Hungary, Transylvania Folder.kmz

Hungary, Transylvania Folder

Transylvania (Hungro-Wallacia)
Transylvania; Transylvania Proper; Athanaric's "own country"; Greatmartyr Nicetas the Goth, Commemorated on September 15 ; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania ; St John of Galesh; St Maximus the New, Commemorated January 18 ; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica (Dobrogea), Commemorated on February 28 ; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂœElets-ChernigovÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ; Commemorated on February 5; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24; Martyr John the Wallachian of Romania, Commemorated on May 12; St Anthimus, Bishop of Georgia, Commemorated on June 13; Martyr Aristocles the Presbyter of Cyprus, Commemorated on June 20; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; St Gelasius of Rimet, Commemorated on June 30;

Transylvania (over and between the mountains, Tisa River drainage Hungary, now Romania)
Transylvania; Ardeal; Martyr John the Wallachian of Romania, Commemorated on May 12; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; Martyr John the Wallachian of Romania, Commemorated on May 12; St Anthimus, Bishop of Georgia, Commemorated on June 13; Martyr Aristocles the Presbyter of Cyprus, Commemorated on June 20; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; St Gelasius of Rimet, Commemorated on June 30;

Ardeal (Transylvania) (between the mountains)
Ardeal, Transylvania (between the mountains); St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ; St Iorest Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Galesh (Galesti), Mures, Transylvania, Hungary (between Mures River 1 and Tarnava Mica River 1)
Galesh (Galesti), Mures, Transylvania, Romania; is a commune in Mures County, Transylvania, Romania composed of seven villages: Adrianu Mare / Nagyadorján Adrianu Mic / Kisadorján Bedeni / Bede Gălești Maiad / Nyomát Sânvăsii / Nyárádszentlászló (established 2004) Troița / Szentháromság commune has an absolute Székely Hungarian majority. According to the 2002 Census it has a population of 2,940 of which 93.61% or 2,752 are Hungarian.[citation needed] Saint John of Galesh, Commemorated on October 21; John of Galesh was a priest who was consecrated bishop at Bucharest, since there was no bishop for Transylvania. resisted the plans of the Hapsburg authorities to persuade Orthodox Christians to convert to Catholicism. was arrested and thrown into prison at Sibiu in 1756, then Empress Maria Theresa ordered him confined in the prison of Deva Castle until he died. John was transferred to a prison in Graz, Austria at the end of 1757. Later, he was brought to the notorious Kufstein Prison, where many Orthodox from Transylvania ended their lives. 1780, Gennady Vassie, a Serb who was incarcerated there, was able to send a letter to Empress Catherine II of Russia asking her to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox prisoners. In his letter he mentioned a Romanian priest named John, who had been kept there for twenty-four years because of his Orthodox faith. John of Galesh died in prison, and was glorified as a martyr by the Orthodox Church of Romania in 1992.

Dacia (Transylvania and Moldovia)
Dacia; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica, Commemorated on February 28; St Germanus of Dacia Pontica (Dobrogea), Commemorated on February 28; Venerable John Cassian the Roman, Commemorated on February 28; St Theotimus the Bishop of Lesser Scythia, Commemorated on April 20; Martyrs of Niculitsel, Commemorated on June 4;

Maramures depression 1 (Kurst, Ukraine)
Maramures; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24;

Maramures depression 2 (Prislop Pass, Romania)
Maramures; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24;

Hungro-Wallachia (Transylvania)
Hungro-Wallachia (Transylvania) all these transylvanian waters end up in today's Hungary). Transylvania Proper; Repose of St. Anthimus, Bishop of Georgia, Commemorated on September 14; St Joseph the New of Partos the Metropolitan of Timishoara (Romania), Commemorated on September 15; St Maximus the New, Commemorated January 18 ; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24; St Anthimus, Bishop of Georgia, Commemorated on June 13 ;

Carpathians - Southern Carpathians, between Transylvania and Romania
Southern Carpathians;

