England, 1701-1799, 18th Century Folder, Great Britain, Methodists.kmz

England, 1701-1799, 18th Century Folder, Great Britain, Methodists

England, 1702-1714, Queen Anne, 1st King of Great Britain, 17 pregnancies no h, protestant
England, 1702-1714, King of Great Britain, Queen Anne ; George Frederick Handel of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; Timothy Cutler of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; ELIE NAUD (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722 ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); THOMAS KEN, BISHOP AND NON-JUROR (21 MAR 1711); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761); George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) , Commemorated June 16 ; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, 1705-1753, Saint, George Berkeley (to be is to be perceived)
England, 1705-1753, Saint, George Berkeley (to be is to be perceived); George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) ;

England, 1703-1737, Caroline of Ansbach, Queen to George II, Protector of the Realm
Leicester House Square, home of Caroline and George II; Caroline of Ansbach. Queen to George II; of Brandenburg-Ansbach (Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline; 1 March 1683 – 20 November 1737[1]) was Queen of Great Britain and Ireland as the wife of King George II. father, Margrave John Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach, belonged to a branch of the House of Hohenzollern and was the ruler of a small German state, the Principality of Ansbach. Caroline was orphaned at a young age and moved to the enlightened court of her guardians, King Frederick I and Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia. At the Prussian court, her previously limited education was widened, and she adopted the liberal outlook possessed by Sophia Charlotte, who became her good friend and whose views influenced Caroline all her life. a young woman, Caroline was much sought-after as a bride. After rejecting the suit of the nominal King of Spain, Archduke Charles of Austria, she married George Augustus, the third-in-line to the British throne and heir apparent to the Electorate of Hanover. They had eight children, seven of whom grew to adulthood. moved permanently to Britain in 1714 when her husband became Prince of Wales. As Princess of Wales, she joined her husband in rallying political opposition to his father King George I. In 1717, her husband was expelled from court after a family row. Caroline came to be associated with Robert Walpole, an opposition politician who was a former government minister. Walpole rejoined the government in 1720, and Caroline's husband and King George I reconciled publicly, on Walpole's advice. Over the next few years, Walpole rose to become the leading minister. became queen and electress consort upon her husband's accession in 1727. Her eldest son, Frederick, became Prince of Wales. He was a focus for the opposition, like his father before him, and Caroline's relationship with him was strained. princess and as queen, Caroline was known for her political influence, which she exercised through and for Walpole. Her tenure included four regencies during her husband's stays in Hanover, and she is credited with strengthening the House of Hanover's place in Britain during a period of political instability. Caroline was widely mourned by her political allies following her death in 1737, as well as by the King, who refused to remarry. 1 Early life 1.1 Education 2 Marriage 3 Princess of Wales 4 Queen and regent 5 Final years 6 Legacy 7 Titles, styles, honours and arms 7.1 Titles and styles 7.2 Honours 7.3 Arms 8 Issue 9 Ancestry 10 Notes 11 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External links life[edit] in the 17th century Caroline was born on 1 March 1683 at Ansbach, the daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, and his second wife, Princess Eleonore Erdmuthe of Saxe-Eisenach.[2][3] Her father was the ruler of one of the smallest German states; he died of smallpox at the age of 32, when Caroline was three years old. Caroline and her only full sibling, her younger brother Margrave William Frederick, left Ansbach with their mother, who returned to her native Eisenach.[4] In 1692, Caroline's widowed mother was pushed into an unhappy marriage with the Elector of Saxony, and she and her two children moved to the Saxon court at Dresden. Eleonore Erdmuthe was widowed again two years later, after her unfaithful husband contracted smallpox from his mistress.[5] Eleonore remained in Saxony for another two years, until her death in 1696.[3][6] The orphaned Caroline and William Frederick returned to Ansbach to stay with their elder half-brother, Margrave George Frederick II. George Frederick was a youth with little interest in parenting a girl, and so Caroline soon moved to Lützenburg outside Berlin, where she entered into the care of her new guardians, Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg, and his wife, Sophia Charlotte, who had been a friend of Eleonore Erdmuthe.[7] and Sophia Charlotte became king and queen of Prussia in 1701. The queen was the daughter of Dowager Electress Sophia of Hanover, and the sister of George, Elector of Hanover. She was renowned for her intelligence and strong character, and her uncensored and liberal court attracted a great many scholars, including philosopher Gottfried Leibniz.[8] Caroline was exposed to a lively intellectual environment quite different from anything she had experienced previously. Before she began her education under Sophia Charlotte's care, Caroline had received little formal education; her handwriting remained poor throughout her life.[3][9] With her lively mind, Caroline developed into a scholar of considerable ability.[8] She and Sophia Charlotte developed a strong relationship in which Caroline was treated as a surrogate daughter;[10] the queen once declared Berlin was "a desert" without Caroline whenever she left temporarily for Ansbach.[3][9] of the royal couple and their seven children who survived infancy intelligent and attractive woman, Caroline was much sought-after as a bride. Dowager Electress Sophia called her "the most agreeable Princess in Germany".[11] She was considered for the hand of Archduke Charles of Austria, who was a candidate for the throne of Spain and later became Holy Roman Emperor. Charles made official overtures to her in 1703, and the match was encouraged by King Frederick of Prussia. After some consideration, Caroline refused in 1704, as she would not convert from Lutheranism to Catholicism.[3][12] Early in the following year, Queen Sophia Charlotte died on a visit to her native Hanover.[13] Caroline was devastated, writing to Leibniz, "The calamity has overwhelmed me with grief and sickness, and it is only the hope that I may soon follow her that consoles me."[13] June 1705, Queen Sophia Charlotte's nephew, Prince George Augustus of Hanover, visited the Ansbach court, supposedly incognito, to inspect Caroline, as his father the Elector did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he himself had.[14] The nephew of three childless uncles, George Augustus was under pressure to marry and father an heir to prevent endangering the Hanoverian succession.[15] He had heard reports of Caroline's "incomparable beauty and mental attributes".[16] He immediately took a liking to her "good character" and the British envoy reported that George Augustus "would not think of anybody else after her".[3][17] For her part, Caroline was not fooled by the prince's disguise, and found her suitor attractive.[18] He was the heir apparent of his father's Electorate of Hanover and third-in-line to the British throne of his distant cousin Queen Anne, after his grandmother Dowager Electress Sophia and his father the Elector.[18] 22 August 1705, Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding to George Augustus; they were married that evening in the palace chapel at Herrenhausen.[2][3][19] By May of the following year, Caroline was pregnant, and her first child Prince Frederick was born on 20 January 1707.[20] A few months after the birth, in July, Caroline fell seriously ill with smallpox followed by pneumonia. Her baby was kept away from her, but George Augustus remained at her side devotedly, and caught and survived the infection himself.[21] Over the next seven years, Caroline had three more children, Anne, Amelia, and Caroline, all of whom were born in Hanover.[22] Howard, Countess of Suffolk (pictured) was one of Caroline's Women of the Bedchamber in addition to being one of Caroline's husband's mistresses. Augustus and Caroline had a successful and loving marriage, though he continued to keep mistresses, as was customary for the time.[23] Caroline was well aware of his infidelities, as they were well known and he told her about them. His two best-known mistresses were Henrietta Howard, later Countess of Suffolk, and, from 1735, Amalie von Wallmoden, Countess of Yarmouth. Howard was one of Caroline's Women of the Bedchamber and became Mistress of the Robes when her husband inherited a peerage in 1731; she retired in 1734.[24] In contrast with her mother-in-law and husband, Caroline was known for her marital fidelity; she never made any embarrassing scenes nor did she take lovers.[23] She preferred her husband's mistresses to be ladies-in-waiting, as that way she believed she could keep a closer eye on them.[25] succession of her husband's family to the British throne was still insecure, as Queen Anne's half-brother James Stuart contested the Hanoverian claim, and Queen Anne and Caroline's grandmother-in-law Dowager Electress Sophia had fallen out. refused permission for any of the Hanoverians to visit Britain in her lifetime.[26] Caroline wrote to Leibniz, "I accept the comparison which you draw, though all too flattering, between me and Queen Elizabeth as a good omen. Like Elizabeth, the Electress's rights are denied her by a jealous sister [Queen Anne], and she will never be sure of the English crown until her accession to the throne."[27] June 1714, Dowager Electress Sophia died in Caroline's arms at the age of 83, and Caroline's father-in-law became heir presumptive to Queen Anne. Just weeks later, Anne died and the Elector of Hanover was proclaimed as her successor, becoming George I of Great Britain.[28] of Wales[edit] Princess of Wales, painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller in 1716 Augustus sailed to England in September 1714, and Caroline and two of her daughters followed in October.[29] Her journey across the North Sea from The Hague to Margate was the only sea voyage she took in her life.[30] Their young son, Prince Frederick, remained in Hanover for the rest of George I's reign to be brought up by private tutors.[22] the accession of George I in 1714, Caroline's husband automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay. Shortly afterwards, he was invested as Prince of Wales, whereupon she became Princess of Wales. was the first woman to receive the title at the same time as her husband received his.[18] She was the first Princess of Wales in over two hundred years, the last one being Catherine of Aragon. As George I had repudiated his wife Sophia Dorothea of Celle in 1694 prior to his becoming King of Great Britain, there was no queen consort, and Caroline was the highest-ranking woman in the kingdom.[22] Augustus and Caroline made a concerted effort to "anglicise" by acquiring knowledge of England's language, people, politics and customs.[31] Two separate courts developed with strong contrasts; the old king's had German courtiers and government ministers, while the Wales's court attracted English nobles out of favour with the King, and was considerably more popular with the British people. George Augustus and Caroline gradually became centres of the political opposition to the King.[32] years after their arrival in England, Caroline suffered a stillbirth, which her friend the Countess of Buckeburg blamed on the incompetence of English doctors,[33] but the following year she had another son, Prince George William in November. the baptism, her husband fell out with his father over the choice of godparents, leading to the couple's placement under house arrest at St. James's Palace prior to their banishment from court.[34] was originally allowed to stay with their children, but refused as she believed her place was with her husband.[35] She and her husband moved into Leicester House, while their children remained in the care of the King.[36] Caroline fell sick with worry, and fainted during a secret visit to her children made without the King's approval.[37] By January, the King had relented and allowed Caroline unrestricted access. February, Prince George William fell ill, and the King allowed both George Augustus and Caroline to see him at Kensington Palace without any conditions. When the baby died, a post-mortem was conducted to prove that the cause of death was disease (a polyp on the heart) rather than the separation from his mother.[38] tragedy occurred in 1718, when she miscarried at Richmond Lodge, her country residence,[39] after being startled by a violent storm.[40] Over the next few years, Caroline had three more children: William, Mary and Louise.[41] In July 1725, her 11th and final pregnancy ended in a second miscarriage.[42] House became a frequent meeting place for the ministry's political opponents. Caroline struck up a friendship with politician Sir Robert Walpole, a former minister in the Whig government who led a disgruntled faction of the party. In April 1720, Walpole's wing of the Whig party reconciled with the governing wing, and Walpole and Caroline helped to effect a reconciliation between the King and her husband for the sake of public unity.[3][43] Caroline wanted to regain her three eldest daughters, who remained in the care of the King, and thought the reconciliation would lead to their return, but negotiations came to nothing. George Augustus came to believe that Walpole had tricked him into the reconciliation as part of a scheme to gain power. The prince was isolated politically when Walpole's Whigs joined the government,[44] and Leicester House played host to literary figures and wits, such as John Arbuthnot and Jonathan Swift, rather than politicians.[45] Arbuthnot told Swift that Caroline had enjoyed his Gulliver's Travels, particularly the tale of the crown prince who wore one high-heel and one low-heel in a country where the King and his party wore low heels, and the opposition wore high ones: a barely veiled reference to the political leanings of the Prince of Wales.[46] intellect far outstripped her husband's, and she read avidly. She established an extensive library at St. James's Palace. As a young woman, she corresponded with Gottfried Leibniz, the intellectual colossus who was courtier and factotum to the House of Hanover. She later facilitated the Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, arguably the most important philosophy of physics discussion of the 18th century. She helped to popularise the practice of variolation (an early type of immunisation), which had been witnessed by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Charles Maitland in Constantinople. At the direction of Caroline, six condemned prisoners were offered the chance to undergo variolation instead of execution: they all survived, as did six orphan children given the same treatment as a further test. Convinced of its medical value, Caroline had her children Amelia, Caroline and Frederick inoculated against smallpox in the same manner.[47] In praising her support for smallpox inoculation, Voltaire wrote of her, "I must say that despite all her titles and crowns, this princess was born to encourage the arts and the well-being of mankind; even on the throne she is a benevolent philosopher; and she has never lost an opportunity to learn or to manifest her generosity."[48] and regent[edit] Coronation medal of Queen Caroline in 1727 by J. Croker by Jacopo Amigoni, 1735 became queen consort on the death of her father-in-law in 1727, and she was crowned alongside her husband at Westminster Abbey on 11 October that year.[49] She was the first queen consort to be crowned since Anne of Denmark in 1603.[50] George II denounced Walpole as a "rogue and rascal" over the terms of the reconciliation with his father, Caroline advised her husband to retain Walpole as the leading minister.[3] commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George II had little choice but to accept him or risk ministerial instability.[51] secured a civil list payment of £100,000 a year for Caroline, and she was given both Somerset House and Richmond Lodge.[52] Lord Hervey called Walpole "the Queen's minister" in recognition of their close relationship.[3] the next ten years, Caroline had immense influence. She persuaded the King to adopt policies at the behest of Walpole, and persuaded Walpole against taking inflammatory actions. had absorbed the liberal opinions of her mentor, Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia, and supported clemency for the Jacobites (supporters of the rival Stuart claim to the throne), freedom of the press, and freedom of speech in Parliament.[53] the next few years, she and her husband fought a constant battle against their eldest son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, who had been left behind in Germany when they came to England. He joined the family in 1728, by which time he was an adult, had mistresses and debts, and was fond of gambling and practical jokes. He opposed his father's political beliefs, and complained of his lack of influence in government.[3][54] Regency Act 1728 made Caroline rather than Frederick regent when her husband was in Hanover for five months from May 1729. During her regency, a diplomatic incident with Portugal (where a British ship had been seized on the Tagus) was defused, and the negotiation of the Treaty of Seville between Britain and Spain was concluded.[54][55] May 1732, she was regent for four months while George II was again away in Hanover. An investigation into the penal system uncovered widespread abuses, including cruel treatment and conspiracy in the escape of wealthy convicts. Caroline pressed Walpole for reform, largely unsuccessfully.[56] In March 1733, Walpole introduced an unpopular Excise Bill to parliament, which the Queen supported, but it gathered such strong opposition that it was eventually dropped.[57] entire life in Britain was spent in the South-East of England in or around London.[58] As queen, she continued to surround herself with artists, writers and intellectuals. She collected jewellery, especially cameos and intaglios, acquired important portraits and miniatures, and enjoyed the visual arts. She commissioned works such as terracotta busts of the kings and queens of England from Michael Rysbrack,[59] and supervised a more naturalistic design of the royal gardens by William Kent and Charles Bridgeman.[60] In 1728, she rediscovered sets of sketches by Leonardo da Vinci and Hans Holbein that had been hidden in a drawer since the reign of William III.[61] eldest daughter Anne married William IV of Orange in 1734, and moved with her husband to the Netherlands. Caroline wrote to her daughter of her "indescribable" sadness at the parting.[62] Anne soon felt homesick, and travelled back to England when her husband went on campaign. Eventually, her husband and father commanded her to return to Holland.[63] years[edit] by Joseph Highmore, 1735 mid-1735, Frederick, Prince of Wales, was further dismayed when Caroline, rather than himself, again acted as regent while the King was absent in Hanover.[64] King and Queen arranged Frederick's marriage, in 1736, to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. Shortly after the wedding, George went to Hanover, and Caroline resumed her role as "Protector of the Realm". As regent, Caroline considered the reprieve of Captain John Porteous, who had been convicted of murder in Edinburgh. Before she could act, a mob stormed the jail where he was held and killed him. Caroline was appalled.[65] King's absences abroad were leading to unpopularity, and in late 1736 he made plans to return, but his ship was caught in poor weather, and it was rumoured that he had been lost at sea. Caroline was devastated, and disgusted by the insensitivity of her son, who hosted a grand dinner while the gale was blowing.[66] her regency, the Prince of Wales attempted to start a number of quarrels with his mother, whom he saw as a useful proxy to irritate the King.[3] George eventually returned in January 1737.[67] Frederick applied to Parliament unsuccessfully for an increased financial allowance that had hitherto been denied him by the King, and public disagreement over the money drove a further wedge between parents and son. the advice of Walpole, Frederick's allowance was raised in an attempt to mitigate further conflict, but by less than he had asked.[68] June 1737, Frederick informed his parents that Augusta was pregnant, and due to give birth in October. In fact, Augusta's due date was earlier and a peculiar episode followed in July in which the prince, on discovering that his wife had gone into labour, sneaked her out of Hampton Court Palace in the middle of the night, to ensure that the King and Queen could not be present at the birth.[69] and Caroline were horrified. Traditionally, royal births were witnessed by members of the family and senior courtiers to guard against supposititious children, and Augusta had been forced by her husband to ride in a rattling carriage for an hour and a half while heavily pregnant and in pain. a party including two of her daughters and Lord Hervey, the Queen raced over to St. James's Palace, where Frederick had taken Augusta.[70] Caroline was relieved to discover that Augusta had given birth to a "poor, ugly little she-mouse" rather than a "large, fat, healthy boy" as the pitiful nature of the baby made a supposititious child unlikely.[71] circumstances of the birth deepened the estrangement between mother and son.[71] According to Lord Hervey, she once remarked after seeing Frederick, "Look, there he goes—that wretch!—that villain!—I wish the ground would open this moment and sink the monster to the lowest hole in hell!"[3][72] the final years of her life, Caroline was troubled by gout in her feet,[73] but more seriously she had suffered an umbilical hernia at the birth of her final child in 1724.[74] On 9 November 1737, she felt an intense pain and, after struggling through a formal reception, took to her bed. Part of her small intestine had poked through the hernia opening.[75] Over the next few days she was bled, purged, and operated on, without anaesthetic, but there was no improvement in her condition.[76] King refused Frederick permission to see his mother,[77] a decision with which she complied; she sent her son a message of forgiveness through She asked her husband to remarry after her death, which he rejected saying he would take only mistresses; she replied "Ah, mon Dieu, cela n'empêche pas" ("My God, that doesn't prevent it").[79] 17 November, her strangulated bowel burst.[80][81] She died on 20 November 1737 at St. James's Palace.[2] was buried in Westminster Abbey on 17 December.[82] Frederick was not invited to the funeral. George Frideric Handel composed an anthem for the occasion, The Ways of Zion Do Mourn / Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline. The King arranged for a pair of matching coffins with removable sides, so that when he followed her to the grave (23 years later), they could lie together again.[83] to Caroline on the bank of the Serpentine, a picturesque lake in London created at her request was widely mourned. The Protestants lauded her moral example, and even the Jacobites acknowledged her compassion, and her intervention on the side of mercy for their compatriots.[84] During her lifetime her refusal to convert when offered the hand of Archduke Charles was used to portray her as a strong adherent to Protestantism.[3] For example, John Gay wrote of Caroline in A Letter to A Lady (1714): The pomp of titles easy faith might shake, She scorn'd an empire for religion's sake: For this, on earth, the British crown is giv'n, And an immortal crown decreed in heav'n. She was widely seen by both the public and the court as having great influence over her husband.[85] A satirical verse of the period went:[86] You may strut, dapper George, but 'twill all be in vain, We all know 'tis Queen Caroline, not you, that reign – You govern no more than Don Philip of Spain. Then if you would have us fall down and adore you, Lock up your fat spouse, as your dad did before you. memoirs of the 18th century, particularly those of John, Lord Hervey, fed perceptions that Caroline and Walpole governed her husband. Peter Quennell wrote that Hervey was the "chronicler of this remarkable coalition" and that she was Hervey's "heroine".[87] Using such sources, biographers of the 19th and 20th centuries credit her with aiding the establishment of the House of Hanover in Britain, in the face of Jacobite opposition. R. L. Arkell wrote "by her acumen and geniality, [Caroline] ensured the dynasty's rooting itself in England", and William Henry Wilkins said her "gracious and dignified personality, her lofty ideals and pure life did much to counteract the unpopularity of her husband and father-in-law, and redeem the early Georgian era from utter grossness."[88] Although modern historians tend to believe that Hervey, Wilkins and Arkell have overestimated her importance, it is nevertheless probable that Caroline of Ansbach was one of the most influential consorts in British history.[3] JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOP and THEOLOGIAN (1752) , Commemorated June 16;

