry of the Church: Resolutions 61-74 (1) The Ministry of Women: Resolutions 61-72 Resolution 66 stressed the "great importance of offering to women of ability and education" a role in directing "the work of the Church." Resolution 67 reaffirmed the 1920 Conference that "the order of deaconess is for women the one and only order of the ministry which we can recommend our branch of the Catholic Church to recognise and use." The 1920 Lambeth Conference had acknowledged that the Church had "undervalued and neglected the gifts of women." Nevertheless, it still held to the "differences between women and men" and said that deaconess was the "only Order of the Ministry" with Apostolic approval. The 1930 Lambeth Conference again rejected any parity of deaconesses with deacons because a deaconess was "outside the historic Orders of the ministry."[29] Resolution 70 allowed bishops, "on the request of the parish priest" to entrust specific functions to deaconesses, namely, "a. to assist the minister in the preparation of candidates for baptism and for confirmation; b. to assist at the administration of Holy Baptism by virtue of her office; c. to baptize in church, and to officiate at the Churching of Women; d. in church to read Morning and Evening Prayer and the Litany, except such portions as are reserved to the priest, and to lead in prayer; with the license of the bishop, to instruct and preach, except in the service of Holy Communion." (2) Religious Communities: Resolution 74 Resolution 74 recognized "the growth of religious communities both of men and women in the Anglican Communion and the contribution which they have made." Cost of the Conference Traditionally the Archbishop of Canterbury bore the cost of a Lambeth Conference. For the 1930 Conference, the British Church Assembly provided £2,000. toward the cost. However, this was only a fraction of the total cost. One item, providing lunch and afternoon tea every day for five weeks, cost £1,400.[30] 1948[edit] Presided over by: Geoffrey Fisher 349 bishops attend that the ordination of Florence Li Tim-Oi "would be against the tradition and order...of the Anglican Communion" and dismissed the need for further examination of women's ordination. full communion between the Anglican and Old Catholic churches. that "discrimination between men on the grounds of race alone is inconsistent with the principles of Christ's religion". 1958[edit] Presided over by: Geoffrey Fisher 310 bishops attend for respect for the "consciences" of married couples who use birth control. considering the renewal of the permanent diaconate. 1968[edit] was the first conference not to take place in Lambeth Palace. This was because of the increase in the number of bishops attending, as well as the presence of almost 100 observers and consultants. Meetings were instead held at Church House, Westminster although the bishops, with their spouses, were invited to dinner at Lambeth by rotation. over by Michael Ramsey who famously dozed off during at least one debate. bishops attended the ordination of women to the diaconate and the recognition of previously-appointed "deaconesses" as deacons. the arguments for and against women in the priesthood "inconclusive". that assent to the Thirty-Nine Articles no longer be required of clergy. open communion. 1978[edit] Presided over by Donald Coggan 440 bishops attended.[31] conference "recognised the autonomy of each of its member churches...legal right of each Church to make its own decision" about women priests. It also denounced the use of capital punishment and called for a common lectionary. was the first conference to be held on the campus of the University of Kent at Canterbury where every subsequent conference has been held.[32] 1978 Conference included forty assistant bishops.[33] 1988[edit] Presided over by Robert Runcie 518 bishops present conference dealt with the question of the inter-relations of Anglican international bodies and issues such as marriage and family, human rights, poverty and debt, environment, militarism, justice and peace. Women's ordination to the priesthood was also a major topic of discussion. Archbishop Michael Peers, Bishop Graham Leonard, Bishop Samir Kafity, and the Reverend Nan Arrington Peete spoke to the assembly on the topic.[34][35] Peete, who was ordained in the Episcopal Church USA, was the first female priest to speak at the Lambeth Conference.[36] The conference decided that "each province respect the decision of other provinces in the ordination or consecration of women to the episcopate." previous Lambeth Conferences, only bishops were invited to attend, but all members of the Anglican Consultative Council and representative bishops from the "Churches in Communion" (i.e. the Churches of Bangladesh, North and South India and Pakistan) were invited to attend.[37] 1998[edit] Presided over by: George Carey 749 bishops present including, for the first time, eleven of them women most hotly debated issue at this conference was homosexuality in the Anglican Communion. was finally decided, by a vote of 526–70, to pass a resolution (1.10) calling for a "listening process" but stating (in an amendment passed by a vote of 389–190)[38] that "homosexual practice" (not necessarily orientation) is "incompatible with Scripture".[39] subsequent public apology was issued to gay and lesbian Anglicans in a "Pastoral Statement" from 182 bishops worldwide, including eight primates (those of Brazil, Canada, Central Africa, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales),[40] and an attempt was made at conciliation the following year in the form of the Cambridge Accord. and controversy centred on this motion and its application continued to the extent that, ten years later, in 2007, Giles Goddard of Inclusive Church suggested in published correspondence with Andrew Goddard across the liberal–evangelical divide: "It's possible to construct a perfectly coherent argument that the last 10 years have been preoccupied with undoing the damage Lambeth 1.10 caused to the Communion."[41] controversial incident occurred during the conference when Bishop Emmanuel Chukwuma of Enugu, Nigeria, attempted to exorcise the "homosexual demons" from Richard Kirker, a British priest and the general secretary of the Lesbian and Gay Christian Movement, who was passing out leaflets. Chukwuma told Kirker that he was "killing the church"; Kirker's civil response to the attempted exorcism was "May God bless you, sir, and deliver you from your prejudice against homosexuality."[42] about a mission to fight poverty, create jobs and transform lives by empowering the poor in developing countries using innovative savings and microcredit programs, business training and spiritual development led to the formation of Five Talents.[43] 2008[edit] The 2008 Lambeth Conference logo Presided over by Rowan Williams Around 670 bishops present[10] fourteenth conference took place from 16 July to 4 August 2008 at the University of Kent's Canterbury campus. In March 2006 the Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, issued a pastoral letter[44] to the 38 primates of the Anglican Communion and moderators of the united churches setting out his thinking for the next Lambeth Conference. indicated that the emphasis will be on training, "for really effective, truthful and prayerful mission". He ruled out (for the time being) reopening of the controversial resolution 1.10 on human sexuality from the previous Lambeth Conference, but emphasised the "listening process" in which diverse views and experiences of human sexuality were being collected and collated in accordance with that resolution and said it "will be important to allow time for this to be presented and reflected upon in 2008". indicated that the traditional plenary sessions and resolutions would be reduced and that "We shall be looking at a bigger number of more focused groups, some of which may bring bishops and spouses together." at the Lambeth Conference is by invitation of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Invitations were sent to more than 880 bishops around the world for the Fourteenth Conference. Notably absent from the list of those invited are Gene Robinson and Martyn Minns. Robinson was the first Anglican bishop to exercise the office while in an acknowledged same-sex relationship, and Rowan Williams said it was "proving extremely difficult to see under what heading he might be invited to be around", drawing criticism.[45] Minns, the former rector of Truro Episcopal Church in Fairfax, Virginia, was the head of the Convocation of Anglicans in North America, a splinter group of American Anglicans; the Church of Nigeria considered him a missionary bishop to the United States, despite protest from Canterbury and the U.S. Episcopal Church. 2008, four Anglican primates announced that they intended to boycott the Lambeth conference because of their opposition to the actions of Episcopal Church in the USA (the American province of the Anglican Communion) in favour of homosexual clergy and same-sex unions.[46][47] These primates represent the Anglican provinces of Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya and Rwanda. In addition, Peter Jensen, Archbishop of Sydney, Australia and Michael Nazir-Ali, Bishop of Rochester, among others announced their intentions not to attend. Global Anglican Future Conference, a meeting of conservative bishops held in Jerusalem in June 2008 (one month prior to Lambeth), was thought by some to be an "alternative Lambeth" for those who are opposed to the consecration of Robinson.[48] GAFCON involved Martyn Minns, Peter Akinola and other dissenters[49] who considered themselves to be in a state of impaired communion with the American Episcopal Church and the See of Canterbury.[citation needed] The June 2008 church blessing of Peter Cowell, an Anglican chaplain at the Royal London Hospital and priest at Westminster Abbey, and David Lord, an Anglican priest serving at a parish in Waikato, New Zealand, renewed the debate one month prior to the conference. Martin Dudley, who officiated at the ceremony at St Bartholomew-the-Great, maintained that the ceremony was a "blessing" rather than a matrimonial ceremony.[50] Icon of the Melanesian Martyrs at Canterbury Cathedral Icon of the Melanesian Martyrs at Canterbury Cathedral 2008, the seven martyred members of the Melanesian Brotherhood were honoured during the concluding Eucharist of the 2008 conference at Canterbury Cathedral. Their names were added to the book of contemporary martyrs and placed, along with an icon, on the altar of the "Chapel of the Saints and Martyrs of Our Times". When the Eucharist was over, bishops and others came to pray in front of the small altar in the chapel.[51] The icon stands in the cathedral[52] as a reminder of their witness to peace and of the multi-ethnic character of global Anglicanism. 2022[edit] ten-year cycle followed since 1948 would have suggested a Lambeth Conference in 2018. In September 2014, Katharine Jefferts Schori, primate of the Episcopal Church in the United States, advised that she had been told by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, that this conference had been cancelled, and that he would not call one until he was "reasonably certain that the vast majority of bishops would attend. It needs to be preceded by a primates meeting at which a vast majority of primates are present" (Schori's words).[53] Welby later responded to reports of cancellation by stating, "As it hasn't been called, it can’t have been cancelled", explaining that he had previously told primates he would not call a Lambeth Conference until he had visited each of them in their own countries, which when added to practical considerations relating to venues precluded a conference as soon as 2018.[54] communiqué issued after the primates' meeting in Canterbury in January 2016 said the primates had accepted Welby's proposal that the Fifteenth Conference should be held in 2020.[55][56] At the same meeting, the U.S. Episcopal Church was suspended from Anglican Communion decision-making on "issues pertaining to doctrine or polity" for three years because of its support for same-sex marriage, a suspension which would end by the time of the Lambeth Conference. In 2017 an international organising group chaired by the Archbishop of Cape Town set a date (the last week in July 2020) and announced a theme ("God’s Church for God’s world") for the conference.[57] to concerns surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic, it was initially announced in March 2020 that the 15th Lambeth Conference would be rescheduled to summer 2021.[58] In July 2020 it was further announced that due to continued uncertainty caused by the COVID-19 pandemic the 15th Lambeth Conference would be further delayed to 2022.[59] Lambeth; Lambeth Convention; PAUL SHINJI SASAKI AND PHILIP LENDEL TSEN, BISHOP OF TOKYO, 1946; BISHOP OF HONAN, CHINA, 1954; Oct. 31; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911), Commemorated November 8 ;