Hungary, Transylvania History Folder

Hungary, Transylvania, 1500-1699, Protestant

Hungary, Transylvania, 1500-1546, German Clergyman and Scholar, Martin Luther
German Clergyman and Scholar, 1500-1546, Martin Luther; OLAVUS PETRI, Priest 19 April 1552, Laurentius Petri, Archbishop of Uppsala 1573, Commemorated April 19 ; JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1517, Ninety Five Theses, Martin Luther, Protestant
Germany, 1517, Ninety Five Theses, Martin Luther, Protestant; Germany, 1503-1546, Martin Luther, Protestant ; Wittenberg, Germany ; Lutherhaus; MARTIN LUTHER, EDUCATOR, TRANSLATOR (18 FEB 1546); JAN HUS, PRIEST and MARTYR, 6 July 1415;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1526, Battle of Mohacs, Turks over Hungary, Turks take Transylvania
Hungary, 1526, Battle of Mohacs, Turks over Hungary, Turks take Transylvania;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1533-1601, Lithuanian and Polish King, Stephen Bathory, Transylvania, Alba
Polish King, 1533-1586, Stephen Bathory, Prince of Transylvania, Alba, King of Poland, Grand Duke Lithuania ; Báthory (Hungarian: Báthory István; Polish: Stefan Batory; Lithuanian: About this soundSteponas Batoras; 27 September 1533 – 12 December 1586) was Voivode of Transylvania (1571–1576), Prince of Transylvania (1576–1586), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1576–1586). son of Stephen VIII Báthory and a member of the Hungarian Báthory noble family, Báthory was a ruler of Transylvania in the 1570s, defeating another challenger for that title, Gáspár Bekes. 1576 Báthory became the husband of Queen Anna Jagiellon and the third elected king of Poland. He worked closely with chancellor Jan Zamoyski. The first years of his reign were focused on establishing power, defeating a fellow claimant to the throne, Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, and quelling rebellions, most notably, the Danzig rebellion. reigned only a decade, but is considered one of the most successful kings in Polish history, particularly in the realm of military history. signal achievement was his victorious campaign in Livonia against Russia in the middle part of his reign, in which he repulsed a Russian invasion of Commonwealth borderlands and secured a highly favorable treaty of peace (the Peace of Jam Zapolski). 1 Youth 2 Elected king 3 Establishing power 4 Policies 5 War with Muscovy 6 Final years 7 Remembrance 8 Notes 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Báthory was born on 27 September 1533 in the castle at Somlyó, also known as Szilágysomlyó (today's È˜imleu Silvaniei).[1] He was the son of Stephen VIII Báthory (d. 1534) of the noble Hungarian Báthory family and his wife Catherine Telegdi.[1] He had at least five siblings: two brothers and three sisters.[1] is known about his childhood. Around 1549–1550, he briefly visited Italy and probably spent a few months attending lectures at the Padua University.[1] Upon his return, he joined the army of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, and took part in his military struggle against the Turks. Some time after 1553, Báthory was captured by the Turks, and after Ferdinand I refused to pay his ransom, joined the opposing side, supporting John II Sigismund Zápolya in his struggle for power in the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom.[1] Zápolya's supporter, Báthory acted both as a feudal lord, military commander and a diplomat.[1][2] During one of his trips to Vienna he was put under house arrest for two years.[2] During this time he fell out of favor at Zápolya's court, and his position was largely assumed by another Hungarian noble, Gáspár Bekes.[2] Báthory briefly retired from politics, but he still wielded considerable influence and was seen as a possible successor to Zápolya.[2] Zápolya's death in 1571, the Transylvanian estates elected Báthory Voivode of Transylvania.[2] Bekes, supported by the Habsburgs, disputed his election, but by 1573, Báthory emerged victorious in the resulting civil war and drove Bekes out of Transylvania.[2] He subsequently attempted to play the Ottomans and the Holy Roman Empire against one another in an attempt to strengthen the Transylvania position.[3] king[edit] Mannerist crown from about 1584, most probably created for him in GdaÅ„sk after Willem van den Blocke's design[4] 1572, the throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, at the time the largest and one of the most populous states in Europe, was vacated when King Sigismund II Augustus died without heirs.[3] The Sejm was given the power to elect a new king, and in the 1573 Polish–Lithuanian royal election chose Henry of France; Henry soon ascended the French throne and forfeited the Polish one by returning to France.[3] Báthory decided to enter into the election; in the meantime he had to defeat another attempt by Bekes to challenge his authority in Transylvania, which he did by defeating Bekes at the Battle of Kerelőszentpál.[3] 12 December 1575, after an interregnum of roughly one and a half years, primate of Poland Jakub UchaÅ„ski, representing a pro-Habsburg faction, declared Emperor Maximilian II as the new monarch.[3] However, chancellor Jan Zamoyski and other opponents of Habsburgs persuaded many of the lesser nobility to demand a "Piast king", a Polish king.[3][5][6] After a heated discussion, it was decided that Anna Jagiellon, sister of the former King Sigismund II Augustus, should be elected king and marry Stephen Báthory.[7] In January 1576 Báthory passed the mantle of voivode of Transylvania to his brother Christopher Báthory and departed for Poland.[7] On 1 May 1576 Báthory married Anna and was crowned king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania.[7] After being chosen as king in the 1576 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Báthory also began using the title of the prince of Transylvania.[2] Establishing power[edit] of King and Grand Duke Stephen Báthory, circa 1576–1586 áthory's position was at first extremely difficult, as there was still some opposition to his election. Emperor Maximilian, insisting on his earlier election, fostered internal opposition and prepared to enforce his claim by military action.[8] At first the representatives of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania refused to recognize Báthory as grand duke, and demanded concessions - that he return the estates of his wife Anne to the Lithuanian treasury, hold Sejm conventions in both Lithuania and Poland, and reserve the highest governmental official offices in Lithuania for Lithuanians. He accepted the conditions.[9] In June Báthory was recognized as Grand Duke of Lithuania.[a][7][8] Lithuania secure, the other major region refusing to recognize his election was Prussia.[8] Maximilian's sudden death improved Báthory's situation, but the city of Danzig (GdaÅ„sk) still refused to recognize his election without significant concessions.[8] The Hanseatic League city, bolstered by its immense wealth, fortifications, and the secret support of Maximilian, had supported the Emperor's election and decided not to recognize Báthory as legitimate ruler. resulting conflict was known as the Danzig rebellion. Most armed opposition collapsed when the prolonged Siege of Danzig by Báthory's forces was lifted as an agreement was reached.[8][10] The Danzig army was utterly defeated in a field battle on 17 April 1577.[11] However, since Báthory's armies were unable to take the city by force, a compromise was reached.[11][12] exchange for some of Danzig's demands being favorably reviewed, the city recognised Báthory as ruler of Poland and paid the sum of 200,000 zlotys in gold as compensation.[10][12] Tying up administration of the Commonwealth's northern provinces, in February 1578 he acknowledged George Frederick as the ruler of Duchy of Prussia, receiving his feudal tribute.[10] Stephen in Ottoman clothes, 1585 securing control over the Commonwealth, Báthory had a chance to devote himself to strengthening his authority, in which he was supported by his chancellor Jan Zamoyski, who would soon become one of the king's most trusted advisers.[6][12] Báthory reorganised the judiciary by formation of legal tribunals (the Crown Tribunal in 1578 and the Lithuanian Tribunal in 1581).[13] While this somewhat weakened the royal position, it was of little concern to Báthory, as the loss of power was not significant in the short term, and he was more concerned with the hereditary Hungarian throne.[10][13] In exchange, the Sejm allowed him to raise taxes and push a number of reforms strengthening the military, including the establishment of the piechota wybraniecka, an infantry formation composed of peasants.[10] Many of his projects aimed to modernize the Commonwealth army, reforming it in a model of Hungarian troops of Transylvania.[14] He also founded the Academy of Vilnius, the third university in the Commonwealth, transforming what had been a Jesuit college into a major university.[15] He founded several other Jesuit colleges, and was active in propagating Catholicism, while at the same time being respectful of the Commonwealth policy of religious tolerance, issuing a number of decrees offering protection to Polish Jews, and denouncing any religious violence.[14] external relations, Báthory sought peace through strong alliances. Though remaining distrustful of the Habsburgs, he maintained the tradition of good relations that the Commonwealth enjoyed with its Western neighbor and confirmed past treaties between the Commonwealth and Holy Roman Empire with diplomatic missions received by Maximilian's successor, Rudolf II.[16] The troublesome south-eastern border with the Ottoman Empire was temporarily quelled by truces signed in July 1577 and April 1579.[16] The Sejm of January 1578 gathered in Warsaw was persuaded to grant Báthory subsidies for the inevitable war against Muscovy.[10] number of his trusted advisers were Hungarian, and he remained interested in Hungarian politics.[14] Báthory wished to recreate his native country into an independent, strong power, but the unfavorable international situation did not allow him significantly to advance any of his plans in that area.[17] In addition to Hungarian, he was well versed in Latin, and spoke Italian and German; he never learned the Polish language.[14] his personal life, he was described as rather frugal in his personal expenditures, with hunting and reading as his favorite pastimes.[14] with Muscovy[edit] coin with likeness of Báthory Báthory's election to the throne of the Commonwealth, Ivan the Terrible of Russia had begun encroaching on its sphere of interest in the northeast, eventually invading the Commonwealth borderlands in Livonia; the conflict would grow to involve a number of nearby powers (outside Russia and Poland-Lithuania, also Sweden, the Kingdom of Livonia and Denmark-Norway). Each of them was vying for control of Livonia, and the resulting conflict, lasting for several years, became known as the Livonian War.[18] By 1577, Ivan was in control of most of the disputed territory, but his conquest was short-lived.[18] In 1578, Commonwealth forces scored a number of victories in Liviona and begun pushing Ivan's forces back; this marked the turning point in the war.[16] Báthory, together with his chancellor Zamoyski, led the army of the Commonwealth in a series of decisive campaigns taking Polotsk in 1579 and Velikiye Luki in 1580.[16] 1581, Stephen penetrated once again into Russia and, on 22 August, laid siege to the city of Pskov. While the city held, on 13 December 1581 Ivan the Terrible began negotiations that concluded with the Truce of Jam Zapolski on 15 January 1582.[19] The treaty was favorable to the Commonwealth, as Ivan ceded Polatsk, Veliz and most of the Duchy of Livonia in exchange for regaining Velikiye Luki and Nevel.[19] years[edit] tomb monument in the Wawel Cathedral 1584, Báthory allowed Zamoyski to execute Samuel Zborowski, whose death sentence for treason and murder had been pending for roughly a decade.[13][20] This political conflict between Báthory and the Zborowski family, framed as the clash between the monarch and the nobility, would be a major recurring controversy in internal Polish politics for many years.[13][20] In external politics, Báthory was considering another war with Russia, but his plans were delayed to the lack of support from the Sejm, which refused to pass requested tax raises.[20] áthory's health had been declining for several years.[20] He died on 12 December 1586.[21] He had no legitimate children, though contemporary rumours suggested he might have had several illegitimate children. None of these rumours have been confirmed by modern historians.[21] His death was followed by an interregnum of one year. Maximilian II's son, Archduke Maximilian III, was elected king but was contested by the Swedish Sigismund III Vasa, who defeated Maximilian at the Byczyna and succeeded as ruler of the Commonwealth.[22] áthory actively promoted his own legend, sponsoring a number of works about his life and achievements, from historical treatises to poetry.[14] In his lifetime, he was featured in the works of Jan Kochanowski, MikoÅ‚aj SÄ™p SzarzyÅ„ski and many others.[14] He became a recurring character in Polish poetry and literature and featured as a central figure in poems, novels and drama by Jakub JasiÅ„ski, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Henryk Rzewuski and others.[23] He has been a subject of numerous paintings, both during his life and posthumously. Among the painters who took him as a subject were Jan Matejko and StanisÅ‚aw WyspiaÅ„ski.[23][24] statue of Báthory by Giovanni Ferrari was raised in 1789 in Padua, Italy, sponsored by the last king of the Commonwealth, StanisÅ‚aw August Poniatowski.[24] Other monuments to him include one in the Åazienki Palace (1795 by Andrzej Le Brun) and one in Sniatyn (1904, destroyed in 1939).[24] He was a patron of the Vilnius University (then known as the Stefan Batory University) and several units in the Polish Army from 1919 to 1939.[24] His name was borne by two 20th-century passenger ships of the Polish Merchant Navy, the MS Batory and TSS Stefan Batory.[24] In modern Poland, he is the namesake of the Batory Steelmill, a nongovernmental Stefan Batory Foundation, the Polish 9th Armored Cavalry Brigade, and numerous Polish streets and schools.[24] One of the districts of the town of Chorzów is named after him.[24] áthory at Pskov, by Jan Matejko after his death, he was not fondly remembered in the Commonwealth. Many nobles took his behavior in the Zborowski affair and his domestic policies as indicating an interest in curtailing the nobility's Golden Freedoms and establishing an absolute monarchy.[21] His contemporaries were also rankled by his favoritism toward Hungarians over nationals of the Commonwealth.[20] He was also remembered, more trivially, for his Hungarian-style cap and saber (szabla batorówka).[23] later resurgence in Polish memory and historiography can be traced to the 19th-century era of partitions of Poland, when the Polish state lost its independence.[23] He was remembered for his military triumphs and praised as an effective ruler by many, including John Baptist Albertrandi, Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie, MichaÅ‚ BobrzyÅ„ski, Józef Szujski and others.[23] Though some historians like Tadeusz Korzon, Joachim Lelewel and JÄ™drzej Moraczewski remained more reserved, in 1887, Wincenty Zakrzewski noted that Báthory is "the darling of both the Polish public opinion and Polish historians".[23] During the interwar period in the Second Polish Republic he was a cult figure, often compared - with the government's approval - to the contemporary dictator of Poland, Józef PiÅ‚sudski.[23] After the Second World War, in the communist People's Republic of Poland, he became more of a controversial figure, with historians more ready to question his internal politics and attachment to Hungary.[23] Nonetheless his good image remained intact, reinforced by the positive views of a popular Polish historian of that period, PaweÅ‚ Jasienica.[23] Icon of the Mother of God "Virgin of Tenderness" of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated August 26 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Pskov œthe ProtectionÂ, Commemorated on October 1; Icon of the Mother of God œTendernessÂ of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated on October 7 ; Blessed Nicholas (Salos) of Pskov the Fool-For-Christ, Commemorated on February 28; Icon of the Mother of God of Lubyatov, Commemorated on March 19 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5; Icon of the Mother of God œVirgin of TendernessÂ from the Pskov Caves, Commemorated on May 21; Icon of the Mother of God œTendernessÂ of the Pskov Caves, Commemorated on June 23; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1586-1601, Transylvanian, Wallacian Prince, Sigismund Bathory
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1586-1601, Sigismund Bathory; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Venerable Cyriacus of Tazlu, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on April 5;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1595, Battle of Cecora (1595), not 1620, Iasi or Jassy Moldovia, Hungarian Transylvania Pol-Lith over Ottoman Crimean Tartars
Poland, 1595, Battle of Cecora (1595); Battle of Cecora (also known as the Battle of Țuțora) took place on October 19–20, 1595, during an expedition of Jan Zamoyski, of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, to Moldavia, as part of the Moldavian Magnate Wars. Hetman Jan Zamoyski, painting by Jan Styka. Khan Gazi II Girej. early 1595 Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania, convinced Ștefan Răzvan, a commander of Hungarian mercenaries in the service of the then Hospodar Aaron the Tyrant to rebel. Ștefan captured Aaron and sent him to Transylvania, then proclaimed himself as the new Hospodar and a vassal of Sigismund. response the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed III, who had been Aaron's protector and sovereign, decided to put an end to the ongoing power struggles in Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania between various magnates. Wallachia was to receive a new Turkish sponsored ruler, Moldavia was to be simply incorporated into the Ottoman Empire as a province. Ottoman intervention aroused alarms in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which sought to reestablish its influence in the region, having lost sovereignty over Moldavia some hundred years earlier after the Battle of the Cosmin Forest. the summer of 1595 the crown army of the Kingdom of Poland, numbering around 5000 cavalry, 2300 infantry, and a few artillery pieces, led by the Crown Hetman Jan Zamoyski entered into the territory of the Principality of Moldavia and on the 27th of August took Chocim and shortly after, on September 3, the capital of the principality, Iași. then installed Ieremia Movilă, who was amicably disposed towards the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as Hospodar (Prince) of Moldavia.[1] Zamoyski's intent was to create a buffer zone of friendly states around the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, consisting of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia, in order to protect it from Ottoman Turkey. Ottomans reacted swiftly, although at the time Sultan Mehmed III was engaged in a war against Michael the Brave, the Prince of Wallachia. The Sultan sent the Crimean Tatars, under Khan Ğazı II Girej, supported by regular Ottoman troops, altogether numbering around 25,000 soldiers, to meet the Polish army. hearing that the Tatars were approaching, Zamoyski crossed the Prut river and on September 6 had his troops erect a fortified camp, which was protected on both flanks by the river. The front of the camp in turn was defended by a rampart studded with thirteen bastions. The rampart also possessed four sally ports which could be used for sorties. Khan's army arrived on the 18th of September. That day minor fighting took place among individual skirmishers, during which Prince Kirill Różyński wounded the khan's nephew with a bow. main fighting took place the following day when the khan's troops tried to storm the Polish camp. because the Tatars had few infantry the attempt was unsuccessful, and the attackers were constantly harried by Polish sallies issuing from the camp. After the struggle went no better for the Tartars on the 20th, Ğazı came to the conclusion that he did not have the means to take the camp and agreed to peace talks. October 21 a peace treaty was signed, according to which the Tatars recognized Movilă as Hospodar in Moldavia, and assented to Polish troops being permanently stationed in the Principality. Two days later the Tatar army began its withdrawal.