England, 1705-1753, GEORGE BERKELEY. B of Cloyne, Ireland, Theologian, Immaterialism, must be percieved, only spirits & ideas
Ireland, 1705-1753, GEORGE BERKELEY. Bishop of Cloyne, Cork, Southern Ireland, Theologian, Immaterialism, must be percieved Berkeley (/ˈbɑːrkli/;[5][6] 12 March 1685 – 14 January 1753) – known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland) – an Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism" (later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others). theory denies the existence of material substance and instead contends that familiar objects like tables and chairs are ideas perceived by the mind and, as a result, cannot exist without being perceived. is also known for his critique of abstraction, an important premise in his argument for immaterialism.[7] 1709, Berkeley published his first major work, An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, in which he discussed the limitations of human vision and advanced the theory that the proper objects of sight are not material objects, but light and colour.[8] foreshadowed his chief philosophical work, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, in 1710, which, after its poor reception, he rewrote in dialogue form and published under the title Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous in 1713.[9] this book, Berkeley's views were represented by Philonous (Greek: "lover of mind"), while Hylas ("hyle", Greek: "matter") embodies the Irish thinker's opponents, in particular John Locke. argued against Isaac Newton's doctrine of absolute space, time and motion in De Motu[10] (On Motion), published 1721. arguments were a precursor to the views of Mach and Einstein.[11][12] 1732, he published Alciphron, a Christian apologetic against the free-thinkers, in 1734, he published The Analyst, a critique of the foundations of calculus, which was influential in the development of mathematics.[13] in Berkeley's work increased after World War II because he tackled many of the issues of paramount interest to philosophy in the 20th century, such as the problems of perception, the difference between primary and secondary qualities, and the importance of language.[14] section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) was born at his family home, Dysart Castle, near Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ireland, the eldest son of William Berkeley, a cadet of the noble family of Berkeley whose ancestry can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxon period and who had served as feudal lords and landowners in Gloucester, England. Little is known of his mother. was educated at Kilkenny College and attended Trinity College Dublin, where he was elected a Scholar in 1702, being awarded BA in 1704 and MA and a Fellowship in 1707. He remained at Trinity College after completion of his degree as a tutor and Greek lecturer. earliest publication was on mathematics, but the first that brought him notice was his An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision, first published in 1709. the essay, Berkeley examines visual distance, magnitude, position and problems of sight and touch. While this work raised much controversy at the time, its conclusions are now accepted as an established part of the theory of optics. next publication to appear was the Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge in 1710, had great success and gave him a lasting reputation, though few accepted his theory that nothing exists outside the mind. This was followed in 1713 by Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous, in which he propounded his system of philosophy, the leading principle of which is that the world, as represented by our senses, depends for its existence on being perceived. this theory, the Principles gives the exposition and the Dialogues the defence. of his main objectives was to combat the prevailing materialism of his time. theory was largely received with ridicule, while even those such as Samuel Clarke and William Whiston, who did acknowledge his "extraordinary genius," were nevertheless convinced that his first principles were false. and Europe afterwards, Berkeley visited England and was received into the circle of Addison, Pope and Steele. the period between 1714 and 1720, he interspersed his academic endeavours with periods of extensive travel in Europe, including one of the most extensive Grand Tours of the length and breadth of Italy ever undertaken.[15] 1721, he took Holy Orders in the Church of Ireland, earning his doctorate in divinity, and once again chose to remain at Trinity College Dublin, lecturing this time in Divinity and in Hebrew. In 1721/2 he was made Dean of Dromore and, in 1724, Dean of Derry. 1723, following her violent quarrel with Jonathan Swift, who had been her intimate friend for many years, Esther Vanhomrigh (for whom Swift had created the nickname "Vanessa") named Berkeley her co-heir along with the barrister Robert Marshall; her choice of legatees caused a good deal of surprise since she did not know either of them well, although Berkeley as a very young man had known her father. said generously that he did not grudge Berkeley his inheritance, much of which vanished in a lawsuit in any event. story that Berkeley and Marshall disregarded a condition of the inheritance that they must publish the correspondence between Swift and Vanessa is probably untrue. 1725, he began the project of founding a college in Bermuda for training ministers and missionaries in the colony, in pursuit of which he gave up his deanery with its income of £1100. and America A group portrait of Berkeley and his entourage by John Smibert 1728, he married Anne Forster, daughter of John Forster, Chief Justice of the Irish Common Pleas, and his first wife Rebecca Monck. then went to America on a salary of £100 per annum. He landed near Newport, Rhode Island, where he bought a plantation at Middletown – the famous "Whitehall". purchased several enslaved Africans to work on the plantation.[16][17] It has been claimed that "he introduced Palladianism into America by borrowing a design from [William] Kent's Designs of Inigo Jones for the door-case of his house in Rhode Island, Whitehall."[18] also brought to New England John Smibert, the Scottish artist he "discovered" in Italy, who is generally regarded as the founding father of American portrait painting.[19] he drew up plans for the ideal city he planned to build on Bermuda.[20] lived at the plantation while he waited for funds for his college to arrive. The funds, however, were not forthcoming. the withdrawal from London of his own persuasive energies, opposition gathered force; and the Prime Minister, Walpole grew steadily more sceptical and lukewarm. At last it became clear that the essential Parliamentary grant would be not forthcoming"[21] in 1732 he left America and returned to London. and Anne had four children who survived infancy: Henry, George, William and Julia, and at least two other children who died in infancy. William's death in 1751 was a great cause of grief to his father. in Ireland was nominated to be the Bishop of Cloyne in the Church of Ireland on 18 January 1734. He was consecrated as such on 19 May 1734. He was the Bishop of Cloyne until his death on 14 January 1753, although he died at Oxford (see below). work living in London's Saville Street, he took part in efforts to create a home for the city's abandoned children. The Foundling Hospital was founded by Royal Charter in 1739, and Berkeley is listed as one of its original governors. works last two publications were Siris: A Chain of Philosophical Reflexions and Inquiries Concerning the Virtues of Tarwater, And divers other Subjects connected together and arising one from another (1744) and Further Thoughts on Tar-water (1752). Pine tar is an effective antiseptic and disinfectant when applied to cuts on the skin, but Berkeley argued for the use of pine tar as a broad panacea for diseases. His 1744 work on tar-water sold more copies than any of his other books during Berkeley's lifetime.[22] remained at Cloyne until 1752, when he retired. With his wife and daughter Julia he went to Oxford to live with his son George and supervise his education.[23] died soon afterward and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. affectionate disposition and genial manners made him much loved and held in warm regard by many of his contemporaries. Anne outlived her husband by many years, and died in 1786.[24] to philosophy Main article: Subjective idealism to Berkeley there are only two kinds of things: spirits and ideas. Spirits are simple, active beings which produce and perceive ideas; ideas are passive beings which are produced and perceived.[25] use of the concepts of "spirit" and "idea" is central in Berkeley's philosophy. As used by him, these concepts are difficult to translate into modern terminology. His concept of "spirit" is close to the concept of "conscious subject" or of "mind", and the concept of "idea" is close to the concept of "sensation" or "state of mind" or "conscious experience". Berkeley denied the existence of matter as a metaphysical substance, but did not deny the existence of physical objects such as apples or mountains ("I do not argue against the existence of any one thing that we can apprehend, either by sense or reflection. That the things I see with mine eyes and touch with my hands do exist, really exist, I make not the least question. The only thing whose existence we deny, is that which philosophers call matter or corporeal substance. And in doing of this, there is no damage done to the rest of mankind, who, I dare say, will never miss it.", Principles #35). This basic claim of Berkeley's thought, his "idealism", is sometimes and somewhat derisively called "immaterialism" or, occasionally, subjective idealism. In Principles #3, he wrote, using a combination of Latin and English, esse is percipi (to be is to be perceived), most often if slightly inaccurately attributed to Berkeley as the pure Latin phrase esse est percipi.[26] The phrase appears associated with him in authoritative philosophical sources, e.g., "Berkeley holds that there are no such mind-independent things, that, in the famous phrase, esse est percipi (aut percipere)—to be is to be perceived (or to perceive)."[22] Hence, human knowledge is reduced to two elements: that of spirits and of ideas (Principles #86). In contrast to ideas, a spirit cannot be perceived. A person's spirit, which perceives ideas, is to be comprehended intuitively by inward feeling or reflection (Principles #89). For Berkeley, we have no direct 'idea' of spirits, albeit we have good reason to believe in the existence of other spirits, for their existence explains the purposeful regularities we find in experience[27] ("It is plain that we cannot know the existence of other spirits otherwise than by their operations, or the ideas by them excited in us", Dialogues #145). This is the solution that Berkeley offers to the problem of other minds. Finally, the order and purposefulness of the whole of our experience of the world and especially of nature overwhelms us into believing in the existence of an extremely powerful and intelligent spirit that causes that order. According to Berkeley, reflection on the attributes of that external spirit leads us to identify it with God. Thus a material thing such as an apple consists of a collection of ideas (shape, color, taste, physical properties, etc.) which are caused in the spirits of humans by the spirit of God. Theology A convinced adherent of Christianity, Berkeley believed God to be present as an immediate cause of all our experiences. He did not evade the question of the external source of the diversity of the sense data at the disposal of the human individual. He strove simply to show that the causes of sensations could not be things, because what we called things, and considered without grounds to be something different from our sensations, were built up wholly from sensations. There must consequently be some other external source of the inexhaustible diversity of sensations. The source of our sensations, Berkeley concluded, could only be God; He gave them to man, who had to see in them signs and symbols that carried God's word.[28] Here is Berkeley's proof of the existence of God: Whatever power I may have over my own thoughts, I find the ideas actually perceived by Sense have not a like dependence on my will. When in broad daylight I open my eyes, it is not in my power to choose whether I shall see or no, or to determine what particular objects shall present themselves to my view; and so likewise as to the hearing and other senses; the ideas imprinted on them are not creatures of my will. There is therefore some other Will or Spirit that produces them. (Berkeley. Principles #29) As T. I. Oizerman explained: Berkeley's mystic idealism (as Kant aptly christened it) claimed that nothing separated man and God (except materialist misconceptions, of course), since nature or matter did not exist as a reality independent of consciousness. The revelation of God was directly accessible to man, according to this doctrine; it was the sense-perceived world, the world of man's sensations, which came to him from on high for him to decipher and so grasp the divine purpose.[28] Berkeley believed that God is not the distant engineer of Newtonian machinery that in the fullness of time led to the growth of a tree in the university quadrangle. Rather, the perception of the tree is an idea that God's mind has produced in the mind, and the tree continues to exist in the quadrangle when "nobody" is there, simply because God is an infinite mind that perceives all. The philosophy of David Hume concerning causality and objectivity is an elaboration of another aspect of Berkeley's philosophy. A.A. Luce, the most eminent Berkeley scholar of the 20th century, constantly stressed the continuity of Berkeley's philosophy. The fact that Berkeley returned to his major works throughout his life, issuing revised editions with only minor changes, also counts against any theory that attributes to him a significant volte-face.[citation needed] arguments See also: Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous Locke (Berkeley's intellectual predecessor) states that we define an object by its primary and secondary qualities. He takes heat as an example of a secondary quality. If you put one hand in a bucket of cold water, and the other hand in a bucket of warm water, then put both hands in a bucket of lukewarm water, one of your hands is going to tell you that the water is cold and the other that the water is hot. Locke says that since two different objects (both your hands) perceive the water to be hot and cold, then the heat is not a quality of the water. Locke used this argument to distinguish primary from secondary qualities, Berkeley extends it to cover primary qualities in the same way. For example, he says that size is not a quality of an object because the size of the object depends on the distance between the observer and the object, or the size of the observer. Since an object is a different size to different observers, then size is not a quality of the object. Berkeley rejects shape with a similar argument and then asks: if neither primary qualities nor secondary qualities are of the object, then how can we say that there is anything more than the qualities we observe?[clarification needed] is the idea that there is no objective, universal truth; it is a state of dependence in which the existence of one independent object is solely dependent on that of another. According to Locke, characteristics of primary qualities are mind-independent, such as shape, size, etc., whereas secondary qualities are mind-dependent, for example, taste and color. George Berkeley refuted John Locke's belief on primary and secondary qualities because Berkeley believed that "we cannot abstract the primary qualities (e.g shape) from secondary ones (e.g color)".[29] Berkeley argued that perception is dependent on the distance between the observer and the object, and "thus, we cannot conceive of mechanist material bodies which are extended but not (in themselves) colored".