England and US, 1941, March 12, 1941: Joseph's Seal Date
England and US, 1941, March 12, 1941: Joseph's Seal Date ; US Policy, 1941-1945, Lend-Lease Policy;

England and US, 1941, March 12, 1941: Ephraim's Seal Date
England and US, 1941, March 12, 1941: Ephraim's Seal Date ; US Policy, 1941-1945, Lend-Lease Policy;

England, 1941-1945, Lend-Lease, England and US Policy
US Policy, 1941-1945, Lend-Lease Policy; March 12, 1941: Joseph's Seal Date;

England, 1952- , Queen of Great Britain, Elizabeth II, decolonization, commonwealth, long reign and life
England, 1952- , Queen of Great Britain, Elizabeth II; GEORGE BELL, BISHOP OF CHICHESTER, AND ECUMENIST, 3 October 1958; C S LEWIS, SCHOLAR AND SPIRITUAL WRITER (22 NOV 1963); George Jeffreys, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1962, Commemorated January 26 ; JANANI LUWUM, ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA, MARTYR (16 FEB 1977); OSCAR ROMERO, ARCHBISHOP OF SAN SALVADOR, AND THE MARTYRS OF EL SALVADOR, (24 March 1980) ;

England, General Locations Folder

Continental Divides - British Moorlands
British Moorlands;

Continental Divide - East and West England

Scottish Highlands area (moorland)

Scottish Highlands (moorland)
Scottish Highlands (moorland) ;

Southerland Uplands (moorland)

Southern Uplands (moorland)

Lake District moorland area
Lake District moorland area;

Lake District (moorland)
Lake District (moorland);

Forest of Bowland area

Forest of Bowland (moorland)
Forest of Bowland (moorland);

Rombalds and Ilkley Moor area (moorland)

Rombalds Moor including Ilkley Moor (moorland)

West Pennine Moors area (moorland)

West Pennine Moors (moorland)
West Pennine Moors (moorland) ;

North Yorkshire Moors area

North Yorkshire Moors (moorland)
North Yorkshire Moors; Moorland: uncultivated hill lands or wetlands; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated October 12 ;