Hungary, Transylvania, 1601-1605, Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1601-1605, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor ; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Venerable Cyriacus of Tazlu, Romania, Commemorated on December 31;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1605-1606, Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, Stephen Bocskay, Calvinist
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1605-1606, Stephen Bocskay, Calvinist; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Venerable Cyriacus of Tazlu, Romania, Commemorated on December 31;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1607-1608, Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, Sigismund Rakoczi, Calvinist Protestant
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1607-1608, Sigismund Rakoczi, Calvinist Protestant; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Venerable Cyriacus of Tazlu, Romania, Commemorated on December 31;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1608-1613, Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, Gabriel Bathory, Protestant
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1608-1613, Gabriel Bathory, Protestant ; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Venerable Cyriacus of Tazlu, Romania, Commemorated on December 31;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1613-1629, Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, Gabriel Bethlen, Protestant
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1613-1629, Gabriel Bethlen, Protestant ; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Venerable Cyriacus of Tazlu, Romania, Commemorated on December 31;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1620, Battle of Cecora, not 1595, Iassi or Jiassi, Pol-Lith w Moldov V Ottomans w Nogali Tartars, Moldov switch sides
Moldovia, 1620, Battle of Cecora (1620) not 1595; Battle of Cecora (also known as the Battle of Țuțora) was a battle during the Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21) between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (aided by rebel Moldavian troops) and Ottoman forces (backed by Nogais),[3]:344 fought from 17 September to 7 October 1620 in Moldavia, near the Prut River.[5]:568 of the failure of Commonwealth diplomatic mission to Constantinople, and violations of the Treaty of Busza by both sides (as Cossacks and Tatars continued their raids across the borders), relations between the Ottomans and the Commonwealth rapidly deteriorated in early 1620. Both sides began preparing for war, as neither was quite ready for it at the time. The Ottomans declared war against Poland in 1620 and planned to attack in the spring of 1621.[3]:341 The Commonwealth Sejm denied most funds the hetmans had asked for. The Senate's secret council finally decided, convinced by the Habsburgs' representative, to contribute the Commonwealth forces in 1620—even though many members of the Sejm thought that Polish–Lithuanian forces were neither sufficient nor fully prepared. Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, who was by then over 70 years old (as Commonwealth policy didn't allow for a possibility of forced retirement from government offices such as that of hetman), foresaw the coming confrontation with the Ottoman Empire and decided to meet Ottoman troops on foreign soil, Moldavia being the obvious choice.[6] However, the sultan sent Iskender Pasha to Moldavia to remove Hospodar Gaspar Graziani, who had allied himself with Poland.[3]:341 Zółkiewski and Koniecpolski led the army to Țuțora (Cecora in Polish sources), a commune in Iaşi county, Romania), to fight the Horde of Khan Temir (Kantymir). The army numbered between 5,000[3]:342 to 9,000 (2,000 infantry but only about 1600 Cossack cavalry[3]:344), with many regiments being made up of the private forces of magnates Koreckis, Zasławskis, Kazanowskis, Kalinowskis and Potockis. The army entered Moldavia in September. The Moldavian ruler, hospodar Gaspar Graziani, nominally a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, decided to rebel and support the Commonwealth against the Ottomans. Graziani killed the janissaries in Iaşi, imprisoned envoys of Sultan Osman II (who had ordered his removal from power and his transport to Istanbul) and then prepared to flee, but was forced by Żółkiewski to attach his troops to the Polish–Lithuanian camp.[3]:344 However, many of the Moldavian boyars left the camp in order to defend their own estates against pillaging by undisciplined Commonwealth magnates' troops, others decided to wait and see what the outcome appeared to be so they could join the winning side, and others joined the Turks.[3]:344 Consequently, only about 600–1000 rebel Moldavian troops appeared in the Commonwealth camp. Żółkiewski ordered the army to proceed to the fortified camp (standing from previous wars) at Cecora. warriors of the Crimean Khanate during the Battle of Cecora (1620). 10 September, near Ţuţora (close to Iasi, Romania), the Commonwealth army encountered the Tatar and Ottoman forces, with Wallachian contingents (13,000–22,000) under the command of Iskender Pasha, the beylerbey of Ochakiv (Ozi). The Ottoman Sultan's force included Gabriel Bethlen's army.[3]:342 The Tatar forces surprised the Commonwealth defenders, taking many prisoners. During the first day of fighting (the 18th), most of the rebel Moldavians decided to switch sides and quickly attacked the Polish–Lithuanian flank. Mercenaries, private troops and their magnate leaders were lacking in discipline and morale. Stanisław Koniecpolski commanded the right flank of the Commonwealth forces during the ensuing battle. On 19 September it had become clear that the Polish–Lithuanian forces were defeated, although they still managed to hold their positions; Koniecpolski prevented the army from disintegrating on 20/21 September. On 29 September Commonwealth troops had broken through Ottoman ranks with tabor wagon trains and started their retreat. However, after Graziani bribed some magnates, units of private troops begun to flee and some mercenary cavalry panicked and also ran. This was a prelude of things to come. Consecutive attacks during the retreat (including a particularly violent one on 3 October) were repelled, but troop units started disintegrating as soon as soldiers caught sight of the Dniester and the Polish–Lithuanian border. another heavy assault on 6 October, most of the magnates and nobles broke and fled north,[3]:344 leaving infantry and camp, thus sealing the fate of the whole expedition: most of the Polish–Lithuanian troops were killed or captured. In the ensuing battle Żólkiewski died[7] and Koniecpolski[3]:344 and many others (Samuel Korecki, Mikolaj Struś, Mikołaj Potocki, Jan Żółkiewski, Łukasz Żołkiewski), Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki and Bohdan Khmelnytsky were taken captive. Before his death he received the blessing of his confessor, Father Szymon Wybierski (Wybierek) of the Society of Jesus, who stood by his side (7 October).[8] Żółkiewski's head was mounted on a pike and sent to the sultan; Duke Korecki, having often meddled in Moldavian territories, was executed in the Constantinople prison.[citation needed] the face of such an important victory, advised by grand vizier Ali Pasha and Gabriel Bethlen, Osman II decided that he could reinforce his rule or even extend it. Alexandru Iliaş was appointed as the ruler of Moldavia, the rebel Graziani having been killed during his flight on 29 September. between 1,000 and 1,500 of Commonwealth men survived the battles, while the Tatars moved into Podolia, Wołyń and eastern Lesser Poland.[3]:344 1621 an army of 200,000–250,000 Ottoman veterans, led by Osman II, advanced from Edirne towards the Polish frontier. The Ottomans, following their victory in the Battle of Cecora, had high hopes of conquering southern part of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Polish commander Jan Karol Chodkiewicz crossed the Dniester in September with approximately 35,000 Polish troops and Cossack supporters and entrenched himself at the Chocim Fortress, blocking the path of the slow Ottoman march. At Khotyn, for more than a month (2 September – 9 October), the Commonwealth hetman held the sultan at bay until the first autumn snow (Battle of Khotyn). The lateness of the season and the loss of approximately 40,000 men in battle compelled Osman II to initiate negotiations. A few days before the siege was to be lifted, the aged grand hetman died of exhaustion in the fortress (24 September). The battle was a stalemate and the resulting Treaty of Khotyn reflected it, providing some concessions to the Commonwealth but meeting some Ottoman demands. II blamed the stalemate of war on the lack of zeal and the "degeneracy" of the Janissaries. His efforts at modernizing the Ottoman army were not well received by the Janissaries and the conservative "learned" class. A revolt led by Janissaries and the students of the madrases erupted on 18 May 1622 and Osman II was deposed; two days later he was killed by the rebels who deposed him. Battle of Cecora is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription "CECORA 18 - 29 IX 1620".

Hungary, Transylvania, 1629-1648, Wallacian Prince, George I Rakoczi, Protestant
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1629-1648, George I Rakoczi, Protestant; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Venerable Cyriacus of Tazlu, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; St Iorest Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1648-1660, Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, George II Rakoczi, Protestant
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1648-1660, George II Rakoczi, Protestant; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; Venerable Cyriacus of Tazlu, Romania, Commemorated on December 31; St Iorest Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1661-1662,Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, John Kemeny, Protestant
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1661-1662, John Kemeny ; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1662-1690, Wallacian Prince, Michael I Apafi, Protestant
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1662-1690, Michael I Apafi; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1682-1690, Imre Thokoly, Prince of Transylvania (upper Hungary)
Imre Thokoly, Prince of Transylvania (upper Hungary), 1682-1690, Anti-Hapsburg; Battle of Zernest, Transylvania, Romania 1690; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1690-1699, Wallacian Prince, Michael II Apafi, Protestant
Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1690-1699, Michael II Apafi, Protestant; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive
Switzerland, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive; Rousseau; 28 June 1712 - 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the development of modern political, economic and educational thought.[1] Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. Rousseau's sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise (1761) was important to the development of preromanticism and romanticism in fiction.[2][3] His Emile, or On Education (1762) is an educational treatise on the place of the individual in society. Rousseau's autobiographical writings—the posthumously published Confessions (composed in 1769), which initiated the modern autobiography, and the unfinished Reveries of the Solitary Walker (composed 1776–1778)—exemplified the late-18th-century "Age of Sensibility", and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern writing. befriended fellow philosopher Denis Diderot in 1742, and would later write about Diderot's romantic troubles in his Confessions. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophers among members of the Jacobin Club. He was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, 16 years after his death. Absolved From Being Good-Mannered: The Romantic Totalitarianism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, May 20, 2021 ;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1700-1867, Catholic Austrian Rule