[29] What perceived can be the same type of quality, but completely opposite from each other because of different positions and perceptions, what we perceive can be different even when the same types of things consist of contrary qualities. Secondary qualities aid in people's conception of primary qualities in an object, like how the color of an object leads people to recognize the object itself. More specifically, the color red can be perceived in apples, strawberries, and tomatoes, yet we would not know what these might look like without its color. We would also be unaware of what the color red looked like if red paint, or any object that has a perceived red color, failed to exist. From this, we can see that colors cannot exist on their own and can solely represent a group of perceived objects. Therefore, both primary and secondary qualities are mind-dependent: they cannot exist without our minds. Berkeley was a philosopher who was against rationalism and "classical" empiricism. He was a "subjective idealist" or "empirical idealist", who believed that reality is constructed entirely of immaterial, conscious minds and their ideas; everything that exists is somehow dependent on the subject perceiving it, except the subject themselves. He refuted the existence of abstract objects that many other philosophers believed to exist, notably Plato. According to Berkeley, "an abstract object does not exist in space or time and which is therefore entirely non-physical and non-mental";[30] however, this argument contradicts with his relativity argument. If "esse est percipi",[31] (Latin meaning that to exist is to be perceived) is true, then the objects in the relativity argument made by Berkeley can either exist or not. Berkeley believed that only the minds' perceptions and the Spirit that perceives are what exists in reality; what people perceive every day is only the idea of an object's existence, but the objects themselves are not perceived. Berkeley also discussed how, at times, materials cannot be perceived by oneself, and the mind of oneself cannot understand the objects. However, there also exists an "omnipresent, eternal mind"[32] that Berkeley believed to consist of God and the Spirit, both omniscient and all-perceiving. According to Berkeley, God is the entity who controls everything, yet Berkeley also argued that "abstract object[s] do not exist in space or time".[30] In other words, as Warnock argues, Berkeley "had recognized that he could not square with his own talk of spirits, of our minds and of God; for these are perceivers and not among objects of perception. Thus he says, rather weakly and without elucidation, that in addition to our ideas we also have notions—we know what it means to speak of spirits and their operations."[33] the relativity argument violates the idea of immaterialism. Berkeley's immaterialism argues that "esse est percipi (aut percipere)",[34] which in English is to be is to be perceived (or to perceive). That is saying only what perceived or perceives is real, and without our perception or God's nothing can be real. Yet, if the relativity argument, also by Berkeley, argues that the perception of an object depends on the different positions, then this means that what perceived can either be real or not because the perception does not show that whole picture and the whole picture cannot be perceived. Berkeley also believes that "when one perceives mediately, one perceives one idea by means of perceiving another".[35] By this, it can be elaborated that if the standards of what perceived at first are different, what perceived after that can be different, as well. In the heat perception described above, one hand perceived the water to be hot and the other hand perceived the water to be cold due to relativity. If applying the idea "to be is to be perceived", the water should be both cold and hot because both perceptions are perceived by different hands. However, the water cannot be cold and hot at the same time for it self-contradicts, so this shows that what perceived is not always true because it sometimes can break the law of noncontradiction. In this case, "it would be arbitrary anthropocentrism to claim that humans have special access to the true qualities of objects".[4] The truth for different people can be different, and humans are limited to accessing the absolute truth due to relativity. Summing up, nothing can be absolutely true due to relativity or the two arguments, to be is to be perceived and the relativity argument, do not always work together. theory of vision his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, Berkeley frequently criticised the views of the Optic Writers, a title that seems to include Molyneux, Wallis, Malebranche and Descartes.[36] sections 1–51, Berkeley argued against the classical scholars of optics by holding that: spatial depth, as the distance that separates the perceiver from the perceived object is itself invisible. is, we do not see space directly or deduce its form logically using the laws of optics. Space for Berkeley is no more than a contingent expectation that visual and tactile sensations will follow one another in regular sequences that we come to expect through habit. goes on to argue that visual cues, such as the perceived extension or 'confusion' of an object, can only be used to indirectly judge distance, because the viewer learns to associate visual cues with tactile sensations. gives the following analogy regarding indirect distance perception: one perceives distance indirectly just as one perceives a person's embarrassment indirectly. When looking at an embarrassed person, we infer indirectly that the person is embarrassed by observing the red color on the person's face. We know through experience that a red face tends to signal embarrassment, as we've learned to associate the two. question concerning the visibility of space was central to the Renaissance perspective tradition and its reliance on classical optics in the development of pictorial representations of spatial depth. matter was debated by scholars since the 11th-century Arab polymath and mathematician Alhazen (al-Hasan Ibn al-Haytham) affirmed in experimental contexts the visibility of space. issue, which was raised in Berkeley's theory of vision, was treated at length in the Phenomenology of Perception of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, in the context of confirming the visual perception of spatial depth (la profondeur), and by way of refuting Berkeley's thesis.[37] wrote about the perception of size in addition to that of distance. He is frequently misquoted as believing in size–distance invariance—a view held by the Optic Writers. This idea is that we scale the image size according to distance in a geometrical manner. The error may have become commonplace because the eminent historian and psychologist E. G. Boring perpetuated it.[38] In fact, Berkeley argued that the same cues that evoke distance also evoke size, and that we do not first see size and then calculate distance.[39] is worth quoting Berkeley's words on this issue (Section 53): inclines men to this mistake (beside the humour of making one see by geometry) is, that the same perceptions or ideas which suggest distance, do also suggest magnitude ... I say they do not first suggest distance, and then leave it to the judgement to use that as a medium, whereby to collect the magnitude; but they have as close and immediate a connexion with the magnitude as with the distance; and suggest magnitude as independently of distance, as they do distance independently of magnitude. claimed that his visual theories were “vindicated” by a 1728 report regarding the recovery of vision in a 13-year-old boy operated for congenital cataracts by surgeon William Cheselden. 2021, the name of Cheselden's patient was published for the first time: Daniel Dolins.[40] Berkeley knew the Dolins family, had numerous social links to Cheselden, including the poet Alexander Pope, and Princess Caroline, to whom Cheselden's patient was presented.[40] report misspelled Cheselden's name, used language typical of Berkeley, and may even have been ghost-written by Berkeley.[40] Dolins was never able to see well enough to read, and there is no evidence that the surgery improved Dolins' vision at any point prior to his death at age 30.[40] of physics See also: De Motu (Berkeley's essay) works display his keen interest in natural philosophy [...] from his earliest writings (Arithmetica, 1707) to his latest (Siris, 1744). Moreover, much of his philosophy is shaped fundamentally by his engagement with the science of his time."[41] The profundity of this interest can be judged from numerous entries in Berkeley's Philosophical Commentaries (1707–1708), e.g. "Mem. to Examine & accurately discuss the scholium of the 8th Definition of Mr Newton's Principia." (#316) argued that forces and gravity, as defined by Newton, constituted "occult qualities" that "expressed nothing distinctly". He held that those who posited "something unknown in a body of which they have no idea and which they call the principle of motion, are in fact simply stating that the principle of motion is unknown." those who "affirm that active force, action, and the principle of motion are really in bodies are adopting an opinion not based on experience."[42] and gravity existed nowhere in the phenomenal world. On the other hand, if they resided in the category of "soul" or "incorporeal thing", they "do not properly belong to physics" as a matter. thus concluded that forces lay beyond any kind of empirical observation and could not be a part of proper science.[43] He proposed his theory of signs as a means to explain motion and matter without reference to the "occult qualities" of force and gravity. razor razor is a rule of reasoning proposed by the philosopher Karl Popper in his study of Berkeley's key scientific work De Motu.[10] razor is considered by Popper to be similar to Ockham's razor but "more powerful". It represents an extreme, empiricist view of scientific observation that states that the scientific method provides us with no true insight into the nature of the world. the scientific method gives us a variety of partial explanations about regularities that hold in the world and that are gained through experiment. The nature of the world, according to Berkeley, is only approached through proper metaphysical speculation and reasoning.[44] summarises Berkeley's razor as such: A general practical result—which I propose to call "Berkeley's razor"—of [Berkeley's] analysis of physics allows us a priori to eliminate from physical science all essentialist explanations. If they have a mathematical and predictive content they may be admitted qua mathematical hypotheses (while their essentialist interpretation is eliminated). If not they may be ruled out altogether. This razor is sharper than Ockham's: all entities are ruled out except those which are perceived.[45] another essay of the same book[46] titled "Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge", Popper argues that Berkeley is to be considered as an instrumentalist philosopher, along with Robert Bellarmine, Pierre Duhem and Ernst Mach. to this approach, scientific theories have the status of serviceable fictions, useful inventions aimed at explaining facts, and without any pretension to be true. Popper contrasts instrumentalism with the above-mentioned essentialism and his own "critical rationalism". of mathematics addition to his contributions to philosophy, Berkeley was also very influential in the development of mathematics, although in a rather indirect sense. "Berkeley was concerned with mathematics and its philosophical interpretation from the earliest stages of his intellectual life."[7] "Philosophical Commentaries" (1707–1708) witness to his interest in mathematics: Axiom. No reasoning about things whereof we have no idea. Therefore no reasoning about Infinitesimals. (#354) Take away the signs from Arithmetic & Algebra, & pray what remains? (#767) These are sciences purely Verbal, & entirely useless but for Practise in Societys of Men. No speculative knowledge, no comparison of Ideas in them. (#768) 1707, Berkeley published two treatises on mathematics. In 1734, he published The Analyst, subtitled A DISCOURSE Addressed to an Infidel Mathematician, a critique of calculus. Florian Cajori called this treatise "the most spectacular event of the century in the history of British mathematics."[47] However, a recent study suggests that Berkeley misunderstood Leibnizian calculus.[48] The mathematician in question is believed to have been either Edmond Halley, or Isaac Newton himself—though if to the latter, then the discourse was posthumously addressed, as Newton died in 1727. The Analyst represented a direct attack on the foundations and principles of calculus and, in particular, the notion of fluxion or infinitesimal change, which Newton and Leibniz used to develop the calculus. In his critique, Berkeley coined the phrase "ghosts of departed quantities", familiar to students of calculus. Ian Stewart's book From Here to Infinity captures the gist of his criticism. regarded his criticism of calculus as part of his broader campaign against the religious implications of Newtonian mechanics – a defence of traditional Christianity against deism, which tends to distance God from His worshipers. Specifically, he observed that both Newtonian and Leibnizian calculus employed infinitesimals sometimes as positive, nonzero quantities and other times as a number explicitly equal to zero. Berkeley's key point in "The Analyst" was that Newton's calculus (and the laws of motion based in calculus) lacked rigorous theoretical foundations. claimed that in every other Science Men prove their Conclusions by their Principles, and not their Principles by the Conclusions. But if in yours you should allow your selves this unnatural way of proceeding, the Consequence would be that you must take up with Induction, and bid adieu to Demonstration. And if you submit to this, your Authority will no longer lead the way in Points of Reason and Science.[49] did not doubt that calculus produced real world truth; simple physics experiments could verify that Newton's method did what it claimed to do. cause of Fluxions cannot be defended by reason",[50] but the results could be defended by empirical observation, Berkeley's preferred method of acquiring knowledge at any rate. however, found it paradoxical that "Mathematicians should deduce true Propositions from false Principles, be right in Conclusion, and yet err in the Premises. In The Analyst he endeavoured to show "how Error may bring forth Truth, though it cannot bring forth Science".[51] Newton's science, therefore, could not on purely scientific grounds justify its conclusions, and the mechanical, deistic model of the universe could not be rationally justified.[52] difficulties raised by Berkeley were still present in the work of Cauchy whose approach to calculus was a combination of infinitesimals and a notion of limit, and were eventually sidestepped by Weierstrass by means of his (ε, δ) approach, which eliminated infinitesimals altogether. More recently, Abraham Robinson restored infinitesimal methods in his 1966 book Non-standard analysis by showing that they can be used rigorously. philosophy See also: Passive obedience tract A Discourse on Passive Obedience (1712) is considered Berkeley's major contribution to moral and political philosophy. A Discourse on Passive Obedience, Berkeley defends the thesis that people have "a moral duty to observe the negative precepts (prohibitions) of the law, including the duty not to resist the execution of punishment."[53] Berkeley does make exceptions to this sweeping moral statement, stating that we need not observe precepts of "usurpers or even madmen"[54] and that people can obey different supreme authorities if there are more than one claims to the highest authority. defends this thesis with a deductive proof stemming from the laws of nature. he establishes that because God is perfectly good, the end to which he commands humans must also be good, and that end must not benefit just one person, but the entire human race. Because these commands—or laws—if practiced, would lead to the general fitness of humankind, it follows that they can be discovered by the right reason— example, the law to never resist supreme power can be derived from reason because this law is "the only thing that stands between us and total disorder".