Dark Peak moorland area
Dark Peak (moorland);

Bleaklow moor (of Dark Peak)
Bleaklow moor;

Dark Peak (moorland)
Dark Peak (moorland);

White Peak (moorland)
White Peak;

Saddleworth Moor (moorland)
Saddleworth Moor (moorland) ;

Staffordshire Moorlands area

Staffordshire Moorlands

Mynydd Hiraethog area (moorland)

Mynydd Hiraethog (moorland)
Mynydd Hiraethog (moorland) ;

Migneint area (moorland)
Migneint (moorland) ;

Migneint (moorland)
Migneint (moorland) ;

Desert of Wales area (moorland)

Desert of Wales (moorland, Cambrian Mountains)
Desert of Wales area (moorland)

Shropshire Hills (moorland)
Shropshire Hills (moorland) ;

Shropshire Hills (moorland)

Somerset Levels and Moors area
Somerset Levels and Moors ;

Somerset Levels (wetlands)
Somerset Levels (moors) ;

Mendip Hills
Mendip Hills;

Blackdown Hills
Blackdown Hills;

Exmoor area (moorland)
Exmoor (Moorland) ;

Exmoor (moorland)
Exmoor (Moorland) ;

Dartmoor area (moorland)
Dartmoor (moorland) ;

Dartmoor (moorland)
Dartmoor (moorland) ;

Bodmin Moor
Bodmin Moor;

Bodmin Moor area
Bodmin Moor area ;

Continental Divides - Sussex Divide

Continental Divide - between Essex and Canterbury

Continental Divide - between Wesse and Essex

Continental Divides - Broads, Herford Divide

Continental Divides - Chitten Hills Area, Chalk

Continental Divides - Broads, Rivers Cam and Ouse Divide

Continental Divide - between Essex and The Broads

England, Great North Roman Road Folder

Great North Road

Great North Road - Shelby to York to Topcliffe

Great North Road (A1) - Smithfield

Smithfield, North London (Great North Road (AI), Smithfield)
Smithfield, North London (Great North Road (AI), Smithfield); Roger Williams of ROGER WILLIAMS and ANNE HUTCHINSON, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1683, 1643, Commemorated February 5;

Rolls Chapel, London at Maughan Library (near Smithfield and Great North Road)
Rolls Chapel, London at Maughan Library; JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOP and THEOLOGIAN (1752), Commemorated June 16;

Great North Road (A1) - Angel, Islington

Great North Road (A1) - Alconbury
At Alconbury, the Great North Road joined the Old North Road, an older route from London which follows the Roman Ermine Street. Here a milestone records mileages to London via both routes: 65 by the Old North Road and 68 by the Great North Road.[4] From Alconbury the Great North Road follows the line of Ermine Street north, through Stilton and Stamford as far as Colsterworth (at the A151 junction).

Great North Road (A10) - Stilton

Great North Road (A1) - Stamford

Great North Road (A1) - Colsterworth
At Colsterworth the Great North Road diverges west of the Roman road and continues through Grantham, Newark, Retford and Bawtry to Doncaster. North of Doncaster the Great North Road again follows a short section of Ermine Street called Roman Rigg or Roman Ridge. Further north the Great North Road crossed the Roman Dere Street near Boroughbridge from where it went via Dishforth and Topcliffe to Northallerton and then through Darlington and Durham. A road forked off to the left at the bridge in Boroughbridge to follow Dere Street, thence from Scotch Corner to Penrith and on to Glasgow. Part of this route was used for the original A1, with a local road from Scotch Corner via Barton to Darlington making the link back to the old Great North Road.

Great North Road (A1) - Doncaster
Great North Road (A1) - Doncaster (left to Ferrybridge and Edinburgh, right to Selby and York)

Great North Road (A1) - Roman Ridge

Great North Road (A1) - Ferrybridge (to Edinburgh)

Great North Road (A1) - Boroughbridge (Overview)

Great North Road (A1) - Dishforth
Great North Road (A1) - Dishforth (right to Topcliffe and Darrington, left to Scotch Corner and Glascow or Scotch Corner, Darrington and Edinburgh)

Great North Road (A1) - Topcliffe

Great North Road (A1) - Northallerton

Great North Road (A1) - Scotch Corner (to Glasgow turn left)
Great North Road (A1) - Scotch Corner (to Glasgow, Scotland turn left; continue on A1 to Edinburg, Scotland)

Great North Road (A1) - Darlington

Great North Road (A1) - Durham

Great North Road (A1) - Selby (to York)

Great North Road (A1) - York

Great North Road (A1) - Edinburgh

Great North Road (A1) - Glasgow

England, Roman Roads and Rivers Folders (all Clean)

England, its Area

England, Roman Road, Great North Road (Clean)

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, Lake District, Northwest ENG (Clean)

Lake District of England
Lake District of England; NINIAN OF GALLOWAY, BISHOP, MISSIONARY TO SCOTLAND (16 SEP 430); SAMUEL SHOEMAKER, PRIEST AND EVANGELIST, 1963, Commemorated January 31 ; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20;

Solway Firth (inlet)
Solway Firth (inlet);

England, Lake District, Lyne River Folder, Solway Firth

Lyne River

Lyne River Black Lyne

England, Lake District, Eden River Folder, Solway Firth

Eden River

England, Lake District, Eden Rivr 1, Caldew River Folder

Caldew River

England, Lake District, Eden River 1, Petteril River Folder

Petteril River

England, Lake District, Esk River Folder, Lake District

Esk River

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, Northwest Midlands (Clean)

Manchester, England
Manchester; CATHERINE WINKWORTH. POET, 7 August 1878; WILLIAM TEMPLE ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (6 NOV. 1944) ; William W. Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6 ; Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

Mersey River

Mersey River Source 2

England, Manchester, Mersey River 8, River Irwell Folder, Manchester Ship Canal

River Irwell

England, Manchester, Mersey River 8, Irwell River 3, Medlock River Folder

River Medlock

Manchester Ship Canal
Manchester Ship Canal;

England, Manchester, Mersey River 12, Bridgewater Canal Folder

Bridgewater Canal

Liverpool (Mersy River Estuary, Irish Sea)
Liverpool; GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, aka Woodbine Willie PRIEST, 1929;

Wirral Peninsula
Wirral Peninsula; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940; Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

England, Manchester, Mersey River Mouth, East Side River Dee Folder

River Dee (Wales)

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, West Midlands Mercia (Clean)