Hungary, Transylvania, 1699, Austrian Rule, Catholic
Transylvania, 1699, Austrian Rule; Transylvanian and Wallacian Prince, 1690-1699, Michael II Apafi; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1740-1780, Maria Theresa, history, S wars, S reform, laws, finance r, standing a, large govt, N tax
Hungary, 1740-1780, Emperess Maria Theresa; Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina (13 May 1717 - 29 November 1780) was the ruler of the Habsburg dominions from 1740 until her death in 1780, and the only woman to hold the position. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands, and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. Theresa started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died in October 1740. VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. He neglected the advice of Prince Eugene of Savoy, who believed that a strong military and a rich treasury were more important than mere signatures. Charles VI left behind a weakened and impoverished state, particularly due to the War of the Polish Succession and the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739). upon his death, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, and France all repudiated the sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. II of Prussia (who became Maria Theresa's greatest rival for most of her reign) promptly invaded and took the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia in the seven-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession. defiance of the grave situation, she managed to secure the vital support of the Hungarians for the war effort. During the course of the war, Maria Theresa successfully defended her rule over most of the Habsburg Monarchy, apart from the loss of Silesia and a few minor territories in Italy. Maria Theresa later unsuccessfully tried to recover Silesia during the Seven Years' War. she was expected to cede power to her husband, Emperor Francis I, and her eldest son, Emperor Joseph II, who were officially her co-rulers in Austria and Bohemia, Maria Theresa was the absolute sovereign who ruled with the counsel of her advisers. Theresa promulgated institutional, financial, medical and educational reforms, with the assistance of Wenzel Anton of Kaunitz-Rietberg, Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz and Gerard van Swieten. She also promoted commerce and the development of agriculture, and reorganised Austria's ramshackle military, all of which strengthened Austria's international standing. she despised the Jews and the Protestants, and on certain occasions she ordered their expulsion to remote parts of the realm. She also advocated for the state church and refused to allow religious pluralism. Consequently, her regime was criticized as intolerant by some contemporaries. and early life[edit] Painting of three-year-old Maria Theresa in the gardens of Hofburg Palace second and eldest surviving child of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Archduchess Maria Theresa was born on 13 May 1717 in Vienna, a year after the death of her elder brother, Archduke Leopold,[1] and was baptised on that same evening. dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg and grandmother Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, were her godmothers.[2] descriptions of her baptism stress that the infant was carried ahead of her cousins, Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, the daughters of Charles VI's elder brother and predecessor, Joseph I, before the eyes of their mother, Wilhelmine Amalia.[3] was clear that Maria Theresa would outrank them,[3] even though their grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, had his sons sign the Mutual Pact of Succession, which gave precedence to the daughters of the elder brother.[4] Her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a great disappointment to him and the people of Vienna; Charles never managed to overcome this feeling.[4] Theresa replaced Maria Josepha as heir presumptive to the Habsburg realms the moment she was born; Charles VI had issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had placed his nieces behind his own daughters in the line of succession.[5] sought the other European powers' approval for disinheriting his nieces. They exacted harsh terms: in the Treaty of Vienna (1731), Great Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction.[6] In total, Great Britain, France, Saxony, United Provinces, Spain, Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Sardinia, Bavaria and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire recognised the sanction.[7] France, Spain, Saxony, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged. Archduchess Maria Theresa, by Andreas Möller more than a year after her birth, Maria Theresa was joined by a sister, Maria Anna, and another one, named Maria Amalia, was born in 1724.[8] portraits of the imperial family show that Maria Theresa resembled Elisabeth Christine and Maria Anna.[9] The Prussian ambassador noted that she had large blue eyes, fair hair with a slight tinge of red, a wide mouth and a notably strong body.[10] many other members of the House of Habsburg, neither Maria Theresa's parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other.[a] Theresa was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery. She was barred from horse riding by her father, but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony. The imperial family staged opera productions, often conducted by Charles VI, in which she relished participating. Her education was overseen by Jesuits. Contemporaries thought her Latin to be quite good, but in all else, the Jesuits did not educate her well.[11] Her spelling and punctuation were unconventional and she lacked the formal manner and speech which had characterised her Habsburg predecessors.[b] Theresa developed a close relationship with Countess Marie Karoline von Fuchs-Mollard, who taught her etiquette. She was educated in drawing, painting, music and dancing – the disciplines which would have prepared her for the role of queen consort.[12] father allowed her to attend meetings of the council from the age of 14 but never discussed the affairs of state with her.[13] Even though he had spent the last decades of his life securing Maria Theresa's inheritance, Charles never prepared his daughter for her future role as sovereign.[14] question of Maria Theresa's marriage was raised early in her childhood. Leopold Clement of Lorraine was first considered to be the appropriate suitor, and he was supposed to visit Vienna and meet the Archduchess in 1723. These plans were forestalled by his death from smallpox.[15] Clement's younger brother, Francis Stephen, was invited to Vienna. Even though Francis Stephen was his favourite candidate for Maria Theresa's hand,[16] the Emperor considered other possibilities. Religious differences prevented him from arranging his daughter's marriage to the Protestant prince Frederick of Prussia.[17] In 1725, he betrothed her to Charles of Spain and her sister, Maria Anna, to Philip of Spain. Other European powers compelled him to renounce the pact he had made with the Queen of Spain, Elisabeth Farnese. Theresa, who had become close to Francis Stephen, was relieved.[18][19] Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen at their wedding breakfast, by Martin van Meytens. Charles VI (in the red-plumed hat) is seated at the center of the table. Francis Stephen remained at the imperial court until 1729, when he ascended the throne of Lorraine,[17] but was not formally promised Maria Theresa's hand until 31 January 1736, during the War of the Polish Succession.[20] XV of France demanded that Maria Theresa's fiancé surrender his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine to accommodate his father-in-law, Stanislaus I, who had been deposed as King of Poland.[c] Francis Stephen was to receive the Grand Duchy of Tuscany upon the death of childless Grand Duke Gian Gastone de' Medici.[21] The couple were married on 12 February 1736.[22] Duchess of Lorraine's love for her husband was strong and possessive.[23] The letters she sent to him shortly before their marriage expressed her eagerness to see him; his letters, on the other hand, were stereotyped and formal.[24][25] She was very jealous of her husband and his infidelity was the greatest problem of their marriage,[26] with Maria Wilhelmina, Princess of Auersperg, as his best-known mistress.[27] Gian Gastone's death on 9 July 1737, Francis Stephen ceded Lorraine and became Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1738, Charles VI sent the young couple to make their formal entry into Tuscany. A triumphal arch was erected at the Porta Galla in celebration, where it remains today. Their stay in Florence was brief. Charles VI soon recalled them, as he feared he might die while his heiress was miles away in Tuscany.[28] the summer of 1738, Austria suffered defeats during the ongoing Russo-Turkish War. The Turks reversed Austrian gains in Serbia, Wallachia and Bosnia. The Viennese rioted at the cost of the war. Stephen was popularly despised, as he was thought to be a cowardly French spy.[29] The war was concluded the next year with the Treaty of Belgrade.[30] Maria Theresa's procession through the Graben, 22 November 1740. The pregnant queen is on way to hear High Mass at St. Stephen's Cathedral before receiving homage.[31] VI died on 20 October 1740, probably of mushroom poisoning. He had ignored the advice of Prince Eugene of Savoy who had urged him to concentrate on filling the treasury and equipping the army rather than on acquiring signatures of fellow monarchs.[5] The Emperor, who spent his entire reign securing the Pragmatic Sanction, left Austria in an impoverished state, bankrupted by the recent Turkish war and the War of the Polish Succession;[32] the treasury contained only 100,000 gulden, which were claimed by his widow.[33] The army had also been weakened due to these wars; instead of the full number of 160,000, the army had been reduced to about 108,000, and they were scattered in small areas from the Austrian Netherlands to Transylvania, and from Silesia to Tuscany. They were also poorly trained and discipline was lacking. Later Maria Theresa even made a remark: "as for the state in which I found the army, I cannot begin to describe it."[34] Theresa found herself in a difficult situation. She did not know enough about matters of state and she was unaware of the weakness of her father's ministers. She decided to rely on her father's advice to retain his counselors and to defer to her husband, whom she considered to be more experienced, on other matters. Both decisions later gave cause for regret. Ten years later, Maria Theresa recalled in her Political Testament the circumstances under which she had ascended: "I found myself without money, without credit, without army, without experience and knowledge of my own and finally, also without any counsel because each one of them at first wanted to wait and see how things would develop."[14] dismissed the possibility that other countries might try to seize her territories and immediately started ensuring the imperial dignity for herself;[14] since a woman could not be elected Holy Roman Empress, Maria Theresa wanted to secure the imperial office for her husband, but Francis Stephen did not possess enough land or rank within the Holy Roman Empire.[d] order to make him eligible for the imperial throne and to enable him to vote in the imperial elections as elector of Bohemia (which she could not do because of her sex), Maria Theresa made Francis Stephen co-ruler of the Austrian and Bohemian lands on 21 November 1740.[35] It took more than a year for the Diet of Hungary to accept Francis Stephen as co-ruler, since they asserted that the sovereignty of Hungary could not be shared.[36] Despite her love for him and his position as co-ruler, Maria Theresa never allowed her husband to decide matters of state and often dismissed him from council meetings when they disagreed.[37] first display of the new queen's authority was the formal act of homage of the Lower Austrian Estates to her on 22 November 1740. It was an elaborate public event which served as a formal recognition and legitimation of her accession. The oath of fealty to Maria Theresa was taken on the same day in the Ritterstube of the Hofburg.[31] of the Austrian Succession[edit] Main article: War of the Austrian Succession Maria Theresa being crowned Queen of Hungary, St. Martin's Cathedral, Pressburg Theresa as the Queen of Hungary after her accession, a number of European sovereigns who had recognised Maria Theresa as heir broke their promises. Queen Elisabeth of Spain and Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria, married to Maria Theresa's deprived cousin Maria Amalia and supported by Empress Wilhelmine Amalia, coveted portions of her inheritance.[33] Maria Theresa did secure recognition from King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, who had not accepted the Pragmatic Sanction during her father's lifetime, in November 1740.[38] December, Frederick II of Prussia invaded the Duchy of Silesia and requested that Maria Theresa cede it, threatening to join her enemies if she refused. Maria Theresa decided to fight for the mineral-rich province.[39] Frederick even offered a compromise: he would defend Maria Theresa's rights if she agreed to cede to him at least a part of Silesia. Francis Stephen was inclined to consider such an arrangement, but the Queen and her advisers were not, fearing that any violation of the Pragmatic Sanction would invalidate the entire document.[40] Maria Theresa's firmness soon assured Francis Stephen that they should fight for Silesia,[e] and she was confident that she would retain "the jewel of the House of Austria".[41] resulting war with Prussia is known as the First Silesian War. invasion of Silesia by Frederick was the start of a lifelong enmity; she referred to him as "that evil man".[42] Austria was short of experienced military commanders, Maria Theresa released Marshall Neipperg, who had been imprisoned by her father for his poor performance in the Turkish War.[43] Neipperg took command of the Austrian troops in March. The Austrians suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Mollwitz in April 1741.[44] France drew up a plan to partition Austria between Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Spain: Bohemia and Upper Austria would be ceded to Bavaria, and the Elector would become emperor, whereas Moravia and Upper Silesia would be granted to the Electorate of Saxony, Lower Silesia and Glatz to Prussia, and the entire Austrian Lombardy to Spain.[45] Belle-Isle joined Frederick at Olmütz. Vienna was in a panic, as none of Maria Theresa's advisors had expected France to betray them. Francis Stephen urged Maria Theresa to reach a rapprochement with Prussia, as did Great Britain.[46] Maria Theresa reluctantly agreed to negotiations.[47] to all expectations, the young Queen gained significant support from Hungary.[48] Her coronation as Queen of Hungary suo jure took place in St. Martin's Cathedral, Pressburg (today's Bratislava), on 25 June 1741. She had spent months honing the equestrian skills necessary for the ceremony and negotiating with the Diet. To appease those who considered her gender to be a serious obstacle, Maria Theresa assumed masculine titles. Thus, in nomenclature, Maria Theresa was archduke and king; normally, however, she was styled as queen.[49][50] July, attempts at conciliation had completely collapsed. Maria Theresa's ally, the Elector of Saxony, now became her enemy,[51] and George II declared the Electorate of Hanover to be neutral.[52] she needed troops from Hungary in order to support the war effort. Although she had already won the admiration of the Hungarians, the number of volunteers was only in the hundreds. Since she required them in thousands or even tens of thousands, she decided to appear before the Hungarian Diet on 11 September 1741 while wearing the crown of St Stephen. She began addressing the Diet in Latin, and she asserted that "the very existence of the Kingdom of Hungary, of our own person and children, and our crown, are at stake. Forsaken by all, we place our sole reliance in the fidelity and long-tried valor of the Hungarians."[53] response was rather boorish, with the queen being questioned and even heckled by members of the Diet; someone cried that she "better apply to Satan than the Hungarians for help."[54] she managed to show her gift for theatrical displays by holding her son and heir, Joseph, while weeping, and she dramatically consigned the future king to the defense of the "brave Hungarians".[54] This act managed to win the sympathy of the members, and they declared that they would die for Maria Theresa.[54][55] Engraved by Gustav Adolph Müller after Martin van Mytens, the Younger, Maria Theresa of Austria, 1742, engraving, Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library, Washington, DC 1741, the Austrian authorities informed Maria Theresa that the Bohemian populace would prefer Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria to her as sovereign. Maria Theresa, desperate and burdened by pregnancy, wrote plaintively to her sister: "I don't know if a town will remain to me for my delivery."[56] She bitterly vowed to spare nothing and no one to defend her kingdom when she wrote to the Bohemian chancellor, Count Philip Kinsky: "My mind is made up. We must put everything at stake to save Bohemia."[57][f] 26 October, the Elector of Bavaria captured Prague and declared himself King of Bohemia. Maria Theresa, then in Hungary, wept on learning of the loss of Bohemia.[58] Albert was unanimously elected Holy Roman Emperor on 24 January 1742, which made him the only non-Habsburg to be in that position since 1440.[59] Queen, who regarded the election as a catastrophe,[60] caught her enemies unprepared by insisting on a winter campaign;[61] the same day he was elected emperor, Austrian troops under Ludwig Andreas von Khevenhüller captured Munich, Charles Albert's capital.[62] has, as you well know, a terrible hatred for France, with which nation it is most difficult for her to keep on good terms, but she controls this passion except when she thinks to her advantage to display it. She detests Your Majesty, but acknowledges your ability. She cannot forget the loss of Silesia, nor her grief over the soldiers she lost in wars with you. Prussian ambassador's letter to Frederick the Great[g] Treaty of Breslau of June 1742 ended hostilities between Austria and Prussia. With the First Silesian War at an end, the Queen soon made the recovery of Bohemia her priority.[63] French troops fled Bohemia in the winter of the same year. On 12 May 1743, Maria Theresa was crowned Queen of Bohemia in St. Vitus Cathedral suo jure.[64] became anxious at Austrian advances on the Rhine frontier, and Frederick again invaded Bohemia, beginning a Second Silesian War; Prussian troops sacked Prague in August 1744. The French plans fell apart when Charles Albert died in January 1745. The French overran the Austrian Netherlands in May.[65] Stephen was elected Holy Roman Emperor on 13 September 1745. Prussia recognised Francis as emperor, and Maria Theresa once again recognised the loss of Silesia by the Treaty of Dresden in December 1745, ending the Second Silesian War.[66] wider war dragged on for another three years, with fighting in northern Italy and the Austrian Netherlands; however, the core Habsburg domains of Austria, Hungary and Bohemia remained in Maria Theresa's possession. Treaty of Aachen, which concluded the eight-year conflict, recognised Prussia's possession of Silesia, and Maria Theresa ceded the Duchy of Parma to Philip of Spain.[67] France had successfully conquered the Austrian Netherlands, but Louis XV, wishing to prevent potential future wars with Austria, returned them to Maria Theresa.[68] Years' War[edit] Main article: Seven Years' War battle of Kolin, 1757 of Prussia's invasion of Saxony in August 1756 began a Third Silesian War and sparked the wider Seven Years' War. Theresa and Kaunitz wished to exit the war with possession of Silesia.[69] Before the war started, Kaunitz had been sent as an ambassador to Versailles from 1750–1753 to win over the French. Meanwhile, the British rebuffed requests from Maria Theresa to aid her in reclaiming Silesia, and Frederick II himself managed to secure the Treaty of Westminster (1756) with them. Maria Theresa sent Georg Adam, Prince of Starhemberg to negotiate an agreement with France, and the result was the First Treaty of Versailles of 1 May 1756. the efforts of Kaunitz and Starhemberg managed to pave a way for a Diplomatic Revolution; previously, France was one of Austria's archenemies together with Russia and the Ottoman Empire, but after the agreement, they were united by a common cause against Prussia.