[53] these laws can be called the laws of nature, because they are derived from God—the creator of nature himself. "These laws of nature include duties never to resist the supreme power, lie under oath ... or do evil so that good may come of it."[53] may view Berkeley's doctrine on Passive Obedience as a kind of 'Theological Utilitarianism', insofar as it states that we have a duty to uphold a moral code which presumably is working towards the ends of promoting the good of humankind. However, the concept of 'ordinary' Utilitarianism is fundamentally different in that it "makes utility the one and only ground of obligation"[55]—that is, Utilitarianism is concerned with whether particular actions are morally permissible in specific situations, while Berkeley's doctrine is concerned with whether or not we should follow moral rules in any and all circumstances. Whereas Act Utilitarianism might, for example, justify a morally impermissible act in light of the specific situation, Berkeley's doctrine of Passive Obedience holds that it is never morally permissible to not follow a moral rule, even when it seems like breaking that moral rule might achieve the happiest ends. Berkeley holds that even though sometimes, the consequences of an action in a specific situation might be bad, the general tendencies of that action benefits humanity. important sources for Berkeley's views on morality are Alciphron (1732), especially dialogues I–III, and the Discourse to Magistrates (1738)."[56] Passive Obedience is notable partly for containing one of the earliest statements of rule utilitarianism.[57] Berkeley’s theory that matter does not exist comes from the belief that "sensible things are those only which are immediately perceived by sense."[58] says in his book called The Principles of Human Knowledge that "the ideas of sense are stronger, livelier, and clearer than those of the imagination; and they are also steady, orderly and coherent."[59] From this we can tell that the things that we are perceiving are truly real rather than it just being a dream. knowledge comes from perception; what we perceive are ideas, not things in themselves; a thing in itself must be outside experience; so the world only consists of ideas and minds that perceive those ideas; a thing only exists so far as it perceives or is perceived.[60] Through this we can see that consciousness is considered something that exists to Berkeley due to its ability to perceive. be,' said of the object, means to be perceived, 'esse est percipi'; 'to be', said of the subject, means to perceive or 'percipere'."[61] established this, Berkeley then attacks the "opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and in a word all sensible objects have an existence natural or real, distinct from being perceived".[59] believes this idea to be inconsistent because such an object with an existence independent of perception must have both sensible qualities, and thus be known (making it an idea), and also an insensible reality, which Berkeley believes is inconsistent.[62] believes that the error arises because people think that perceptions can imply or infer something about the material object. calls this concept abstract ideas. rebuts this concept by arguing that people cannot conceive of an object without also imagining the sensual input of the object. argues in Principles of Human Knowledge that, similar to how people can only sense matter with their senses through the actual sensation, they can only conceive of matter (or, rather, ideas of matter) through the idea of sensation of matter.[59] implies that everything that people can conceive in regards to matter is only ideas about matter. Thus, matter, should it exist, must exist as collections of ideas, which can be perceived by the senses and interpreted by the mind. if matter is just a collection of ideas, then Berkeley concludes that matter, in the sense of a material substance, does not exist as most philosophers of Berkeley's time believed. Indeed, if a person visualizes something, then it must have some color, however dark or light; it cannot just be a shape of no color at all if a person is to visualize it.[63] ideas raised controversy because his argument refuted Descartes' worldview, which was expanded upon by Locke, and resulted in the rejection of Berkeley's form of empiricism by several philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Locke's worldview, "the world causes the perceptual ideas we have of it by the way it interacts with our senses."[60] contradicts with Berkeley's worldview because not only does it suggest the existence of physical causes in the world, but in fact there is no physical world beyond our ideas. The only causes that exist in Berkeley's worldview are those that are a result of the use of the will. theory relies heavily on his form of empiricism, which in turn relies heavily on the senses. empiricism can be defined by five propositions: all significant words stand for ideas; knowledge of things is about ideas; ideas come from without or from within; from without it must be by the senses, and they are called sensations (the real things), from within they are the operations of the mind, and are called thoughts.[63] clarifies his distinction between ideas by saying they "are imprinted on the senses," "perceived by attending to the passions and operations of the mind," or "are formed by help of memory and imagination."[63] refutation of his idea was: if someone leaves a room and stops perceiving that room does that room no longer exist? answers this by claiming that it is still being perceived and the consciousness that is doing the perceiving is God. (This makes Berkeley's argument hinge upon an omniscient, omnipresent deity.) claim is the only thing holding up his argument which is "depending for our knowledge of the world, and of the existence of other minds, upon a God that would never deceive us."[60] anticipates a second objection, which he refutes in Principles of Human Knowledge. anticipates that the materialist may take a representational materialist standpoint: although the senses can only perceive ideas, these ideas resemble (and thus can be compared to) the actual, existing object. Thus, through the sensing of these ideas, the mind can make inferences as to matter itself, even though pure matter is non-perceivable. objection to that notion is that "an idea can be like nothing but an idea; a color or figure can be like nothing but another color or figure".[59] Berkeley distinguishes between an idea, which is mind-dependent, and a material substance, which is not an idea and is mind-independent. As they are not alike, they cannot be compared, just as one cannot compare the color red to something that is invisible, or the sound of music to silence, other than that one exists and the other does not. This is called the likeness principle: the notion that an idea can only be like (and thus compared to) another idea. attempted to show how ideas manifest themselves into different objects of knowledge: is evident to anyone who takes a survey of the objects of human knowledge, that they are either ideas actually imprinted on the senses; or else such as are perceived by attending to the passions and operations of the mind; or lastly ideas formed by help of memory and imagination—either compounding, dividing, or barely representing those originally perceived in the aforesaid ways". (Berkeley's emphasis.)[64] also attempted to prove the existence of God throughout his beliefs in immaterialism.[4] Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge was published three years before the publication of Arthur Collier's Clavis Universalis, which made assertions similar to those of Berkeley's.[65] However, there seemed to have been no influence or communication between the two writers.[66] philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer once wrote of him: "Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of idealism ...".[67] is considered one of the originators of British empiricism.[68] A linear development is often traced from three great "British Empiricists", leading from Locke through Berkeley to Hume.[69] influenced many modern philosophers, especially David Hume. Thomas Reid admitted that he put forward a drastic criticism of Berkeleianism after he had been an admirer of Berkeley's philosophical system for a long time.[70] Berkeley's "thought made possible the work of Hume and thus Kant, notes Alfred North Whitehead."[71] Some authors[who?] draw a parallel between Berkeley and Edmund Husserl.[clarification needed][72] Berkeley visited America, the American educator Samuel Johnson visited him, and the two later corresponded. Johnson convinced Berkeley to establish a scholarship program at Yale, and to donate a large number of books as well as his plantation to the college when the philosopher returned to England. It was one of Yale's largest and most important donations; it doubled its library holdings, improved the college's financial position and brought Anglican religious ideas and English culture into New England.[73] Johnson also took Berkeley's philosophy and used parts of it as a framework for his own American Practical Idealism school of philosophy. As Johnson's philosophy was taught to about half the graduates of American colleges between 1743 and 1776,[74] and over half of the contributors to the Declaration of Independence were connected to it,[75] Berkeley's ideas were indirectly a foundation of the American Mind. of America, during Berkeley's lifetime his philosophical ideas were comparatively uninfluential.[76] But interest in his doctrine grew from the 1870s when Alexander Campbell Fraser, "the leading Berkeley scholar of the nineteenth century",[77] published The Works of George Berkeley. A powerful impulse to serious studies in Berkeley's philosophy was given by A. A. Luce and Thomas Edmund Jessop, "two of the twentieth century's foremost Berkeley scholars",[78] thanks to whom Berkeley scholarship was raised to the rank of a special area of historico-philosophical science. In addition, the philosopher Colin Murray Turbayne wrote extensively on Berkeley's use of language as model for visual, physiological, natural and metaphysical relationships.[79] proportion of Berkeley scholarship, in literature on the history of philosophy, is increasing. This can be judged from the most comprehensive bibliographies on George Berkeley. During the period of 1709–1932, about 300 writings on Berkeley were published. That amounted to 1.5 publication per annum. During the course of 1932–79, over one thousand works were brought out, i.e., 20 works per annum. Since then, the number of publications has reached 30 per annum.[80] In 1977 publication began in Ireland of a special journal on Berkeley's life and thought (Berkeley Studies). In 1988, the Australian philosopher Colin Murray Turbayne established the International Berkeley Essay Prize Competition at the University of Rochester in an effort to advance scholarship and research on the works of Berkeley.[81][82] than philosophy, Berkeley also influenced modern psychology with his work on John Locke's theory of association and how it could be used to explain how humans gain knowledge in the physical world. He also used the theory to explain perception, stating that all qualities were, as Locke would call them, "secondary qualities", therefore perception laid entirely in the perceiver and not in the object. These are both topics today studied in modern psychology.[83] in literature Byron's Don Juan references immaterialism in the Eleventh Canto: When Bishop Berkeley said 'there was no matter,' And proved it—'t was no matter what he said: They say his system 't is in vain to batter, Too subtle for the airiest human head; And yet who can believe it? I would shatter Gladly all matters down to stone or lead, Or adamant, to find the world a spirit, And wear my head, denying that I wear it. Melville humorously references Berkeley in Chapter 20 of Mardi (1849), when outlining a character's belief of being on board a ghostship: here be it said, that for all his superstitious misgivings about the brigantine; his imputing to her something equivalent to a purely phantom-like nature, honest Jarl was nevertheless exceedingly downright and practical in all hints and proceedings concerning her. Wherein, he resembled my Right Reverend friend, Bishop Berkeley–truly, one of your lords spiritual—who, metaphysically speaking, holding all objects to be mere optical delusions, was, notwithstanding, extremely matter-of-fact in all matters touching matter itself. Besides being pervious to the points of pins, and possessing a palate capable of appreciating plum-puddings:—which sentence reads off like a pattering of hailstones. Joyce references Berkeley's philosophy in the third episode of Ulysses (1922): watches me here? Who ever anywhere will read these written words? Signs on a white field. Somewhere to someone in your flutiest voice. The good bishop of Cloyne took the veil of the temple out of his shovel hat: veil of space with coloured emblems hatched on its field. Hold hard. Coloured on a flat: yes, that's right. Flat I see, then think distance, near, far, flat I see, east, back. Ah, see now! In commenting on a review of Ada or Ardor, author Vladimir Nabokov alludes to Berkeley's philosophy as informing his novel: finally I owe no debt whatsoever (as Mr. Leonard seems to think) to the famous Argentine essayist and his rather confused compilation "A New Refutation of Time." Mr. Leonard would have lost less of it had he gone straight to Berkeley and Bergson. (Strong Opinions, pp. 2892–90) Boswell, in the part of his Life of Samuel Johnson covering the year 1763, recorded Johnson's opinion of one aspect of Berkeley's philosophy: we came out of the church, we stood talking for some time together of Bishop Berkeley's ingenious sophistry to prove the non-existence of matter, and that every thing in the universe is merely ideal. I observed, that though we are satisfied his doctrine is untrue, it is impossible to refute it. I shall never forget the alacrity with which Johnson answered, striking his foot with mighty force against a large stone, till he rebounded from it,– "I refute it thus." the University of California, Berkeley, and the city of Berkeley, California, were named after him, although the pronunciation has evolved to suit American English: (/ˈbɜːrkli/ BURK-lee). The naming was suggested in 1866 by Frederick H. Billings, a trustee of the then College of California. Billings was inspired by Berkeley's Verses on the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America, particularly the final stanza: "Westward the course of empire takes its way; The first four Acts already past, A fifth shall close the Drama with the day; Time's noblest offspring is the last."[84] Town of Berkley, currently the least populated town in Bristol County, Massachusetts, was founded on 18 April 1735 and named after the renowned philosopher. It is located 40 miles south of Boston and 25 miles north of Middletown, Rhode Island. residential college and an Episcopal seminary at Yale University also bear Berkeley's name, as does the Berkeley Library at Trinity College Dublin. Preparatory School in Tampa, Florida, a private school affiliated with the Episcopal Church, is also named for him. Berkeley's Gold Medals" are two awards given annually at Trinity College Dublin, "provided outstanding merit is shown", to candidates answering a special examination in Greek. The awards were founded in 1752 by Berkeley.[85] An Ulster History Circle blue plaque commemorating him is located in Bishop Street Within, city of Derry. farmhouse in Middletown, Rhode Island, is preserved as Whitehall Museum House, also known as Berkeley House, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. St. Columba's Chapel, located in the same town, was formerly named "The Berkeley Memorial Chapel," and the appellation still survives at the end of the formal name of the parish, "St. Columba's, the Berkeley Memorial Chapel". Cloyne, Cork, Ireland; George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) , Commemorated June 16 ; longer there