West Midlands of England
West Midlands Region of England; RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; WILLIAM LAUD, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (10 JANUARY 1645) ; WULFSTAN OF WORCESTER, Commemorated January 19 ; CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672) ; GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ; PATRICK OF IRELAND, (17 MAR c461); St Patrick the Bishop of Armagh and Enlightener of Ireland, Commemorated on March 17 ; GEORGE AUGUSTUS SELWYN, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (11 APR 1878); WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Playwright, 23 April, 1616;

England, Roman Roads, West Midlands Mercia, Birmingham Folder

Birmingham, West Midlands, England
Birmingham; HUGH LATIMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555) ; Charles Gore of RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915. AND CHARLES GORE. BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, both commemorated January 16;

England, Roman Roads, West Midlands Mercia, River Avon Folder

River Avon

England, Roman Roads, West Midlands Mercia, River Severn Folder (Wales and West Midlands)

River Severn

Severn Valley, Mercia
Severn Valley, Mercia; Saint Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5; Penda, King of Mercia; Kingdom of Mercia, 527-918;

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, East Midlands (Clean)

East Midlands, England
East Midlands, England, including Northhamptonshire, Buckinghamtonshire and Bedfordshire ; JOHN BUNYAN, WRITER, 30 August 1688; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761; WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Playwright, 23 April, 1616;

England, East Midlands, River Witham Folder, North

River Witham

England, East Midlands, River Welland Folder, North Central

River Welland

England, East Midlands, River Nene Folder, South Central

River Nene

England, East Midlands, River Nene 9, The Fens Folder, North Cambridgeshire, Central

The Fens (Wetlands, all of East Midlands)
The Fens or Fensland; NICHOLAS FERRAR;

England, East Midlands, Great River Ouse Folder, South

Great River Ouse

Great River Ouse (Old Section)

England, East Midlands, Cotswolds and Chitten Hills Folder, Southeast

Cotswolds Area, Limestone

Chitten Hills Area, Chalk

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, East Anglia, Broads River System (Clean)

Broads (a broad network of navagatable rivers Suffolk and Norfolk)
The Broads; Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761; GEORGE AUGUSTUS SELWYN, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (11 APR 1878); DAME JULIAN OF NORWICH, CONTEMPLATIVE (8 MAY 1417); JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 1690; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ;

East Anglia (The Broads)
East Anglia; Venerable Ethelburga, Commemorated on October 11 ; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated October 12 ; EDMUND OF EAST ANGLIA, KING AND MARTYR (20 NOV 870) ; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ;

England, Broads, River Cam Folder, Cambridge, Upstream and West

River Cam

Cambridge (at the head of the Broads River System, River Cam 2)
Cambridge; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); JOHN MASON NEALE, PRIEST, SCHOLAR, AND TRANSLATOR (7 AUGUST 1866); JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667); Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; NICHOLAS RIDLEY, BISHOP AND MARTYR (16 OCTOBER 1555) ; HENRY MARTYN, MISSIONARY AND TRANSLATOR (19 OCT 1812) ; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); WILLIAM BYRD of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; C S LEWIS, SCHOLAR AND SPIRITUAL WRITER (22 NOV 1963) ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26 ; FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761) ; NICHOLAS FERRAR, DEACON, MAN OF PRAYER (1 DEC 1637) ; ROBERT McDONALD, Commemorated December 15 ; CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ; GEORGE HERBERT, PRIEST AND POET (27 FEBRUARY 1633); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631); FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872) ; WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761; GEORGE AUGUSTUS SELWYN, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (11 APR 1878); DAME JULIAN OF NORWICH, CONTEMPLATIVE (8 MAY 1417); JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 1690;

England, Broads, Great River Ouse Folder, Western Broads

England, Broads, Lower Great River Ouse Folder, Navigation and Tidal Section

Lower Great River Ouse (navigatable section)

England, Broads, River Yare Folder, Norwich, Northeast

River Yare

England, Broads, River Yare 1, River Wensum Folder, Norwich

River Wensum

England, Broads, Bungay River Folder, Dunwich, East

Bungay River

England, Broads, Rivers Orwell and Stour Folder, Suffolk County, Southeast

River Orwell

River Stour

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, Northeast ENG, Humber Estuary North (Clean)

Northumbria (North Anglia, North of the Humber to Roman Wall)
Kingdom of Northumbria, north of the Humber Estuary from the River Tees to the River Tweed; St Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5 ; AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); St Adian, the bishop of Lindisfarne, Commemorated August 31; REMIGIUS OF RHEIMS, BISHOP, APOSTLE OF THE FRANKS (1 OCTOBER 530); St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury; WILLIBRORD OF UTRECHT, ARCHBISHOP AND MISSIONARY (NOV 7, 739) ; EDMUND OF EAST ANGLIA, KING AND MARTYR (20 NOV 870); AELRED OF RIEVAULX, ABBOT (12 JANUARY 1167); CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672) ; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

Humber Estuary, Ouse River Mouth
Humber Estuary;

River Ouse

England, Northumbria, Scottish Borders Folder

Scottish Borders
Scottish Borders; St Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated August 5 ; CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG);

England, Northumbria, Scottish Borders, Tweed River Folder

Tweed River

England, Northumbria, Scottish Borders, Tweed River 5, River Leader Folder

River Leader

England, Northumbria, Tyne River Folder

Tyne River

Tyne River - North Tyne River

Tyne River - South Tyne River

England, Northumbria, Roman Wall Folder - The Wall - Hadrian's Wall

The Roman Wall - Hadrian's Wall

England, Northumbria, Tees River Folder

Tees River

England, Northumbria, River Esk Folder, Whidby Abby

River Esk

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, East Central ENG, Yorkshire, Northumbria (Clean)

Yorkshire, England
Yorkshire; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); JOHN WYCLIF, TRANSLATOR AND CONTROVERSIALIST, 30 OCT. 1384 ; JOHN MERBECKE of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; AELRED OF RIEVAULX, ABBOT (12 JANUARY 1167) ; JANANI LUWUM, ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA, MARTYR (16 FEB 1977); CHAD OF LICHFIELD, (2 MAR 672) ; GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; Smith Wigglesworth, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1947, Commemorated March 12 ; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20; CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); ALCUIN, DEACON, SCHOLAR, AND ABBOT OF TOURS (20 MAY 804); Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21;

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Great North Road Folder

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, North Yorkshire Moors Folder, North YOR

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary Rivers Folder, South YOR