[70] historians have blamed this treaty for France's devastating defeats in the war, since Louis XV was required to deploy troops in Germany and to provide subsidies of 25–30 million pounds a year to Maria Theresa that were vital for the Austrian war effort in Bohemia and Silesia.[71] 1 May 1757, the Second Treaty of Versailles was signed, whereby Louis XV promised to provide Austria with 130,000 men in addition to 12 million gulden yearly. They would also continue the war in Continental Europe until Prussia could be compelled to abandon Silesia and Glatz. In return, Austria would cede several towns in the Austrian Netherlands to the son-in-law of Louis XV, Philip of Parma, who in turn would grant his Italian duchies to Maria Theresa.[71] von Browne commanded the Austrian troops. Following the indecisive Battle of Lobositz in 1756, he was replaced by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine, Maria Theresa's brother-in-law.[72] However, he was appointed only because of his familial relations; he turned out to be an incompetent military leader, and he was replaced by Leopold Joseph von Daun, Franz Moritz von Lacy and Ernst Gideon von Laudon.[73] Frederick himself was startled by Lobositz; he eventually re-grouped for another attack in June 1757. Battle of Kolin that followed was a decisive victory for Austria. Frederick lost one third of his troops, and before the battle was over, he had left the scene.[74] Subsequently, Prussia was defeated at Hochkirch in Saxony on 14 October 1758, at Kunersdorf in Brandenburg on 12 August 1759, and at Landeshut near Glatz in June 1760. and Croat light hussars led by Count Hadik raided Berlin in 1757. Austrian and Russian troops even occupied Berlin for several days in August 1760. these victories did not enable the Habsburgs to win the war, as the French and Habsburg armies were destroyed by Frederick at Rossbach in 1757.[73] the defeat in Torgau on 3 November 1760, Maria Theresa realised that she could no longer reclaim Silesia without Russian support, which vanished after the death of Tsaritsa Elizabeth in early 1762. the meantime, France was losing badly in America and India, and thus they had reduced their subsidies by 50%. Since 1761, had tried to organise a diplomatic congress to take advantage of the accession of George III of the United Kingdom, as he did not really care about Germany. the war was concluded by the Treaty of Hubertusburg and Paris in 1763. Austria had to leave the Prussian territories that were occupied.[73] Although Silesia remained under the control of Prussia, a new balance of power was created in Europe, and Austrian position was strengthened by it thanks to its alliance with the Bourbons in Madrid, Parma and Naples. Maria Theresa herself decided to focus on domestic reforms and refrain from undertaking any further military operations.[75] life[edit] Maria Theresa with her family, 1754, by Martin van Meytens the course of twenty years, Maria Theresa gave birth to sixteen children, thirteen of whom survived infancy. The first child, Maria Elisabeth (1737–1740), was born a little less than a year after the wedding. The child's sex caused great disappointment and so would the births of Maria Anna, the eldest surviving child, and Maria Carolina (1740–1741). fighting to preserve her inheritance, Maria Theresa gave birth to a son, Joseph, named after Saint Joseph, to whom she had repeatedly prayed for a male child during the pregnancy. Theresa's favourite child, Maria Christina, was born on her 25th birthday, four days before the defeat of the Austrian army in Chotusitz. Five more children were born during the war: (the second) Maria Elisabeth, Charles, Maria Amalia, Leopold and (the second) Maria Carolina (b. & d. 1748). this period, there was no rest for Maria Theresa during pregnancies or around the births; the war and child-bearing were carried on simultaneously. Five children were born during the peace between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War: Maria Johanna, Maria Josepha, (the third) Maria Carolina, Ferdinand and Maria Antonia. She delivered her last child, Maximilian Francis, during the Seven Years' War, aged 39.[76][77] Maria Theresa asserted that, had she not been almost always pregnant, she would have gone into battle herself.[42] Illnesses and deaths[edit] Mural by Franz Anton Maulbertsch in the Hofburg, Innsbruck, commissioned by Maria Theresa in remembrance of her daughters who died in childhood: Maria Johanna (1750–1762), Maria Elisabeth (1737–1740), Maria Carolina (1740–1741) and Maria Carolina (1748–1748) Four of Maria Theresa's children died before reaching adolescence. Her eldest daughter Maria Elisabeth died from stomach cramps at the age of three. Her third child, the first of three daughters named Maria Carolina, died shortly after her first birthday. The second Maria Carolina was born feet first in 1748. As it became evident that she would not survive, preparations were hastily made to baptize her while still living; according to traditional Catholic belief, unbaptized infants would be condemned to eternity in limbo. Maria Theresa's physician Gerard van Swieten assured her that the infant was still living when baptized, but many at court doubted this.[78] Maria Theresa's mother, Empress Elisabeth Christine, died in 1750. Four years later, Maria Theresa's governess, Marie Karoline von Fuchs-Mollard, died. She showed her gratitude to Countess Fuchs by having her buried in the Imperial Crypt along with the members of the imperial family.[79] Smallpox was a constant threat to members of the royal family. In July 1749, Maria Christina survived a bout of the disease, followed in January 1757 by Maria Theresa's eldest son Joseph.[80] In January 1761, the disease killed her second son Charles at the age of fifteen.[81] In December 1762, her twelve-year-old daughter Johanna likewise died in agony from the disease.[80] In November 1763, Joseph's first wife Isabella died from the disease.[82] Joseph's second wife Empress Maria Josepha likewise caught the disease in May 1767 and died a week later. Maria Theresa ignored the risk of infection and embraced her daughter-in-law before the sick chamber was sealed to outsiders.[83][84] Maria Theresa in fact contracted smallpox from her daughter-in-law. Throughout the city prayers were made for her recovery, and the sacrament was displayed in all churches. Joseph slept in one of his mother's antechambers and hardly left her bedside. On 1 June, Maria Theresa was given the last rites. When the news came in early June that she had survived the crisis, there was huge rejoicing at the court and amongst the populace of Vienna.[85] In October 1767, Maria Theresa's fifteen-year-old daughter Josepha also showed signs of the disease. It was assumed that she had caught the infection when she went with her mother to pray in the Imperial Crypt next to the unsealed tomb of Empress Maria Josepha (Joseph's wife). Archduchess Josepha started showing smallpox rash two days after visiting the crypt and soon died. Maria Carolina was to replace her as the pre-determined bride of King Ferdinand IV of Naples. Maria Theresa blamed herself for her daughter's death for the rest of her life because, at the time, the concept of an extended incubation period was largely unknown and it was believed that Josepha had caught smallpox from the body of the late empress.[h][86] The last in the family to be infected with the illness was the fourteen-year-old Elisabeth. Although she recovered, she was badly scarred with pock marks from the illness.[86] Maria Theresa's losses to smallpox, especially in the epidemic of 1767, were decisive in her sponsoring trials to prevent the illness through inoculation, and subsequently insisting on members of the royal family receiving inoculation.[87] Dynastic marriage policy[edit] Shortly after giving birth to the younger children, Maria Theresa was confronted with the task of marrying off the elder ones. She led the marriage negotiations along with the campaigns of her wars and the duties of state. She used them as pawns in dynastic games and sacrificed their happiness for the benefit of the state.[88] A devoted but self-conscious mother, she wrote to all of her children at least once a week and believed herself entitled to exercise authority over her children regardless of their age and rank.[89] The dowager empress with family, 1776, by Heinrich Füger In April 1770, Maria Theresa's youngest daughter, Maria Antonia, married Louis, Dauphin of France, by proxy in Vienna. Maria Antonia's education was neglected, and when the French showed an interest in her, her mother went about educating her as best she could about the court of Versailles and the French. Maria Theresa kept up a fortnightly correspondence with Maria Antonia, now called Marie Antoinette, in which she often reproached her for laziness and frivolity and scolded her for failing to conceive a child.[89] Maria Theresa was not just critical of Marie Antoinette. She disliked Leopold's reserve and often blamed him for being cold. She criticized Maria Carolina for her political activities, Ferdinand for his lack of organization, and Maria Amalia for her poor French and haughtiness. The only child she did not constantly scold was Maria Christina, who enjoyed her mother's complete confidence, though she failed to please her mother in one aspect – she did not produce any surviving children.[89] One of Maria Theresa's greatest wishes was to have as many grandchildren as possible, but she had only about two dozen at the time of her death, of which all the eldest surviving daughters were named after her, with the exception of Princess Carolina of Parma, her eldest granddaughter by Maria Amalia.[89][i] Religious views and policies[edit] Maria Theresa and her family celebrating Saint Nicholas, by Archduchess Maria Christina, in 1762 all members of the House of Habsburg, Maria Theresa was a Roman Catholic, and a devout one. She believed that religious unity was necessary for a peaceful public life and explicitly rejected the idea of religious toleration. She even advocated for a state church[j] and contemporary adversary travelers criticized her regime as bigoted, intolerant and superstitious.[90] However, she never allowed the Church to interfere with what she considered to be prerogatives of a monarch and kept Rome at arm's length. She controlled the selection of archbishops, bishops and abbots.[91] Overall, the ecclesiastical policies of Maria Theresa were enacted to ensure the primacy of State control in Church-State relations.[92] She was also influenced by Jansenist ideas. One of the most important aspects of Jansenism was the advocation of maximum freedom of national churches from Rome. Although Austria had always stressed the rights of the state in relation to the church, Jansenism provided new theoretical justification for this.[93] Theresa promoted the Greek Catholics and emphasized their equal status with Latin Church Catholics.[94] Although Maria Theresa was a very pious person, she also enacted policies that suppressed exaggerated display of piety, such as the prohibition of public flagellantism. Furthermore, she significantly reduced the number of religious holidays and monastic orders.[95] relationship with the Jesuits was complex. Members of this order educated her, served as her confessors, and supervised the religious education of her eldest son. The Jesuits were powerful and influential in the early years of Maria Theresa's reign. However, the queen's ministers convinced her that the order posed a danger to her monarchical authority. Not without much hesitation and regret, she issued a decree that removed them from all the institutions of the monarchy, and carried it out thoroughly. She forbade the publication of Pope Clement XIII's bull, which was in favour of the Jesuits, and promptly confiscated their property when Pope Clement XIV suppressed the order.[96] Joseph, Maria Theresa's eldest son and co-ruler, in 1775, by Anton von Maron Theresa regarded both the Jews and Protestants as dangerous to the state and actively tried to suppress them.[97][98] She was probably the most anti-Jewish monarch of her time, having inherited the traditional prejudices of her ancestors and acquired new ones. This was a product of deep religious devotion and was not kept secret in her time. In 1777, she wrote of the Jews: "I know of no greater plague than this race, which on account of its deceit, usury and avarice is driving my subjects into beggary. Therefore as far as possible, the Jews are to be kept away and avoided."[99] Her hatred was so deep that she was willing to tolerate Protestant businessmen and financiers in Vienna, such as the Swiss-born Johann Fries, since she wanted to break free from the Jewish financiers.[100] December 1744, she proposed to her ministers the expulsion of Jews from Austria and Bohemia. Her first intention was to deport all Jews by 1 January, but having accepted the advice of her ministers, who were concerned by the number of future deportees that could reach 50,000, had the deadline postponed to June.[101] The expulsion orders were only retracted in 1748 due to pressures from other countries, including Great Britain.[100] She also ordered the deportation of around 20,000 Jews from Prague amid accusations that they were disloyal at the time of the Bavarian-French occupation during the War of the Austrian Succession. The order was then expanded to all Jews of Bohemia and major cities of Moravia, although the order was later retracted except for Prague Jews that had already been expelled.[102] the third decade of her reign, influenced by her Jewish courtier Abraham Mendel Theben, Maria Theresa issued edicts that offered some state protection to her Jewish subjects. Her actions during the late stages of her reign contrast her early opinions. She forbade the forcible conversion of Jewish children to Christianity in 1762, and in 1763 she forbade Catholic clergy from extracting surplice fees from her Jewish subjects. In 1764, she ordered the release of those Jews who had been jailed for a blood libel in the village of Orkuta.[103] Notwithstanding her strong dislike of Jews, Maria Theresa supported Jewish commercial and industrial activity in Austria.[104] There were also parts of the realm where the Jews were treated better, such as Trieste, Gorizia and Vorarlberg.[105] contrast to Maria Theresa´s efforts to expel the Jews, she aimed to convert the Protestants (whom she regarded as heretics) to Roman Catholicism.[106] Commissions were formed to seek out secret Protestants and intern them in workhouses, where they would be given the chance to subscribe to approved statements of Catholic faith. If they accepted, they were to be allowed to return to their homes. However, any sign of a return to Protestant practice was treated harshly, often by exile.[107] Theresa exiled Protestants from Austria to Transylvania, including 2,600 from Upper Austria in the 1750s.[100] Her son and co-ruler Joseph regarded his mother's religious policies as "unjust, impious, impossible, harmful and ridiculous".[97] her policies, practical, demographic and economic considerations prevented her from expelling the Protestants en masse. 1777, she abandoned the idea of expelling Moravian protestants after Joseph, who was opposed to her intentions, threatened to abdicate as emperor and co-ruler. [105] In February 1780, after a number of Moravians publicly declared their faith, Joseph demanded a general freedom to worship. However, Maria Theresa refused to grant this up until the time of her death. In May 1780, a group of Moravians who had assembled for a worship service on the occasion of her birthday were arrested and deported to Hungary.[108] Freedom of religion was granted only in the Declaration of Tolerance issued by Joseph immediately after Maria Theresa´s death.[109] Orthodox Christians[edit] Confirmation of Serbian Privileges, issued by Maria Theresa in 1743 Further information: Metropolitanate of Karlovci and Declaratory Rescript of the Illyrian Nation policies of Maria Theresa's government toward their Eastern Orthodox subjects were marked by special interests, relating not only to complex religious situations in various southern and eastern regions of the Habsburg Monarchy, inhabited by Eastern Orthodox Christians, mainly Serbs and Romanians, but also regarding the political aspirations of the Habsburg court toward several neighbouring lands and regions in Southeastern Europe still held by the declining Ottoman Empire and inhabited by an Eastern Orthodox population.[110] Theresa's government confirmed (1743) and continued to uphold old privileges granted to their Eastern Orthodox subjects by previous Habsburg monarchs (emperors Leopold I, Joseph I and Charles VI), but at the same time, new reforms were enforced, establishing much firmer state control over the Serbian Orthodox Metropolitanate of Karlovci. Those reforms were initiated by royal patents, known as Regulamentum privilegiorum (1770) and Regulamentum Illyricae Nationis (1777), and finalized in 1779 by the Declaratory Rescript of the Illyrian Nation, a comprehensive document that regulated all major issues relating to the religious life of their Eastern Orthodox subjects and the administration of the Serbian Metropolitanate of Karlovci. Maria Theresa's Rescript of 1779 was kept in force until 1868.[111][112] Maria Theresa in 1762, by Jean-Étienne Liotard Theresa was as conservative in matters of state as in those of religion, but she implemented significant reforms to strengthen Austria's military and bureaucratic efficiency.[113] She employed Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz, who modernised the empire by creating a standing army of 108,000 men, paid for with 14 million gulden extracted from crown lands. central government was responsible for funding the army, although Haugwitz instituted taxation of the nobility, who had never before had to pay taxes.[114] after Haugwitz was appointed the head of the new central administrative agency, dubbed the Directory, (Directorium in publicis et cameralibus) in 1749, he initiated a radical centralization of state institutions down to the level of the District Office (Kreisamt).[115] Thanks to this effort, by 1760 there was a class of government officials numbering around 10,000. Lombardy, the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary were almost completely untouched by this reform.[115] In the case of Hungary, Maria Theresa was particularly mindful of her promise that she would respect the privileges in the kingdom, including the immunity of nobles from taxation.[116] light of the failure to reclaim Silesia during the Seven Years' War, the governing system was once again reformed to strengthen the state.[117] The Directory was transformed into the United Austrian and Bohemian Chancellery in 1761, which was equipped with a separate, independent judiciary and separate financial bodies.[117] She also refounded the Hofkammer in 1762, which was a ministry of finances that controlled all revenues from the monarchy. In addition to this, the Hofrechenskammer, or exchequer, was tasked with the handling of all financial accounts.[118] in 1760, Maria Theresa created the Council of State (Staatsrat), composed of the state chancellor, three members of the high nobility and three knights, which served as a committee of experienced people who advised her. The council of state lacked executive or legislative authority; nevertheless, it showed the difference between the form of government employed by Maria Theresa and that of Frederick II of Prussia. Unlike the latter, Maria Theresa was not an autocrat who acted as her own minister. Prussia would adopt this form of government only after 1807.[119] Theresa doubled the state revenue from 20 to 40 million gulden between 1754 and 1764, though her attempt to tax clergy and nobility was only partially successful.[113][120] financial reforms greatly improved the economy.[121] After Kaunitz became the head of the new Staatsrat, he pursued a policy of "aristocratic enlightenment" that relied on persuasion to interact with the estates, and he was also willing to retract some of Haugwitz's centralization to curry favour with them. Nonetheless, the governing system remained centralised, and a strong institution made it possible for Kaunitz to increase state revenues substantially. In 1775, the Habsburg Monarchy achieved its first balanced budget, and by 1780, the Habsburg state revenue had reached 50 million gulden.[122] Maria Theresa recruited Gerard van Swieten from the Netherlands, he also employed a fellow Dutchman named Anton de Haen, who founded the Viennese Medicine School (Wiener Medizinische Schule).[123] Maria Theresa also banned the creation of new burial grounds without prior government permission, thus countering wasteful and unhygienic burial customs.