England, 1707-1800, Kingdom of Great Britain, united England (including Wales) and Scotland
England, 1707-1800, Kingdom of Great Britain;

England, 1712, New York Slave Riot, 1712, Maiden Lane and Broadway
New York Slave Riot, 1712, Maiden Lane and Broadway; New York Slave Revolt of 1712 was an uprising in New York City, in the Province of New York, of 23 enslaved Africans. They killed nine whites and injured another six before they were stopped. More than three times that number of black people, 70, were arrested and jailed. Of these, 27 were put on trial, and 21 convicted and executed. the early 18th century, New York City had one of the largest enslaved populations of any of the settlements in the Thirteen Colonies. Slavery in the city differed from some of the other colonies because there were no plantations producing cash crops. Slaves worked as domestic servants, artisans, dock workers, and various skilled laborers.[1] Enslaved Africans lived near each other, making communication easy. They also often worked among free black people, a situation that did not exist on most Southern plantations. Slaves in the city could communicate and plan a conspiracy more easily than among those on plantations.[2] the seizure of New Netherland in 1667 and it's incorporation into the Province of New York, the rights of the Free Negro social group were gradually eroded. In 1702, the first of the New York slave codes were passed, which further limited the rights enjoyed by the African community in New York; many of these legal rights, such as the right to own land and marry, were granted during the Dutch colonial period.[3] On December 13, 1711, the New York City Common Council established the city's first slave market near Wall Street for the sale and rental of enslaved Africans and Native Americans.[4][5] the early 1700s, about 20 percent of the population were enslaved black people. The colonial government in New York restricted this group through several measures: requiring slaves to carry a pass if traveling more than a mile (1.6 km) from home; discouraging marriage among them; prohibiting gatherings in groups of more than three persons; and requiring them to sit in separate galleries at church services.[6] group of more than twenty black slaves gathered on the night of April 6, 1712, and set fire to a building on Maiden Lane near Broadway.[2] While the white colonists tried to put out the fire, the enslaved blacks, armed with guns, hatchets, and swords, attacked the whites then ran off. Almost immediately all runaway slaves were captured and returned to their owners.[7] forces arrested seventy blacks and jailed them. Six are reported to have committed suicide. Twenty-seven were put on trial, 21 of whom were convicted and sentenced to death, including one woman with child.[7] Twenty were burned to death and one was executed on a breaking wheel.[8][citation needed] the revolt, the city and colony passed more restrictive laws governing black and Indian slaves. Slaves were not permitted to gather in groups of more than three, they were not permitted to carry firearms, and gambling was outlawed. Crimes of property damage, rape, and conspiracy to kill qualified for the death penalty. Free blacks were still allowed to own land, however. Anthony Portuguese (alternately spelled Portugies),[3] owned land that makes up a portion of present-day Washington Square Park; this continued to be owned by his daughter and grandchildren.[9] colony required slave owners who wanted to free their slaves to pay a tax of £200 per person, then an amount much higher than the cost of a slave. In 1715 Governor Robert Hunter argued in London before the Lords of Trade that manumission and the chance for a slave to inherit part of a master's wealth was important to maintain in New York. He said that this was a proper reward for a slave who had helped a master earn a lifetime's fortune, and that it could keep the slave from descending into despair.[7] ELIE NAUD, (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722, Commemoratedd 7 September; most effective work of the Society [for the Propogation of the Gospel] among Negroes of the Northern colonies was accomplished in New York. In that colony, the instruction of the Negro and Indian slaves to prepare them for conversion, baptism, and communion was a primary charge oft repeated to every missionary and schoolmaster of the Society. In addition to the general efforts put forth in the colonies, there was in New York a special provision for the employment of sixteen clergymen and thirteen lay teachers mainly for the evangelization of the slaves and the free Indians. For the Negro slaves a catechizing school was opened in New York City in 1704 under the charge of Elias Neau. This benevolent man, after several years’ imprisonment because of his Protestant faith, had come to New York to try his fortunes as a trader. As early as 1703 he called the attention of the Society to the great number, of slaves in New York “who were without God in the world, and of whose souls there was no manner of care taken” and proposed the appointment of a catechist to undertake their instruction. He himself finally being prevailed upon to accept this position, obtained a license from the Governor, resigned his position as elder in the French church [Église du Saint Esprit] and conformed to the Established Church of England, “not upon any worldly account but through a principle of conscience and hearty approbation of the English liturgy.” He was later licensed by the Bishop of London. Neau’s task was not an easy one. At first he went from house to house, but afterwards arranged for some of the slaves to attend him. He succeeded, however, in obtaining gratifying results. He was commended to the Society by Rev. Mr. Vesey in 1706 as a “constant communicant of our church, and a most zealous and prudent servant of Christ, in proselyting the miserable Negroes and Indians among them to the Christian Religion, whereby he does great service to God and his church.” Further confidence in him was attested by an act of the Society in preparing at his request “a Bill to be offered to Parliament for the more effectual Conversion of the Negro and other Servants in the Plantations, to compell Owners of Slaves to cause children to be baptized within 3 months after their birth and to permit them when come to years of discretion to be instructed in the Christian Religion on our Lord’s day by the Missionaries under whose ministry they live.” Neau’s school suffered greatly in 1712 because of the prejudice engendered by the declaration that instruction was the main cause of the Negro riot in that city. For some days Neau dared not show himself, so bitter was the feeling of the masters. Upon being assured, however, that only one Negro connected with the school had participated in the affair and that the most criminal belonged to the masters who were openly opposed to educating them, the institution was permitted to continue its endeavors, and the Governor extended to it his protection and recommended that masters have their slaves instructed. Yet Neau had still to complain thereafter of the struggle and opposition of the generality of the inhabitants, who were strongly prejudiced with a horrid motive thinking that Christian knowledge “would be a means to make the slave more cunning and apter to wickedness.” Not so long thereafter, however, the support of the best people and officials of the community made his task easier. Neau could say in 1714 that “if the slaves and domestics in New York were not instructed it was not his fault.” The Governor, the Council, Mayor, the Recorder and the Chief Justice informed the Society that Neau had performed his work “to the great advancement of religion in general and the particular benefit of the free Indians, Negro slaves, and other Heathens in those parts, with indefatigable zeal and application.” Elias Neau signature Neau died in 1722. His work was carried on by Mr. Huddlestone, Rev. Mr. Whitmore, Rev. Mr. Colgan, Rev. R. Charlton, and Rev. S. Auchmutty.