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary, Hull River Folder, North Estuary

River Hull

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary, Ouse River Folder, Central Estuary

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary, Ouse River 1, Ure River Folder

Ure River

Cover River

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary, Ouse River 6, Foss River Folder

River Foss

York, England, Yorkshire (River Foss Mouth at River Ouse 8)
York; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30 ; AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated September 18 ; HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); JOHN MERBECKE of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; AELRED OF RIEVAULX, ABBOT (12 JANUARY 1167) ; St James the Deacon; CHAD OF LICHFIELD, Commemorated March 2 ; ALCUIN, DEACON, SCHOLAR, AND ABBOT OF TOURS (20 MAY 804); Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21; Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ;

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary, Ouse River 22, Aire River Folder

Aire River

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary, Ouse River 22, Aire River 12, Calder and Hebble Navigation Folder

Calder River

Hebble Brook

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary, Trent River Folder, South Estuary

Trent River

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Humber Estuary, Trent River 10, Dove River Folder

Dove River

England, Northumbria, Yorkshire, Trent River 13.3, Soar River Folder, also called East Midlands

River Soar

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, Wales Folder, West of ENG (Clean)

Wales, West of England
Wales, Wales is largely mountainous; CATHERINE WINKWORTH, POET, 7 August 1878; JEREMY TAYLOR, BISHOP AND THEOLOGIAN (13 AUGUST 1667); St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated on September 19; THEODORE OF TARSUS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (19 SEP 690); St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated October 12 ; ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899) ; HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); St Kentigern, first Bishop of Glasgow, Scotland, Commemorated January 14 ; George Jeffreys, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1962, Commemorated January 26 ; Venerable Brigid (Bridget) of Ireland, Commemorated on February 1 ; GEORGE HERBERT, PRIEST AND POET (27 FEBRUARY 1633); DAVID (DEWI) OF WALES, (1 MAR 544) ; GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ; PATRICK OF IRELAND, (17 MAR c461); St Patrick the Bishop of Armagh and Enlightener of Ireland, Commemorated on March 17 ; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253); THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, Commemorated May 22 ; AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605); Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

England, Wales, Wey River Folder, Herfordshire, Southeast WAL

River Wey (Herefordshire)

England, Wales, Wey River 2, Monnow River Folder

Monnow River

Hereford, Wales (Monnow River 1)
Hereford, England; THOMAS TRAHERNE, PRIEST AND POET, 27 Sept. 1674 ;

England, Wales, River Severn Folder, Central WAL

England, Wales, River Towy Folder, Saint David's, West WAL

River Towy

England, Wales, River Towy area, Lladbadarn Fawr Folder, on the Channel

Llandabarn Fawr
Llandabarn Fawr; England, 524-550, St Padarm of Llanbadarn Fawr, Commemorated April 15; ( ? – c. 550 AD)[1] was an early 6th century sanctified British Christian abbot-bishop who founded St Padarn's Church in[2] Ceredigion, Wales. first bishop of Braga and Saint Paternus of Avranches in Normandy appear to be the same person. Padarn built a monastery in Vannes and is considered one of the seven founding saints of Brittany. Padarn's early vita is one of five insular and two Breton saints' lives that mention King Arthur independently of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.[3] Vita Sancti Paterni, a major source for biographical details of Padarn, may be an epitome of a previous and more extensive source. According to the Vita Sancti Paterni, Padarn is Armorican by race, born to "Petran, his father, and Guean, his mother".[1] His parents "dedicated themselves to Christ" and Petran left Letavia (modern Brittany) for Ireland. Thomas Wakeman names Padarn a nephew of Hoel of Cornouaille.[4] However, Canon G. H. Doble believes Padarn was likely Welsh, and was later confused with Breton saints of the same name.[5] the year 524 Padarn traveled to join his father in Ireland. He joined a fellowship of monks led by his cousin, St. Cadvan, who were travelling to Britannia. At this time, as in many saints' lives of the era, there appears to be an aristocratic military function in Padarn's career, for among the travellers were Padarn's cousins, who appointed him as the fourth leader of the troop, saying "you should rule over people for example of life".[4] 1878 stained glass window of St. Paternus at the Cathedral of Vannes in Morbihan. became a student at Illtud's school, Cor Tewdws.[4] Padarn later founded a monastery at Llanbadarn Fawr, near Aberystwyth, which became the seat of a new diocese, with him as its first bishop.[1] He then left it in the charge of a trusted steward and proceeded to Ireland. Padarn's spiritual countenance was sufficient to calm the armies of kings of two provinces.[6] Padarn returned to Llanbadarn Fawr, Maelgwn Gwynedd tried to cheat him out of property belonging to the monastery. Two of Maelgwn's evil heralds were undone by the trial by ordeal of boiling water; scalded and defeated, "Their souls in raven-forms fly to the riverbed, which unto this day by the name of one of them is called, to wit, Graban."[7] Maelgwn Gwynedd himself is first cursed and then cured of his sickness and blindness when he comes on bended knee to ask forgiveness, and to bestow lands on Padarn's community, which are laid out with the exactitude of a deed: "a quantity of land, that is, from the mouth of the river Rheidiol upwards until it touches at its head the limit of the river Clarach; and along the length of the same river as far as the sea is the limit prolonged."[8] the Vita Sancti Paterni Padarn travels on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem with Saint David and Saint Teilo for all three to be ordained bishops by the patriarch. Along the way they acquired the gift of tongues so that whomever they spoke to understood them in his own language.[6] The patriarch gave Paternus two gifts, a crozier and a finely woven tunic. On their return, they amicably divided Britannia into three bishoprics.[9] finally returned to Letavia, where his fame filled the region and "made peace" with the bishop Samson in Vannes, where Padarn his built a monastery and subsequently made a peace with the six bishops of Armorica, of which he now made a seventh. and Arthur[edit] sketch from Little Pictorial Lives of the Saints, by Benzinger Brothers. the most celebrated episode, King Arthur tries to steal Padarn's tunic and subsequently becomes Christian. It's too late to be reliable. But the episode was probably meant to increase Padarn's prestige and credibility as a saint by being granted credit for "Christianizing" the semi-historical leader who allegedly defeated the Anglo-Saxons with the help of Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary in the battle of Mount Badon according to the 9th century ad monk Nennius. The author also seemed to confuse this Padarn with Padarn Redcoat whose coat was one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain;[6] Padarn was in his church resting after so much labour at sea, a certain tyrant, Arthur by name, was traversing the regions on either side, who one day came to the cell of saint Padarn the bishop. And while he was addressing Padarn, he looked at the tunic, which he, being pierced with the zeal of avarice, sought for his own. The saint answering said, "This tunic is not fitting for the habit of any malign person, but for the habit of the clerical office." He went out of the monastery in a rage. And again he returns in wrath, that he might take away the tunic against the counsels of his own companions. One of the disciples of Padarn seeing him returning in fury, ran to saint Padarn and said, "The tyrant, who went out from here before, is returning. Reviling, stamping, he levels the ground with his feet". Padarn answers "Nay rather, may the earth swallow him." With the word straightway the earth opens the hollow of its depth, and swallows Arthur up to his chin. He immediately acknowledging his guilt begins to praise both God and Padarn, until, while he begs forgiveness, the earth delivered him up. From that place on bent knees he begged the saint for indulgence, whom the saint forgave. And he took Padarn as his continual patron, and so departed.[10] of Avranches[edit] British Padarn appears to be the same person as Saint Paternus of Avranches in Normandy. By tradition, it is said that he was born in Poitiers, became a monk at the Abbey of Saint-Jouin de Marnes [fr] in France, and retreated with his fellow monk, Saint Scubilion, to the forest of Scissy [fr] in the diocese of Coutances before the Bishop of Coutances made him a priest in 512.[11] day: April 16 [12] Three days were kept to honor Padern in Armorica; the Armoricans celebrate three solemnities of his, namely, that day of the Kalends of November, when he formed perpetual unity with the six chief saints of Letia, the day of his obit, and the day he received the order of the episcopate, the twelfth before the Kalends of the month of July. well as the church at Llanbadarn Fawr, there is a second church dedicated to him, in Llanberis in Gwynedd. Padarn’s Institute, located at St Michael’s Conference Centre, Llandaff, handles training for ministry in the Church in Wales.[13]