[124] the smallpox epidemic of 1767, she promoted inoculation, which she had learned of through her correspondence with Maria Antonia, the Electress of Saxony (who in turn probably knew of it through her own correspondence with the Prussian king Frederick II). After unsuccessfully inviting the Sutton brothers from England to introduce their technique in Austria, Maria Theresa obtained information on current practices of smallpox inoculation in England. overrode the objections of Gerard van Swieten (who doubted the effectiveness of the technique), and ordered that it be tried on thirty-four newborn orphans and sixty-seven orphans between the ages of five and fourteen years. The trial was successful, establishing that inoculation was effective in protecting against smallpox, and safe (in the case of the test subjects). empress therefore ordered the construction of an inoculation centre, and had herself and two of her children inoculated. She promoted inoculation in Austria by hosting a dinner for the first sixty-five inoculated children in Schönbrunn Palace, waiting on the children herself. Maria Theresa was responsible for changing Austrian physicians' negative view of inoculation.[125][126] 1770, she enacted a strict regulation of the sale of poisons, and apothecaries were obliged to keep a poison register recording the quantity and circumstances of every sale. If someone unknown tried to purchase a poison, that person had to provide two character witnesses before a sale could be effectuated. Three years later, she prohibited the use of lead in any eating or drinking vessels; the only permitted material for this purpose was pure tin.[127] is most unusually ambitious and hopes to make the House of Austria more renowned than it has ever been. Prussian ambassador's letter to Frederick II of Prussia[128] centralization of the Habsburg government necessitated the creation of a unified legal system. Previously, various lands in the Habsburg realm had their own laws. These laws were compiled and the resulting Codex Theresianus could be used as a basis for legal unification.[129] 1769, the Constitutio Criminalis Theresiana was published, and this was a codification of the traditional criminal justice system since the Middle Ages. This criminal code allowed the possibility of establishing the truth through torture, and it also criminalised witchcraft and various religious offenses. Although this law came into force in Austria and Bohemia, it was not valid in Hungary.[130] was particularly concerned with the sexual morality of her subjects. Thus, she established a Chastity Commission (Keuschheitskommission) in 1752[131] to clamp down on prostitution, homosexuality, adultery and even sex between members of different religions.[132] This Commission cooperated closely with the police, and the Commission even employed secret agents to investigate private lives of men and women with bad reputation.[133] They were authorised to raid banquets, clubs, and private gatherings, and to arrest those suspected of violating social norms.[134] The punishments included whipping, deportation, or even the death penalty.[132] 1776, Austria outlawed torture, particularly at the behest of Joseph II. Much unlike Joseph, but with the support of religious authorities, Maria Theresa was opposed to the abolition of torture. Born and raised between Baroque and Rococo eras, she found it difficult to fit into the intellectual sphere of the Enlightenment, which is why she only slowly followed humanitarian reforms on the continent.[135] an institutional perspective, in 1749, she founded the Supreme Judiciary as a court of final appeal for all hereditary lands.[118] her reign, Maria Theresa made the promotion of education a priority. Initially this was focused on the wealthier classes. She permitted non-Catholics to attend university and allowed the introduction of secular subjects (such as law), which influenced the decline of theology as the main foundation of university education.[113] educational institutions were created to prepare officials for work in the state bureaucracy: the Theresianum was established in Vienna in 1746 to educate nobles' sons, a military school named the Theresian Military Academy was founded in Wiener Neustadt in 1751, and an Oriental Academy for future diplomats was created in 1754.[136] the 1770s, reform of the schooling system for all levels of society became a major policy. Stollberg-Rilinger notes that the reform of the primary schools in particular was the most long-lasting success of Maria Theresa's later reign, and one of the few policy agendas in which she was not in open conflict with her son and nominal co-ruler Joseph II.[137] The need for the reform became evident after the census of 1770–71, which revealed the widespread illiteracy of the populace. Theresa thereupon wrote to her rival Frederick II of Prussia to request him to allow the Silesian school reformer Johann Ignaz von Felbiger to move to Austria. first proposals were made law by December 1774.[138] Austrian historian Karl Vocelka observed that the educational reforms enacted by Maria Theresa were "really founded on Enlightenment ideas," although the ulterior motive was still to "meet the needs of an absolutist state, as an increasingly sophisticated and complicated society and economy required new administrators, officers, diplomats and specialists in virtually every area."[139] Theresa's reform established secular primary schools, which children of both genders from the ages of six to twelve were required to attend.[140][139] curriculum focused on social responsibility, social discipline, work ethic and the use of reason rather than mere rote learning.[141] was to be multilingual; children were to be instructed first in their mother tongue and then in later years in German.[142] Prizes were given to the most able students to encourage ability. Attention was also given to raising the status and pay of teachers, who were forbidden to take on outside employment. Teacher training colleges were established to train teachers in the latest techniques.[143] education reform was met with considerable opposition. Predictably, some of this came from peasants who wanted the children to work in the fields instead.[141] Theresa crushed the dissent by ordering the arrest of all those opposed.[140] However, much of the opposition came from the royal court, particularly amongst aristocrats who saw their power threatened by the reformers those who feared that that greater literacy would expose the population to Protestant or Enlightenment ideas. Felbiger´s reforms were nevertheless pushed through, as a result of the consistent support of Maria Theresa and her minister Franz Sales Greiner.[144] reform of the primary schools largely met Maria Theresa´s aim of raising literacy standards, as evidenced by the higher proportions of children who attended school; this was particularly the case in the Archdiocese of Vienna, where school attendance increased from 40% in 1780 to a sensational 94% by 1807.[137] high rates of illiteracy persisted in some parts of Austria, half of the population was illiterate well into the 19th century,[139] The teacher training colleges (in particular the Vienna Normal School) produced hundreds of new teachers who spread the new system over the following decades. However, the number of secondary schools decreased, since the quantity of new schools founded failed to make up for the numbers of Jesuit schools abolished. As a result, secondary schooling became more exclusive.[145] regime was also known for institutionalising censorship of publications and learning. author Sir Nathaniel Wraxall once wrote from Vienna: "[T]he injudicious bigotry of the Empress may chiefly be attributed the deficiency [in learning]. It is hardly credible how many books and productions of every species, and in every language, are proscribed by her. Not only Voltaire and Rousseau are included in the list, from the immoral tendency or licentious nature of their writings; but many authors whom we consider as unexceptionable or harmless, experience a similar treatment."[146] censorship particularly affected works that were deemed to be against the Catholic religion. Ironically, for this purpose, she was aided by Gerard van Swieten who was considered to be an "enlightened" man.[146] Maria Theresa endeavoured to increase the living standards of the people, since she could see a causal link between peasant living standards, productivity and state revenue.[147] Habsburg government under her rule also tried to strengthen its industry through government interventions. After the loss of Silesia, they implemented subsidies and trade barriers to encourage the move of Silesian textile industry to northern Bohemia. In addition, they cut back guild privileges, and internal duties on trade were either reformed or removed (such as the case for the Austrian-Bohemian lands in 1775).[141] Maria Theresa depicted on her Thaler the late part of her reign, Maria Theresa undertook reform of the system of serfdom, which was the basis for agriculture in eastern parts of her lands (particularly Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary and Galicia). Maria Theresa had initially been reluctant to meddle in such affairs, government interventions were made possible by the perceived need for economic power and the emergence of a functioning bureaucracy.[148] census of 1770–71 gave the peasants opportunity to express their grievances direct to the royal commissioners and made evident to Maria Theresa the extent to which their poverty was the result of the extreme demands for forced labour (called "robot" in Czech) by the landlords. some estates, the landlords demanded that the peasants work up to seven days per week in tilling the nobles´ land, so that the only time available for the peasants to till their own land was at night.[149] additional prompt to reform was the famine which afflicted the empire in the early 1770s. Bohemia was particularly hard hit. Maria Theresa was increasingly influenced by the reformers Franz Anton von Blanc and Tobias Philipp von Gebler, called for radical changes to the serf system to allow the peasants to make a living.[150] 1771–1778, Maria Theresa issued a series of "Robot Patents" (i.e. regulations regarding forced labour), which regulated and restricted peasant labour only in the German and Bohemian parts of the realm. goal was to ensure that peasants not only could support themselves and their family members, but also help cover the national expenditure in peace or war.[151] late 1772, Maria Theresa had decided on more radical reform. 1773, she entrusted her minister Franz Anton von Raab with a model project on the crown lands in Bohemia: he was tasked to divide up the large estates into small farms, convert the forced labour contracts into leases, and enable the farmers to pass the leaseholds onto their children. Raab pushed the project through so successfully that his name was identified with the program, which became known as Raabisation. the success of the program on the crown lands, Maria Theresa had it also implemented on the former Jesuit lands, as well as crown lands in other parts of her empire.[152] Maria Theresa´s attempts to extend the Raab system to the great estates belonging to the Bohemian nobles were fiercely resisted by the nobles. claimed that the crown had no right to interfere with the serf system, since the nobles were the original owners of the land and had allowed the peasants to work it on stipulated conditions. nobles also claimed that the system of forced labour had no connection with the peasants´ poverty, which was a result of the peasants´ own wastefulness and the increased royal taxes. surprisingly, the nobles were supported by Maria Theresa´s son and co-ruler Joseph II, who had earlier called for the abolition of In a letter to his brother Leopold, of 1775, Joseph complained that his mother intended to "abolish serfdom entirely and arbitrarily destroy the centuries-old property relations." He complained that "no consideration was being taken for the landlords, who were threatened with the loss of more than half their income. For many of them, who are carrying debts, this would mean financial ruin."[154] 1776, the court was polarized: on one side was a small reform party (including Maria Theresa, Raab, Blanc, Gebler and Greiner); on the conservative side were Joseph and the rest of the court.[154] argued that it was difficult to find a middle way between the interests of the peasants and nobles; he suggested instead that the peasants negotiate with their landlords to reach an outcome.[155] Joseph´s biographer Derek Beales calls this change of course "puzzling".[156] In the ensuing struggle, Joseph forced Blanc to leave the court. Because of the opposition, Maria Theresa was unable to carry out the planned reform and had to settle on a compromise.[157] system of serfdom was only abolished after Maria Theresa´s death, in the Serfdom Patent (1781) issued (in another change of course) by Joseph II as sole emperor.[151] reign[edit] Theresa as a widow in 1773, by Anton von Maron. Peace holds the olive crown above her head, reaffirming Maria Theresa's monarchical status. This was the last commissioned state portrait of Maria Theresa.[158] Emperor Francis died on 18 August 1765, while he and the court were in Innsbruck celebrating the wedding of his second surviving son, Leopold. Maria Theresa was devastated. eldest son, Joseph, became Holy Roman Emperor. Maria Theresa abandoned all ornamentation, had her hair cut short, painted her rooms black and dressed in mourning for the rest of her life. completely withdrew from court life, public events, and theater. Throughout her widowhood, she spent the whole of August and the eighteenth of each month alone in her chamber, which negatively affected her mental health.[159] She described her state of mind shortly after Francis's death: "I hardly know myself now, for I have become like an animal with no true life or reasoning power."[160] his accession to the imperial throne, Joseph ruled less land than his father had in 1740, since he had given up his rights over Tuscany to Leopold, and thus he only controlled Falkenstein and Teschen. Believing that the emperor must possess enough land to maintain his standing as emperor,[161] Maria Theresa, who was used to being assisted in the administration of her vast realms, declared Joseph to be her new co-ruler on 17 September 1765.[162] From then on, mother and son had frequent ideological disagreements. The 22 million gulden that Joseph inherited from his father was injected into the treasury. Maria Theresa had another loss in February 1766 when Haugwitz died. She gave her son absolute control over the military following the death of Leopold Joseph von Daun.[163] to Austrian historian Robert A. Kann, Maria Theresa was a monarch of above-average qualifications but intellectually inferior to Joseph and Leopold. Kann asserts that she nevertheless possessed qualities appreciated in a monarch: warm heart, practical mind, firm determination and sound perception. Most importantly, she was ready to recognise the mental superiority of some of her advisers and to give way to a superior mind while enjoying support of her ministers even if their ideas differed from her own. Joseph, however, was never able to establish rapport with the same advisers, even though their philosophy of government was closer to Joseph's than to Maria Theresa's.[164] relationship between Maria Theresa and Joseph was not without warmth but was complicated and their personalities clashed. Despite his intellect, Maria Theresa's force of personality often made Joseph cower.[165] Sometimes, she openly admired his talents and achievements, but she was also not hesitant to rebuke him. She even wrote: "We never see each other except at dinner ... His temper gets worse every day ... Please burn this letter ... I just try to avoid public scandal."[166] In another letter, also addressed to Joseph's companion, she complained: "He avoids me ... I am the only person in his way and so I am an obstruction and a burden ... Abdication alone can remedy matters."[166] After much contemplation, she chose not to abdicate. Joseph himself often threatened to resign as co-regent and emperor, but he, too, was induced not to do so. Her threats of abdication were rarely taken seriously; Maria Theresa believed that her recovery from smallpox in 1767 was a sign that God wished her to reign until death. It was in Joseph's interest that she remained sovereign, for he often blamed her for his failures and thus avoided taking on the responsibilities of a monarch.[167] and Prince Kaunitz arranged the First Partition of Poland despite Maria Theresa's protestations. Her sense of justice pushed her to reject the idea of partition, which would hurt the Polish people.[168] She even once argued, "What right have we to rob an innocent nation that it has hitherto been our boast to protect and support?"[169] The duo argued that it was too late to abort now. Besides, Maria Theresa herself agreed with the partition when she realised that Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia would do it with or without Austrian participation. Maria Theresa claimed and eventually took Galicia and Lodomeria; in the words of Frederick, "the more she cried, the more she took".[170] few years after the partition, Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). Following the signing of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774 that concluded the war, Austria entered into negotiations with the Sublime Porte. Thus, in 1775, the Ottoman Empire ceded the northwestern part of Moldavia (subsequently known as Bukovina) to Austria.[171] Subsequently, on 30 December 1777, Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria died without leaving any children.[170] As a result, his territories were coveted by ambitious men, including Joseph, who tried to swap Bavaria for the Austrian Netherlands.[172] This alarmed Frederick II of Prussia, and thus the War of Bavarian Succession erupted in 1778. Maria Theresa very unwillingly consented to the occupation of Bavaria, and a year later she made peace proposals to Frederick II despite Joseph's objections.[173] Although Austria managed to gain the Innviertel area, this "Potato War" caused a setback to the financial improvement that the Habsburg had made.[172] The 500,000 gulden in annual revenue from 100,000 inhabitants of Innviertel were not comparable to the 100,000,000 gulden that were spent during the war.[173] Theresa and her husband are interred in the double tomb which she had inscribed as a widow. is unlikely that Maria Theresa ever completely recovered from the smallpox attack in 1767, as 18th-century writers asserted. She suffered from shortness of breath, fatigue, cough, distress, necrophobia and insomnia. She later developed edema.[174] Theresa fell ill on 24 November 1780. Her physician, Dr. Störk, thought her condition serious, although her son Joseph was confident that she would recover in no time. By 26 November, she asked for the last rites, and on 28 November, the doctor told her that the time had come. On 29 November, she died surrounded by her remaining children.[175][176] Her body is buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna next to her husband in a coffin she had inscribed during her lifetime.[177] longtime rival Frederick the Great, on hearing of her death, said that she had honored her throne and her sex, and though he had fought against her in three wars, he never considered her his enemy.[178] With her death, the House of Habsburg died out and was replaced by the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. Joseph II, already co-sovereign of the Habsburg dominions, succeeded her and introduced sweeping reforms in the empire; Joseph produced nearly 700 edicts per year (or almost two per day), whereas Maria Theresa issued only about 100 edicts annually.[179] Theresa understood the importance of her public persona and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection in her subjects; a notable example was how she projected dignity and simplicity to awe the people in Pressburg before she was crowned as Queen of Hungary.[180] Her 40-year reign was considered to be very successful when compared to other Habsburg rulers. Her reforms had transformed the empire into a modern state with a significant international standing.[181] She centralised and modernised its institutions, and her reign was considered as the beginning of the era of "enlightened absolutism" in Austria, with a brand new approach toward governing: the measures undertaken by rulers became more modern and rational, and thoughts were given to the welfare of the state and the people.[182] Many of her policies were not in line with the ideals of the Enlightenment (such as her support of torture), and she was still very much influenced by Catholicism from the previous era.[183] Vocelka even stated that "taken as a whole the reforms of Maria Theresa appear more absolutist and centralist than enlightened, even if one must admit that the influence of enlightened ideas is visible to a certain degree."[184] St John of Galesh, Commemorated on October 21; St Moses (Macinic), Martyr and Confessor, Commemorated on October 21;