England, 1712-1752, Saint, Joseph Butler, Butler's Analogy
England, 1712-1752, Saint, Joseph Butler, Butler's Analogy; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16;

England, 1714-1727, George I, King of GB, Hanover in HRE, European Wars, o jacobites, parliment
King of Great Britain, 1714-1727, George I ; CONRAD WEISER, WITNESS TO PEACE and RECONCILIATION, 1760, Commemorated July 13; George Frederick Handel of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; Samuel Johnson of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; Timothy Cutler of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; ELIE NAUD (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722 ; ELIE NAUD (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722 ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26; THOMAS BRAY, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (15 FEB 1730); JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761); George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) , Commemorated June 16 ; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, 1716-1760, CONRAD WEISER, German PA pioneer, interpreter and Native American diplomat, lived w Iroquois at 16
Affstatt Village, Wurttemberg; CONRAD WEISER, WITNESS TO PEACE and RECONCILIATION, 1760, Commemorated July 13 ; Weiser (November 2, 1696 – July 13, 1760), born Johann Conrad Weiser, Jr., a German Pennsylvanian pioneer, interpreter and effective diplomat between the Pennsylvania Colony and Native Americans. was a farmer, soldier, monk, tanner, and judge as well. He contributed as an emissary in councils between Native Americans and the colonies, especially Pennsylvania, during the French and Indian War. Weiser was born in 1696 in the small village of Affstätt in the Duchy of Württemberg (now part of Germany). Conrad Weiser and his family were among thousands of refugees who left German lands in 1709, many of them from the Palatine area. Weiser family eventually ended up in the Schoharie Valley of New York. age 16, Conrad's father agreed to a chief's proposal for the youth to live with the Mohawks in the upper Schoharie Valley. his stay in the winter and spring of 1712-1713, Weiser learned much about the Mohawk language and the customs of the Iroquois, while enduring hardships of cold, hunger, and homesickness. Conrad Weiser returned to his own people towards the end of July 1713. November 22, 1720, at the age of 24, Weiser married the young German girl Anna Eve Feck (Faeg). 1723 the couple followed the Susquehanna River south out of New York and settled their young family on a farm in Tulpehocken near present-day Reading, Pennsylvania. couple had fourteen children, but only seven reached adulthood. colonial service began in 1731. Iroquois sent Shikellamy, an Oneida chief and friend of Weiser, as an emissary to other tribes and the British. Iroquois trusted him and considered him an adopted son of the Mohawks. impressed the Pennsylvania governor and council, which thereafter relied heavily on his services. signature the winter of 1737, Weiser attempted to broker a peace between southern tribes and the Iroquois. had to survive high snow, freezing temperatures and starvation rations just to make the six-week journey to the Iroquois capital of Onondaga (near persent-day Syracuse, NY). with his fortitude, the Iroquois named Weiser Tarachiawagon (Holder of the Heavens). violence from a war between the Iroquois and southern tribes such as the Catawba would have drawn first Virginia, and then Pennsylvania, into conflict with the Iroquois. this peace-brokering had a profound effect on Native American/colonial relations. his decades-long career, Weiser built on his knowledge of Native American languages and culture. was a key player in treaty negotiations, land purchases, and the formulation of Pennsylvania's policies towards Native Americans. of his early experiences with the Iroquois, Weiser was inclined to be sympathetic to their interpretation of events, as opposed to the Lenape or the Shawnees. may have exacerbated Pennsylvanian-Lenape/Shawnee relations, with bloody consequences in the French and Indian Wars. for many years, Weiser helped to keep the powerful Iroquois allied with the British as opposed to the French. important service contributed to the continued survival of the British colonies and the eventual victory of the British over the French in the French and Indian Wars. 1734 and 1741, Weiser became a follower of Conrad Beissel, a German Seventh Day Baptist preacher. six years, he lived at the monastic settlement, Ephrata Cloister, in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. was also teacher and a lay minister of the Lutheran Church; he was one of the founders of Trinity Church in Reading. died on his farm on July 13, 1760. his death, one Iroquois Indian noted to a group of colonists, "We are at a great loss and sit in darkness ... as since his death we cannot so well understand one another." shortly after Conrad Weiser's death, relations between the colonists and the Native Americans began a rapid decline. — more at Wikipedia and the Conrad Weiser Homestead State Park