England, Wales, River Taff Folder, Cardiff, South Wal

River Taff

England, Wales, River Taff Mouth, Cardiff, Swansea Folder

Swansea, South Wales
Swansea, South Wales; DAVID (DEWI) OF WALES, (1 MAR 544) ;

England, Wales, River Dee Folder, North WAL

England, Wales, River Conwy Folder, Banghor, Northwest WAL

River Conwy

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, Southwest ENG (Clean)

Cornwall Penninsula, England
Cornwall Peninsula; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA, Commemorated August 1 ; St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated September 19 ; THEODORE OF TARSUS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (19 SEP 690); St Brannock of Braunton, Commemorated January 7 ; St Elian, Missionary to Cornwall, England, Commemorated January 13 ; St Brihtwald of Wilton, Commemorated January 22 ; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, Commemorated May 22; AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605); BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754); Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

South West England (Cornwall)
South West England; JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA, (1 AUGUST NT) ; WULFSTAN OF WORCESTER, Commemorated January 19 ; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ; St John-Vladimir the Prince of Bulgaria, the Greatmartyr and Miracle-worker, Commemorated on May 22;

England, Cornwall, Glastonbury and Wells Folder, Northeast

Glastonbury, Somerset (SW England, Cornwall)
Glastonbury; JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA, (1 AUGUST NT) ; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ; St Brihtwald of Wilton, Commemorated January 22 ;

Wells, Cornwall (three wells at this location), SW England
Wells; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA, (1 AUGUST NT) ; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ;

England, Cornwall, Bristol Bay Folder, Northern

Combe Martin, Cornwall (Bristol Channel)
Combe Martin, Bristol Channel; Martyr Nectan of Hartland, Commemorated on June 17;

Braunton, Cornwall, Bristol Bay
Braunton; St Brannock of Braunton, Commemorated January 7 ;

England, Cornwall, Exe River Folder, Central

Exe River

England, Cornwall, Creedy River Folder, Devonshire, Central and Western

Creedy River

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, Southeast ENG (Clean)

Kent, Southeast ENG, including Canterbury
Kent; JOHN MASON NEALE, PRIEST, SCHOLAR, AND TRANSLATOR (7 AUGUST 1866); CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated on September 19; REMIGIUS OF RHEIMS, BISHOP, APOSTLE OF THE FRANKS (1 OCTOBER 530) ; St Eanswythe the Abbess of Folkestone; St James the Deacon, Commemorated October 18 ; EDMUND OF EAST ANGLIA, KING AND MARTYR (20 NOV 870); THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, Commemorated May 22; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605) ; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, Canterbury and Kent, Stour River Folder

Stour River - Upper Great Stour

Stour River - East Stour River

Stour River - Little Stour River

Stour River - Lower Great Stour River

Canterbury, Kent, England (crossroads of 4 Roman roads, Stour River 5)
Canterbury (crossraods of 4 Roman roads); WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); JOHN MASON NEALE, PRIEST, SCHOLAR, AND TRANSLATOR (7 AUGUST 1866); AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); CUTHBERT OF LINDISFARNE, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (20 MAR 687) (now 31 AUG); St Theodore of Tarsus the Archbishop of Canterbury, Commemorated on September 19 ; THEODORE OF TARSUS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (19 SEP 690); REMIGIUS OF RHEIMS, BISHOP, APOSTLE OF THE FRANKS (1 OCTOBER 530) ; GEORGE BELL BISHOP OF CHICHESTER, AND ECUMENIST, 3 October 1958 ; WILLIAM TEMPLE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (6 NOV. 1944) ; THOMAS OF CANTERBURY, Commemorated December 29 ; JANANI LUWUM, ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA, MARTYR (16 FEB 1977); RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253); WILLIAM LAUD, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (10 JANUARY 1645) ; St Felix of Burgundy the Bishop of Dunwich and Enlightener of East Anglia, Commemorated on March 8; GREGORY THE GREAT, BISHOP AND DOCTOR (12 MAR 604) ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ; RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253); Alphege, Archbishop of Canterbury, Martyr, 19 April 1012, ; ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); ANSELM OF CANTERBURY, Monk, Archbishop, Theologian, 21 April 1109 ; ROBERT HUNT, PRIEST & FIRST CHAPLAIN AT JAMESTOWN, 1608, Commemorated April 26 ; Martyr Pancratius, Commemorated on May 12; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, Commemorated May 22; AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605) ; St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, Canterbury and Kent, Medway River Folder

River Medway

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, South Saxons, Sussex (Clean)

River Levant

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, West Saxons, Wessex (Clean)