Hungary, Transylvania, 1757-1780, St John of Galesh, Mures, bishop, resisted Hapsburg conversion to Catholic plans, imprisoned
Hungary, Transylvania, 1757-1780, St John of Galesh, Mures; Galesh (Galesti), Mures, Transylvania, Romania; is a commune in Mures County, Transylvania, Romania composed of seven villages: Adrianu Mare / Nagyadorján Adrianu Mic / Kisadorján Bedeni / Bede Gălești Maiad / Nyomát Sânvăsii / Nyárádszentlászló (established 2004) Troița / Szentháromság commune has an absolute Székely Hungarian majority. According to the 2002 Census it has a population of 2,940 of which 93.61% or 2,752 are Hungarian.[citation needed] Saint John of Galesh, Commemorated on October 21; John of Galesh was a priest who was consecrated bishop at Bucharest, since there was no bishop for Transylvania. resisted the plans of the Hapsburg authorities to persuade Orthodox Christians to convert to Catholicism. was arrested and thrown into prison at Sibiu in 1756, then Empress Maria Theresa ordered him confined in the prison of Deva Castle until he died. John was transferred to a prison in Graz, Austria at the end of 1757. Later, he was brought to the notorious Kufstein Prison, where many Orthodox from Transylvania ended their lives. 1780, Gennady Vassie, a Serb who was incarcerated there, was able to send a letter to Empress Catherine II of Russia asking her to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox prisoners. In his letter he mentioned a Romanian priest named John, who had been kept there for twenty-four years because of his Orthodox faith. John of Galesh died in prison, and was glorified as a martyr by the Orthodox Church of Romania in 1992.