England, 1723-1791, JOHN & CHARLES WESLEY, both of Oxford University, preacher John, hymn writer Charles, both church renewers
England, 1723-1791, JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, both of Oxford University, John the preacher, Charles the hymn writer, both renewers of the Church, Book of Common Prayer Methodists, both to Georgia 1n 1735, both saved there by Moravians, John's influence of Classical Education; Oxford University; JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); Wesley died 29 March 1788. John Wesley died 2 March 1791. Because Chad is remembered on 2 March, the Wesleys are remembered on 3 March.) Wesley Wesley brothers, John born in 1703 and Charles in 1707, were leaders of the evangelical revival in the Church of England in the eighteenth century. both attended Oxford University, and there they gathered a few friends with whom they undertook a strict adherence to the worship and discipline of the Book of Common Prayer, from which strict observance they received the nickname, "Methodists." been ordained, they went to the American colony of Georgia in 1735, John as a missionary and Charles as secretary to Governor Oglethorpe. They found the experience disheartening, and returned home in a few years. There, three days apart, they underwent a conversion experience. John, present with a group of Moravians who were reading Martin Luther's Preface to the Epistle to the Romans, received a strong emotional awareness of the love of Christ displayed in freely forgiving his sins and granting him eternal life. this experience, John and Charles, with others, set about to stir up in others a like awareness of and response to the saving love of God. Of the two, John was the more powerful preacher, and averaged 8000 miles of travel a year, mostly on horseback. At the time of his death he was probably the best known and best loved man in England. (Albert C. Outler, John Wesley's Sermons: An Introduction, p 79f) biblical world was, however, no enclave. Sola Scriptura was never a displacement of, or substitute for, classical learning: and this was natural enough in view of the fact that he had mastered the baseline curriculum of his Oxford education and had come to cherish the classical tradition as the font of Western civilization. In the sermons (and elsewhere, too) Wesley's favourite classical source was Horace; there are twenty-seven quotations from him in the sermons alone, some repeated in different contexts. One senses that he read Virgil with more personal pleasure, but he quotes from him only twenty-one times. Ovid follows with ten, Circero with nine, Juvenal with seven. Thirteen others are quoted at least once: Aristophanes, Hadrian, Homer, Lucan, Lucretius, Persius, Pindar, Sophocles, Suetonius, Symmachus, Terence, Velleius Paterculus. display was more than mere ornamentation; (My comment: this would have violated Wesley's doctrine of 'plain preaching'.) within these borrowings we find the germs of some of Wesley's most distinctive general ideas (e.g. his participation theme, his mind-body dualism, and his ideas about psycho-physical parallelism). These are major sources for his ideas about human nature, human volition, and the human passions. Out of this heritage had come his predilection for form over raw feelings, his concept of conscience as a universal moral sense. had bolstered his convictions about the ontological primacy of good over evil. The whole of the Greco-Roman tradition had stressed coherence as a criterion of rationality. Besides, these ancient authors were shrewd critics of human folly; thus Wesley found in them discerning witnesses to the flaws in contemporary proposals about 'natural' theology and ethics. It was in this sense that his long dialogue with the ancients was a genuine preparatio evangelica; one might even suppose that he might still commend it as such. Wesley although Wesley found it natural to approach the Gospel with habits of thought formed by a classical education, he was quick to recognize the value of other approaches. early Methodist meetings were often led by lay preachers with very limited education. On one occasion, such a preacher took as his text Luke 19:21, "Lord, I feared thee, because thou art an austere man." Not knowing the word "austere," he thought that the text spoke of "an oyster man." He spoke about the work of those who retrieve oysters from the sea-bed. The diver plunges down from the surface, cut off from his natural environment, into bone-chilling water. He gropes in the dark, cutting his hands on the sharp edges of the shells. Now he has the oyster, and kicks back up to the surface, up to the warmth and light and air, clutching in his torn and bleeding hands the object of his search. So Christ descended from the glory of heaven into the squalor of earth, into sinful human society, in order to retrieve humans and bring them back up with Him to the glory of heaven, His torn and bleeding hands a sign of the value He has placed on the object of His quest. Twelve men were converted that evening. Afterwards, someone complained to Wesley about the inappropriateness of allowing preachers who were too ignorant to know the meaning of the texts they were preaching on. Wesley, simply said, "Never mind, the Lord got a dozen oysters tonight." was the better hymn-writer of the two. He wrote over 6000 hymns, including about 600 for the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Some of the better known are the following: A charge to keep I have And can it be that I should gain Author of life divine Christ the Lord is risen today Christ, whose glory fills the skies Come, Holy Ghost, our hearts inspire Come, O Thou Traveller unknown Come, thou long expected Jesus Forth in Thy name, O Lord, I go Gentle Jesus, meek and mild Hail the day that sees Him rise Hark, the herald angels sing, Jesus, Lover of my soul Let saints on earth in concert sing Lo, He comes with clouds descending Love Divine, all loves excelling O Jesus, full of pardoning grace O Love Divine, how sweet Thou art! O Thou who camest from above. Oh for a heart to praise my God Oh for a thousand tongues to sing Our Lord is risen from the dead Rejoice! the Lord is King Soldiers of Christ, arise! Ye servants of God, your Master proclaim Here are two of his hymns printed out at length: Oh for a thousand tongues to sing my great Redeemer's praise, the glories of my God and King, the triumphs of his grace! My gracious Master and my God, assist me to proclaim, to spread through all the earth abroad the honors of thy name. Jesus! the name that charms our fears, that bids our sorrows cease; 'tis music in the sinner's ears, 'tis life, and health, and peace. He breaks the power of canceled sin, he sets the prisoner free; his blood can make the foulest clean; his blood availed for me. He speaks, and listening to his voice, new life the dead receive; the mournful, broken hearts rejoice, the humble poor believe. In Christ, your head, you then shall know, shall feel your sins forgiven, anticipate your heaven below, and own that love in heaven. [Note that in the second line of this next hymn, the word "interest" is used in the older sense of "benefit" or "advantage." (Thus, in some contest, an uninterested person is one who is bored by the proceedings, but a disinterested person is one who has nothing to gain or lose personally by the outcome. We want a referee or judge to be disinterested, but not to be uninterested. The word "interested" is ambiguous, being the opposite of both.) Instead of "an interest in" in the second line, an editor seeking to modernize the language of this hymn might write "my healing from" or "redemption from" or "salvation from" or "a cleansing from" or the like.] And can it be that I should gain an interest in the Savior's blood? Died He for me, who caused His pain-- for me, who Him to death pursued? Amazing love! how can it be that Thou, my God, shouldst die for me? 'Tis mystery all! Th' Immortal dies: Who can explore His strange design? In vain the first-born seraph tries to sound the depths of love divine. 'Tis mercy all! let earth adore, let angel minds inquire no more. He left His Father's throne above,-- so free, so infinite His grace-- emptied Himself of all but love, and bled for Adam's helpless race: 'Tis mercy all, immense and free; for, O my God, it found out me! Long my imprisoned spirit lay Fast bound in sin and nature's night; Thine eye diffused a quickening ray,-- I woke, the dungeon flamed with light; my chains fell off, my heart was free, I rose, went forth, and followed Thee. No condemnation now I dread; Jesus, and all in Him, is mine! Alive in Him, my living Head, and clothed in righteousness divine, Bold I approach the eternal throne, and claim the crown, thorugh Christ my own. was the intention of the Wesleys and their colleagues that their "Methodist Societies" should be a group within the existing structure of the Anglican Church, but after their deaths the Societies in America, and to a lesser extent in England, developed a separate status. by James Kiefer

England, 1727-1791, Salina Hastings, Calvinist Methodist Church Builder
England, 1727-1791, Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, built Calvanist Methodist Churches; Donnington Hall, Salina Hastings, Calvinist Methodist Church Builder; George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15 ;

England, 1727-1760, George II, King of GB, Summers in Hanover G, H Succession, little domestic control, war hero
England, King of Great Britain, 1727-1760, George II; CONRAD WEISER, WITNESS TO PEACE and RECONCILIATION, 1760, Commemorated July 13; SAMSON OCCUM, WITNESS TO THE FAITH IN NEW ENGLAND, 1792, Commemorated July 14 ; George Frederick Handel of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL and HENRY PURCELL, COMPOSERS, 1750, 1759, 1695. Commemorated July 28; Samuel Johnson of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; Timothy Cutler of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 1787 ; ISAAC WATTS, HYMNWRITER, 1748, Commemorated November 26; JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); WILLIAM LAW, WRITER, PRIEST, AND NON-JUROR (09 APR 1761); NIKOLAUS LUDWIG von ZINZENDORF, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1760, Commemorated May 10 ; George Berkeley of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752) , Commemorated June 16 ; Joseph Butler of GEORGE BERKELEY and JOSEPH BUTLER, BISHOPS and THEOLOGIANS (1753, 1752), Commemorated June 16 ;

England, 1729, Holy Club at Christ Church Oxford (The Methodists)
Holy Club at Christ Church Oxford (The Methodists); FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15;

England, 1731-1787, HENRY MUHLENBERG, organizer American Lutheranism, factionalism d, Free Church model from govt control m
Germany, 1731-1787, HENRY MUHLENBERG, Einbeck, Germany (Weser River 4), organizer of American Lutheranism, danger of factionalism, asking for pastor to take charge, transition to Free Church model from govt control model, famous sons ; Einbeck, Germany HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 178; Melchior Muhlenberg is the principal organizer of American Lutheranism. He was born in Einbeck, Germany, in 1711, studied at Goettingen and at Halle. in America at that time were found in a few scattered communities, of various national backgrounds, with no central organization, with a grave danger of factionalism. congregations wrote to Halle University, asking for a pastor to take charge. Francke, a Lutheran leader of the Pietist movement at Halle, chose Muhlenberg and sent him to America. arrived in Charleston on 23 September 1742. He was soon accorded widespread recognition by Lutheran churches, Swedish, and others, the senior Lutheran pastor in America. set the tone for the Lutheran community in what was to be the United States, almost all Lutheran Churches in America today use liturgies which are developed from the one that he proposed for American use. plans for local church government, to congregations that had been accustomed to a great deal of government control, the transition to the "free church" model, and form the basis for plans of local church government in American Lutheran churches today. of his sons, John Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg, served as a general under George Washington in the War of Independence. Another, Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenberg, became a member of the Continental Congress, and first speaker of the House of Representatives. A great-grandson, William Augustus Muhlenberg, became an eminent Anglican priest (see 8 April). Melchior Muhlenberg died 7 October 1787, is buried at Trappe, Pennsylvania. epitaph (in Latin) reads: "Who and what he was, future ages will know without a stone." by James Kiefer

England, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive
Switzerland, 1732-1778, Rousseau, enlightenment, modern political, social thought, Facism, Naziism, Communism, democracy, progressive; Rousseau; 28 June 1712 - 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the development of modern political, economic and educational thought.[1] Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. Rousseau's sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise (1761) was important to the development of preromanticism and romanticism in fiction.[2][3] His Emile, or On Education (1762) is an educational treatise on the place of the individual in society. Rousseau's autobiographical writings—the posthumously published Confessions (composed in 1769), which initiated the modern autobiography, and the unfinished Reveries of the Solitary Walker (composed 1776–1778)—exemplified the late-18th-century "Age of Sensibility", and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern writing. befriended fellow philosopher Denis Diderot in 1742, and would later write about Diderot's romantic troubles in his Confessions. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophers among members of the Jacobin Club. He was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, 16 years after his death. Absolved From Being Good-Mannered: The Romantic Totalitarianism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, May 20, 2021 ;