Wessex (Bordered by Dee, Severn and Thames Rivers)
Kingdom of the West Saxons; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30 ; JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA, (1 AUGUST NT) ; CATHERINE WINKWORTH, Poet, Commemorated August 7 ; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated October 12 ; ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899); EDMUND OF EAST ANGLIA, KING AND MARTYR (20 NOV 870); WILLIAM BYRD of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; GEORGE HERBERT, PRIEST AND POET (27 FEBRUARY 1633); THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866); RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253); ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

West Saxons (Wessex)
Kingdom of the West Saxons; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30 ; JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA, (1 AUGUST NT) ; CATHERINE WINKWORTH, Poet, Commemorated August 7 ; St Edwin, King and Martyr, Commemorated October 12 ; ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899); EDMUND OF EAST ANGLIA, KING AND MARTYR (20 NOV 870); WILLIAM BYRD of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; GEORGE HERBERT, PRIEST AND POET (27 FEBRUARY 1633); THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866); RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253); ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, West Saxons, Wessex, Hamshire Folder, East Central

Anton River

Andover, Hampshire, Wessex (Anton River Source)
Andover, Hampshire; ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012);

Test River

Nursling, Wessex (Test River Valley)
Nursling; BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754);

River Itchen

Hampshire County, Wessex
Hampshire County; BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754);

Old Minster, Winchester
Old Minster, Winchester; ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899) ;

Winchester, Wessex (Itchen River 1)
Winchester City, county seat of Hampshire County, The city lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a local government district, and is located at the western end of the South Downs, along the course of the River Itchen.; LANCELOT ANDREWES, BISHOP AND SCHOLAR (26 SEPT 1626) ; JOHN MERBECKE of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ;

Winchester Cathedral, Hampshire, Wessex, 1079
Winchester Cathedral; ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899) ; JOHN MERBECKE of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; WILLIAM BYRD of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754);

Hursley near Winchester
Hursley near Winchester ; JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866);

Isle of Wight, Wessex
Isle of Wight; RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253); ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); BONIFACE, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, MARTYR (5 JUNE 754);

England, West Saxons, Wessex, Avon River Folder, Northwest

Avon River

Bath, Wessex (hot springs, Avon River 11) 60
Bath, Somerset; WILLIAM WHITE, BISHOP OF PENNSYLVANIA (17 JULY 1836); THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ; ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012);

England, West Saxons, Wessex, Avon River 4, Tetbury Avon Folder

Tetbury Avon River

England, West Saxons, Wessex, Avon River 5, Marden River Folder

Marden River

England, West Saxons, Wessex, Avon River 8, Frome River Folder

Frome River

England, West Saxons, Wessex, Dorset Stour River Folder, Southwest

Dorset Stour River

England, West Saxons, Wessex, Salisbury Area Folder, West Central

England, Roman Roads and Rivers, East Saxons, London (Clean)

London, Essex, England
London; CATHERINE WINKWORTH POET, 7 August 1878; JOHN MASON NEALE, PRIEST, SCHOLAR, AND TRANSLATOR (7 AUGUST 1866); FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE, NURSE, RENEWER OF SOCIETY (12 AUGUST 1910); JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL; CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); JOHN COLERIDGE PATTESON; WILLIAM TEMPLE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (6 NOV. 1944); JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911), Commemorated November 8 ; THOMAS TALLIS of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; WILLIAM BYRD of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26 ; RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; WILLIAM LAUD, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (10 JANUARY 1645) ; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, Commemorated January 16 ; Martyr Aule, Commemorated February 7; CHARLES FREER ANDREWS, PRIEST AND "ÂœFRIEND OF THE POOR"Â IN INDIA, 1940, Commemorated February 12; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); JANANI LUWUM, ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA, MARTYR (16 FEB 1977); JOHN HENRY NEWMAN, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN, 1890, Commemorated February 21 ; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22 ; JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); William W. Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6 ; GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy the Bishop of Britain, Commemorated on March 16; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ; OSCAR ROMERO, ARCHBISHOP OF SAN SALVADOR, AND THE MARTYRS OF EL SALVADOR, (24 March 1980); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631); FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872) ; RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896), Commemorated April 8; WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761; GEORGE AUGUSTUS SELWYN, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (11 APR 1878); ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 22 ; GEORGE, SOLDIER and MARTYR, 23 APRIL 303, Commemorated April 23; WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Playwright, 23 April, 1616; CHRISTINA ROSSETTI, POET, 1894, Commemorated April 27 ; EARLY ABBOTS of CLUNY, 30 April 909 ; NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ; Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, Commemorated May 22; JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 1690; AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605); St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ; GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, APOLOGIST and WRITER, 1936, Commemorated June 12 ; EVELYN UNDERHILL, THEOLOGIAN AND MYSTIC (15 JUNE 1941); JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOP and THEOLOGIAN (1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, East Saxons, London, Thames River Folder

Thames River

England, East Saxons, London Airport Area, Essex Folder

Essex County (London Airport, East Anglia)
Essex County;

Barking Monastery (Abbey), East London
Barking Monastery (Abbey);

Bradwell-On-Sea, Essex, Fort & Monastery, M estab by Cedd 653 for Exxex evangelisation
Saint Cedd of Lastingham, Commemorated on January 7

London Stansted Airport

Heathrow Airport

London Southend Airport

Leigh-on-Sea, Essex (First London Elim Church, Thames River Mouth)
Leigh-on-Sea, Essex;

London Luton Airport

London City Airport

Waltham Abbey, 610
Waltham Abbey Church;

Ingatestone, Essex
Ingatestone, Essex; William Byrd of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21;

England, East Saxons, London, Thames River 1, Oxford Folder

Oxford (Thames River 1, upstream from London)
Oxford;

Oxford University, 1096
Oxford University;