Hungary, Transylvania, Mures River Folder

Mures River

Partos, Transylvania, Romania
Partos, Transylvania, Romania; St Joseph the New of Partos the Metropolitan of Timishoara (Romania), Commemorated September 15 ;

Mures River Source (Gurghiu Mountains)

Mures River 1 (Tirgu Mures)

Tirgu Mures, Transylvania (Mures River 1)
Tirgu Mures, Transylvania (Mures River 1);

Hungary, Transylvania, Mures River 1, Aries River Folder

Aries River

Bihor Mountains, Transylvania
Bihor Mountains, Transylvania ;

Aries River Source (Bihor Mountains)
Bihor Mountains, Transylvania ;

Aries River 1 (Ariesul Mare River)

Hungary, Transylvania, Mures 1, Aries River 1, Ariesul Mare River Folder, Laze and Neagra Rivers, Arad

Ariesul Mare River

Ariesul Mare River Source, Bihor Mountains

Ariesul Mare River 1 (Arieseni)

Areisul Mare River 2 (Albae)

Ariesul Mare River 3 (Lazes and Neagra Rivers)

Neagra River

Neagra River Source (Bihor Mountains

Laze River

Laze River Source (Bihor Mountains)

Laze River Mouth (Neagra River Mouth, Ariesul Mare River 3 )

Lazes, near Arad, Transylvania
Lazes could mean the region of the Lazes River in Romania, but it probably is Laze in Bosnia and Herzegovina, or it could be neither; however, they are both on the way from Armenia to Albania. GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, APOSTLE TO ARMENIA (23 March 332);

Ariesul Mare River Mouth (Aries River 1)

Aries River 2 (Salciuade Jos)

Aries River 3 (Rimetea River)

Hungary, Transylvania, Mures 1, Aries River 3, Rimetea River Folder, Rimet Monastery

Rimetea River

Rimetea River Source

Rimetea,Transylvania (Rimet Monastery, Rimet Creek, Rimetea River Source)
Rimetea; St Gelasius of Rimet, Commemorated on June 30;

Rimetea River Mouth (Buru, Aries River 3)

Aries River 4 (Turda)

Aries River Mouth (Mures River 1)

Hungary, Transylvania, Mures River 2, Tarnava River Folder

Tarnava River

Tarnava River Source (Tarnava Mare and Tarnava Mica)
Tarnava River;

Blaj Castle prison, Transylvania
Blaj Castle prison, Transylvania ; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Tarnava River Mouth (Mures River 2)

Tarnava Mica River

Gurghiu Mountains, Transylvania

Tarnava Mica River Source (Gurghiu Mountains)
Tarnava Mica River

Tarnava Mica River 1 (Sovata)
Sovata

Tarnava Mare River

Tarnava Mare River Source (Gurghiu Mountains)
Tarnava Mare River;

Tarnava Mare River 1 (Bisericani Monestary)

Bisericani Monestary Simon Mountain, Transylvania
This location chosen because: This is the only Bisericani Commune in the mountains. Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated December 31 ;

Tarnava Mare River 2 (Sighisoara)
Sighisoara;

Mures River 2 (Alba, Tarnava River)

Alba Iulia, Romania (capital of Principality of Transylvania, Mures River 2)
Alba Iulia, Romania (capital of Principality of Transylvania) ; St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ; Icon of the Mother of God of Lubyatov, Commemorated on March 19 ; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Alba county, Transylvania (Mures River 2)
Alba county, Transylvania; St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ;

Salishtea, Transylvania, Romania (Mures River 2)
Salishtea of Sibiu; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ;

Orashtie, Transylvania, Romania (Mures River 2)
Orashtie, Transylvania, Romania (Mures River 2) ; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ;

Ciorara-Sebesh, Transylvania (Salishtea, Mures River 2)
Ciorara-Sebesh, Transylvania (Salishtea, near Mures River) ; St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ;

Ciorara, Transylvania (Salishtea, Mures River 2)
Sofronie of Cioara; Ciorara-Sebesh, Transylvania (Salishtea, near Mures River) ; St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ;

Mures River 3 (Deva)

Prislop Monastery, Transylvania (Western Romania, Mures River 3) 16th Century
Prislop Monastery in Southwest Romania ; St John of Prislop, Commemorated September 13 ;

Deva, Transylvania, Romania (Mures River 3)
Deva, Transylvania (Mures River 3) ; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ; St John of Galesh, Commemorated October 21 ;

Deva Castle, prison of Deva Castle, Transylvania, after 1242
Fortress of Deva; St John of Galesh, Commemorated October 21 ;

Mures River 4 (Arad)

Lipova, Transylvania, Romania (Mures River 4)
Lipova in Arad County ; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ;

Arad, Transylvania, Romania (Mures River 4)
Arad ; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Mures River Mouth (Szeged, Hungary, Tisza River 12)

Neagra River Mouth (Ariesul River )

Hungary, Transylvania, Somes River Folder

Somes River

Apuseni Mountains, Transylvania
Apuseni Mountains; Western border of Transylvania; St Constantine Brancoveanu, Commemorated on August 16 ; St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania;

Somes River Source 2 (Apuseni Mountains)

Ardeal (Cluj, aka Transylvania, Somes River Source 2)
Transylvania; Ardeal; Martyr John the Wallachian of Romania, Commemorated on May 12; Icon of the Mother of God of Kasperov, Commemorated on June 29; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24; Martyr John the Wallachian of Romania, Commemorated on May 12;

Ardeal, Transylvania (between the mountains)
Ardeal, Transylvania (between the mountains); St Sophronius the Confessor of Ciorara in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ; St Iorest Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Somesul Mic River (Somes River from Cluj to Dej)

Somes River 1 (Dej)

Hungary, Transylvania, Somes River 1, Somesul Mare River Folder, from Rodna to Dej

Somesul Mare River (Somes River from Rodna to Dej)

Rodna Mountains, Transylvania
Rodna Mountains, Transylvania ;

Somes River Source 1 (Rodna Mountains, Prislop Pass)

Prislop Pass, Transylvania, Romania and Moldova, Source of Somes and Viseu Rivers
Prislop Pass, Transylvania, Romania and Moldova; St John of Prislop, Commomorated September 13 ;

Somesul Mare River (Somes Riveer from Rodna to Dej)

Somes River 2

Somes River 3 (Jibou)

Simleu Silvanici, Transylvania, Eastern Hungary
Simleu Silvanici, Transylvania, Eastern Hungary ; Polish King Stephen Bathory 1579 ; Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂœElets-ChernigovÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ; Commemorated on February 5;

Somes River 4

Somes River 5

Hungary, Transylvania, Somes River 5, Lapus River Folder

Lapus River

Lapus Mountains, Transylvania
Lapus Mountains, Transylvania;

Maramures County, Transylvania (Lapus River)
Maramures County; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24;

Maramures Mountains Natural Park
Maramures Mountains Natural Park; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24;

Lapus River Source (Lapus Mountains)
Lapus Mountains;

Lapus River 1

Lapus River 2

Lapus River 3 (Lapus)

Lapus River 4 (Inau)

Inau, Transylvania (Lapus River 4)
Inau or Targu Lapus ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â™; St Sava Brancovici the Metropolitan of Ardeal, and the Confessor of Romania, Commemorated on April 24;

Lapus River 5 (Razoare)

Lapus River 6 (Prislop)

Prislop, Transylvania (Lapus River 6)
Prislop, Transylvania (Lapus River 6) ; St John of Prislop, Commemorated September 13 ;

Lapus River 7

Lapus River 8 (Remecioara)

Lapus River 9 (Coruia, Baia Mare)

Lapus River 10 (Lapusel, Baia Mare)

Baia Mare, Transylvania (Lapus River 10)
Baia Mare, Maramures County; St Joseph the Confessor of Maramures, Commemorated on April 24; Venerable Cyriacus of Bisericani, Romania, Commemorated on December 31 ;

Lapus River Mouth (Somes River 5)

Somes River 6 (Satu Mare)

Somes River Mouth (Tisza River 6)

Hungary, Transylvania, Latorica River Folder

Latorica River

Latorica River Source (Ukrainian Carpathians)
Latorica River;

Latorica River 1

Latorica River 2 (Mukachev)

Mukachev Castle, Transylvania, Hungary (Latorica River 2)
Mukachev Castle; Icon of the Mother of God "the Merciful", Commemorated December 27 ;

Mukachev, Hungary (Transylvania, Latorica River 2, or Western Ukraine)
Mukachev; Nikolsk monastery in the city of Mukachev; contains a venerated copy of Icon of the Mother of God "the Merciful", Commemorated November 12; Icon of the Mother of God "the Merciful", Commemorated December 27 ;

Saint Nicholas Monastery (Latorica River 2, Hungary) 1090's
Saint Nicholas Monastery (Mukacheve); Icon of the Mother of God ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂœAssuage My SorrowsÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ, Commemorated on October 9 ;

Latorica River 3

Latorica River Mouth (Bodrog River)

Hungary, Transylvania, Banat and Bega River Folder, Timisoara

Poiana Rusca Mountains, Source of the Bega River and Canal

Bega River and Canal in the Banat

Bega Poieni River

Caransebes River in the Banat

Caransebes River in the Banat Source

Caransebes River Mouth (Bega Canal 1)

Bega River Mouth (Tisza River Mouth, Danube River 9) from Timisoara

Lazarevo, Banat, Transylvania, or Serbia (Tisza River 14)
Lazarevo, Serbia; Righteous Juliana of Lazarevo, Murom, Commemorated on January 2 ;

Banat region, Transylvania (Timishoara, Bega River and Canal)
Banat region; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ;

Timishoara, Banat Region, Transylvania, Romania, Art Capital of EU
Timishoara, Romania; St Joseph the New of Partos the Metropolitan of Timishoara (Romania), Commemorated September 15 ; Venerable Bessarion Sarai the Confessor in Romania, Commemorated October 21 ;

Bega Luncanilor

Orsova River in the Banat

Orsovo River Source

Orsovo River Mouth (Danube River 10.7)

Bela Crkva River in the Banat

Bela Crkva River in the Banat Source

Bela Crkva River in the Banat Mouth (Danube River 10)

Pancevo River in the Banat

Pancevo River in the Banat Source

Secul, Transylvania, Romania, (Pancevo River 1)
Secul; Secu (and Secu Creek?, and Secu (ÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂœBeheadingÃƒÂƒÃ‚Â¢ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚Â€ÃƒÂ‚Ã‚ÂÂÂÂ) Monastery); Venerable Paisius Velichkovsky, Commemorated November 15 ; Venerable Daniel the Hesychast;

Pancevo River in the Banat Mouth (Belgrade, Danube River 9, From Timisoara)