England, East Saxons, London, Thames River 2, River Kennet Folder

River Kennet

River Kennet 2

England, East Saxons, London, Thames River 4, River Colne Folder, Hertfordshire

Continental Divides - Herford Divide

River Colne

England, East Saxons, London, Thames River 4 , River Colne 2, Ver River Folder

River Ver

England, East Saxons, London, Thames River 5, London Area Folder

London, England (Thames River 5)
London; CATHERINE WINKWORTH POET, 7 August 1878; JOHN MASON NEALE, PRIEST, SCHOLAR, AND TRANSLATOR (7 AUGUST 1866); FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE, NURSE, RENEWER OF SOCIETY (12 AUGUST 1910); JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL; CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; AIDAN, MISSIONARY, ABBOT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE (31 AUGUST 651); EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, PRIEST, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (18 SEP 1882); JOHN COLERIDGE PATTESON; WILLIAM TEMPLE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (6 NOV. 1944); JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911), Commemorated November 8 ; THOMAS TALLIS of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; WILLIAM BYRD of WILLIAM BYRD, JOHN MERBECKE and THOMAS TALLIS, Musicians, 1623, 1585, 1585, Commemorated November 21 ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26 ; RICHARD BAXTER, PASTOR AND WRITER, 1691, Commemorated December 8 ; WILLIAM LAUD, ARCHBISHOP AND MARTYR (10 JANUARY 1645) ; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; RICHARD MEUX BENSON, RELIGIOUS, 1915, Commemorated January 16 ; Martyr Aule, Commemorated February 7; CHARLES FREER ANDREWS, PRIEST AND ÂœFRIEND OF THE POORIN INDIA, 1940, Commemorated February 12; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); JANANI LUWUM, ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA, MARTYR (16 FEB 1977); JOHN HENRY NEWMAN, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN, 1890, Commemorated February 21 ; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22 ; JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); William W. Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6 ; GEOFFREY ANKETELL STUDDERT KENNEDY, PRIEST, 1929, Commemorated March 8 ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy the Bishop of Britain, Commemorated on March 16; THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711) ; THOMAS CRANMER, BISHOP AND MARTYR (21 MARCH 1556) ; OSCAR ROMERO, ARCHBISHOP OF SAN SALVADOR, AND THE MARTYRS OF EL SALVADOR, (24 March 1980); JOHN DONNE, Priest, Poet, and Preacher (31 March 1631); FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE, Priest and Theologian (1 April 1872) ; RICHARD, Bishop of Chichester (3 April 1253); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896), Commemorated April 8; WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761; GEORGE AUGUSTUS SELWYN, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (11 APR 1878); ALPHEGE, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, MARTYR (19 APR 1012); Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 22 ; GEORGE, SOLDIER and MARTYR, 23 APRIL 303, Commemorated April 23; WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Playwright, 23 April, 1616; CHRISTINA ROSSETTI, POET, 1894, Commemorated April 27 ; EARLY ABBOTS of CLUNY, 30 April 909 ; NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ; DUNSTAN OF CANTERBURY, MONK AND ARCHBISHOP (19 MAY 988) ; Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21; THE FIRST BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, Commemorated May 22; JOHN ELIOT, MISSIONARY TO THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 21 MAY 1690; AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605); St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ; GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, APOLOGIST and WRITER, 1936, Commemorated June 12 ; EVELYN UNDERHILL, THEOLOGIAN AND MYSTIC (15 JUNE 1941); JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOP and THEOLOGIAN (1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

Westminster Abby, West London, 960
Westminster Abby Canons of Westminster Abby; Henry Purcell of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695, Commemorated July 28 ; CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ; OSCAR ROMERO, ARCHBISHOP OF SAN SALVADOR, AND THE MARTYRS OF EL SALVADOR, (24 March 1980);

Brixton district, South London
Brixton district, London; WILSON CARLILE PRIEST, FOUNDER OF THE CHURCH ARMY, 26 September 1942 ;

St Mary Abbots Church, High Street, Kensington, 1262
St Mary Abbots Church, High Street, Kensington; WILSON CARLILE, PRIEST, FOUNDER OF THE CHURCH ARMY, 26 September 1942 ;

Church Army International
Church Army International Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea WILSON CARLILE, PRIEST, FOUNDER OF THE CHURCH ARMY, 26 September 1942 ;

Kensington Borough, West London
Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea WILSON CARLILE, PRIEST, FOUNDER OF THE CHURCH ARMY, 26 September 1942 ;

Lambeth Palace Library in London
Lambeth Palace; Lambeth Palace Library in London ; THOMAS TRAHERNE, PRIEST AND POET, 27 Sept. 1674;

England - Great Britain
Great Britain; The Island of Great Britain; Britons (historical); GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelist, 1770; St Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5 ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy the Bishop of Britain, Commemorated on March 16; Apostle Simon Zealotes, Commemorated on May 10; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; INDEPENDENCE DAY, (United States of America) (4 JULY 1776);

Britain, England - Great Britain
Great Britain; The Island of Great Britain; Britons (historical); GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelist, 1770; St Oswald, king and martyr, Commemorated on August 5 ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy the Bishop of Britain, Commemorated on March 16; Apostle Simon Zealotes, Commemorated on May 10; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; INDEPENDENCE DAY, (United States of America) (4 JULY 1776);

England - United Kingdom
United Kingdom; WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

England - British Empire
British Empire; CHARLES FREER ANDREWS, PRIEST AND œFRIEND OF THE POOR IN INDIA, 1940, Commemorated February 12; CHARLES SIMEON;

England - Land of the Anglo-Saxons (Southeast Britain)
Anglo-Saxons, were Germans who setteled in Southeast Britain. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY, BISHOP AND MISSIONARY (26 MAY 605); St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 26 ;

England - Britain
Britain; Roman Britain; ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST SAXONS (26 OCT 899) ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Commemorated October 31 ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy, Commemorated on October 31; HILDA OF WHITBY, ABBESS AND PEACEMAKER (18 NOV 680); Apostle Simon Zealotes, Commemorated on May 10 ; BEDE THE VENERABLE, PRIEST, MONK, SCHOLAR (25 MAY 735); St Augustine of Canterbury, Evangelizer of England, Commemorated on May 26; BERTHA and ETHELBERT, QUEEN & KING OF KENT, 616, Commemorated May 27 ; Venerable Bede, the Church Historian, Commemorated on May 27 ; ALBAN, FIRST MARTYR OF BRITAIN (22 JUNE 304); St Alban the Protomartyr of Britain, Commemorated on June 22; St Germanus the Bishop of Auxerre, Commemorated on July 31;

England - Britain of the Middle Ages
Britain of the Middle Ages; DAVID (DEWI) OF WALES, (1 MAR 544) ; Apostle Aristobulus of the Seventy the Bishop of Britain, Commemorated on March 16; St Cuthbert, wonderworker of Britain, Commemorated on March 20;

England - Roman Britain (England)
Roman Britain; Equal of the Apostles and Emperor Constantine with his Mother Helen, Commemorated on May 21;

England - British Isles
British Isles; ALBAN, FIRST MARTYR OF BRITAIN (22 JUNE 304);