England, 1734-1770, George Whitefield, Gloucester, England, US Methodist Episcopal Evangelist, Great Awakening & Slavery
US, 1734-1770, George Whitefield, Gloucester, England, US Methodist Episcopal Evangelist, fGloucester (Old Bell Inn), Pembrose College at Oxford, joined Holy Club there, wWesley brothers, then itinerant preacher&evangelist, 1740 tNorth America, series oGreat Awakening revivals, controversial methods, debates disputes wClergymen, preached 18,000 times, 10M listeners, drama, rhetoric, patriotism, theater actor, for re-enactments Bible Stories, Holy Club leader, cross-eyed vision, first sermon at home, 1738 tSavanah Georgia, Christ Church Parish Priest, Orphan House life's work, tEngland for funds&priest's orders, preached large congregations, Miners of Kingswood Bristol in open air, asked J Wesley take over Bristol, Kingswood&Blackheath, London, for Predestination, against Westley's Arminian Atonement, formed first Methodist conference, relinquished for evangelism, 3 Whitefield's Tabernacle churches wCountess Selina in Bristol, and London's Moorfields and Tottenham Court Rd, 1740 Bethesda Orphanage, Academy, Georgia, oldest charity in North America, , Gospel influence, wholesome, strong discipline, Trustees objected wrong method child discipline, praying crying all night, 1740 First Great Awakening revivals, Moravian Brethern fGeorgia to build Lehigh Valley Penn Orphanage for negro children, he dismissed them, they finished it, now Whitefield House, throughout colonies preaching every day large crowds for months, mostly New England, longest ride, like Johnathan Edwards preached moderate Calvinist theology, used print media, advancemen, audobiographical journals while away in England, William Seward wealthy publicist, large crowds in England 20-30K, plantation&slave owner, for funding orphanage, Westley's against slavery, God's providence a defense of slavery, Early Georgia slavery and Black people prohibited, Whitefield campaigned Black emigration, for their eternal salvation, Black slaves permitted 1751, his personal victory, Ben Franklin lifelong relationship, Whitfield Meeting House became UoPenn, statue removed in 2020, first to preach to slaves, visited America 7 times for 13 crossingst; England, , George Whitefield, Gloucester, England, US Methodist Episcopal Evangelist; Gloucester, England (on Wales border); George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15 ; Whitefield, also known as George Whitfield, (December 16, 1714 - September 30, 1770), an Anglican itinerant minister who helped spread the Great Awakening in Great Britain especially, in the British North American colonies. ministry had tremendous impact on American ideology. was a very influential figure in the establishment of Methodism. was famous for his preaching in America which was a significant part of an 18th century movement of Christian revivals, sometimes called "The Great Awakening." from Wikipedia. Whitefield (27 December [O.S. 16 December] 1714 - 30 September 1770), also known as George Whitfield, was an Anglican cleric and evangelist who was one of the founders of Methodism and the evangelical movement.[1][2] in Gloucester, he matriculated at Pembroke College at the University of Oxford in 1732. he joined the "Holy Club" and was introduced to the Wesley brothers, John and Charles, with whom he would work closely in his later ministry. was ordained after receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree. immediately began preaching, but he did not settle as the minister of any parish. Rather he became an itinerant preacher and evangelist. 1740, Whitefield traveled to North America, where he preached a series of revivals that became part of the "Great Awakening". His methods were controversial and he engaged in numerous debates and disputes with other clergymen. received widespread recognition during his ministry; he preached at least 18,000 times to perhaps 10 million listeners in Great Britain and her American colonies. could enthrall large audiences through a potent combination of drama, religious rhetoric, and patriotism.[3] life[edit] The Old Bell Inn, Southgate Street, Gloucester was born on 27 December [O.S. 16 December] 1714 at the Bell Inn, Southgate Street, Gloucester in England. was the fifth son (seventh and last child) of Thomas Whitefield and Elizabeth Edwards, who kept an inn at Gloucester.[4] an early age, he found that he had a passion and talent for acting in the theatre, passion that he would carry on with the very theatrical re-enactments of Bible stories he told during his sermons. was educated at The Crypt School, Gloucester,[5] and Pembroke College, Oxford.[6][7] father died when he was still young and he help his mother with the inn. business at the inn had diminished, Whitefield did not have the means to pay for his tuition.[8] therefore came up to the University of Oxford as a servitor, the lowest rank of undergraduates. free tuition, he acted as a servant to Fellows and Fellow-commoners; including teaching them in the morning, helping them bathe, cleaning their rooms, carrying their books, and assisting them with work.[8] was a part of the "Holy Club" at the University with the Wesley brothers, John and Charles. illness, as well as Henry Scougal's The Life of God in the Soul of Man, influenced him to turn to the Church. a religious conversion, he became passionate for preaching his new-found faith. The Bishop of Gloucester ordained him a deacon.[1] preached his first sermon at St Mary de Crypt Church[2] in his home town of Gloucester, a week after his ordination. He had earlier become the leader of the Holy Club at Oxford when the Wesley brothers departed for Georgia.[9] had cross-eyed (strabismus) vision. 1738 he went to Savannah, Georgia, in the American colonies, as parish priest of Christ Church. While there he decided that one of the great needs of the area was an orphan house. He decided this would be his life's work. returned to England to raise funds, as well as to receive priest's orders. preparing for his return, he preached to large congregations. the suggestion of friends he preached to the miners of Kingswood, outside Bristol, in the open air. Because he was returning to Georgia he invited John Wesley to take over his Bristol congregations, and to preach in the open air for the first time at Kingswood and then at Blackheath, London.[10] accepted the Church of England's doctrine of predestination and disagreed with the Wesley brothers' Arminian views on the doctrine of the atonement.[11] However, Whitefield finally did what his friends hoped he would not do—hand over the entire ministry to John Wesley.[12] Whitefield formed and was the president of the first Methodist conference, but he soon relinquished the position to concentrate on evangelical work.[13] churches were established in England in his name—one in Penn Street, Bristol, and two in London, in Moorfields and in Tottenham Court Road—all three of which became known by the name of "Whitefield's Tabernacle". society meeting at the second Kingswood School at Kingswood, a town on the eastern edge of Bristol, was eventually also named Whitefield's Tabernacle. acted as chaplain to Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, and some of his followers joined the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, whose chapels were built by Selina, where a form of Calvinistic Methodism similar to Whitefield's was taught. Many of Selina's chapels were built in the English and Welsh counties.[14] One was erected in London—Spa Fields Chapel.[15][16] 1739, Whitefield returned to England to raise funds to establish the Bethesda Orphanage, now the Bethesda Academy. It is the oldest extant charity in North America.[17] Orphanage[edit]T endeavor to build an orphanage in Georgia was central to his preaching.[4] The Bethesda Orphanage and his preaching comprised the "two-fold task" that occupied the rest of his life.[18] On 25 March 1740, construction began. wanted the orphanage to be a place of strong Gospel influence, with a wholesome atmosphere and strong discipline.[19] raised the money by his preaching, Whitefield "insisted on sole control of the orphanage". refused to give the Trustees a financial accounting. Trustees also objected to Whitefield's using "a wrong Method" to control the children, who "are often kept praying and crying all the Night".[4] returning to North America in 1740, he preached a series of revivals that came to be known as the First Great Awakening. 1740 he engaged Moravian Brethren from Georgia to build an orphanage for negro children on land he had bought in the Lehigh Valley of Pennsylvania. a theological disagreement, he dismissed them and was unable to complete the building, which the Moravians subsequently bought and completed. This now is the Whitefield House in the center of the Moravian settlement of Nazareth, Pennsylvania. The Whitefield House is owned by the Moravian Historical Society, and operates as the Society's museum and administrative offices.[20][21] preached nearly every day for months to large crowds of sometimes several thousand people as he traveled throughout the colonies, especially New England. journey on horseback from New York City to Charleston, South Carolina, was at that time the longest in North America by a white man.[22] his contemporary and acquaintance, Jonathan Edwards, Whitefield preached staunchly Calvinist theology that was in line with the "moderate Calvinism" of the Thirty-nine Articles.[23] explicitly affirming God's sole agency in salvation, Whitefield freely offered the Gospel, saying at the end of his sermons: "Come poor, lost, undone sinner, come just as you are to Christ."[24] meetings[edit] Whitefield preaching. 1857 engraving Church of England did not assign him a pulpit, so he began preaching in parks and fields in England on his own, reaching out to people who normally did not attend church. Jonathan Edwards, he developed a style of preaching that elicited emotional responses from his audiences. Whitefield had charisma, and his loud voice, his small stature, and even his cross-eyed appearance (which some people took as a mark of divine favour) all served to help make him one of the first celebrities in the American colonies.[25] included slaves in his revivals and their response was positive. Historians see this as "the genesis of African-American Christianity."[26] Whitefield "the gospel message was so critically important that he felt compelled to use all earthly means to get the word out."[27] to widespread dissemination of print media, perhaps half of all colonists eventually heard about, read about, or read something written by Whitefield. employed print systematically, sending advance men to put up broadsides and distribute handbills announcing his sermons. He also arranged to have his sermons published.[28] sought to influence the colonies after he returned to England from his 1740 tour in America. contracted to have his autobiographical Journals published throughout America. These Journals have been characterized as "the ideal vehicle for crafting a public image that could work in his absence." depicted Whitefield in the "best possible light". When he returned to America for his third tour in 1745, he was better known than when he had left.[29] of Whitefield's publicity was the work of William Seward, a wealthy layman who accompanied Whitefield. Seward acted as Whitefield's "fund-raiser, business co-ordinator, and publicist". He furnished newspapers and booksellers with material, including copies of Whitefield's writings.[4] Whitefield returned to England in 1742, a crowd Whitefield estimated at 20,000 and William M'Culloch, the local minister, at 30,000, met him.[30] One such open-air congregation took place on Minchinhampton common. Whitefield preached to the "Rodborough congregation" - a gathering of 10,000 people - at a place now known as "Whitefield's tump." and advocate of slavery[edit] Staffordshire figure painted earthenware bust modelled and made by Enoch Wood, c. 1790 was a plantation owner and slaveholder, and viewed the work of slaves as essential for funding his orphanage's operations.[31][32] contemporary, John Wesley denounced slavery as "the sum of all villainies," and detailed its abuses.[33][34] defenses of slavery were common among 18th-century Protestants, especially missionaries who used the institution to emphasize God's providence.[35] was at first conflicted about slaves. He believed that they were human, and was angered that they were treated as "subordinate Creatures".[36] George whitefield and his friend, James Habersham, played an important role in the reintroduction of slavery to Georgia.[37] had been outlawed in the young colony of Georgia in 1735. 1747, Whitefield attributed the financial woes of his Bethesda Orphanage to Georgia's prohibition of black people in the colony.[35] argued that "the constitution of that colony [Georgia] is very bad, and it is impossible for the inhabitants to subsist" while blacks were banned.[31] 1748 and 1750, Whitefield campaigned for the legalisation of African-American emigration into the colony because the trustees of Georgia had banned slavery. Whitefield argued that the colony would never be prosperous unless slaves were allowed to farm the land.[38] Whitefield wanted slavery legalized not only for the prosperity of the colony, but also for the financial viability of the Bethesda Orphanage. "Had Negroes been allowed" to live in Georgia, he said, "I should now have had a sufficiency to support a great many orphans without expending above half the sum that has been laid out."[31] push for the legalization of slave emigration in to Georgia "cannot be explained solely on the basics of economics." It was also his hope for their adoption and for their eternal salvation.[39] slaves were permitted to live in Georgia in 1751.[38] saw the "legalization of (black residency) as part personal victory and part divine will."[40] Whitefield now argued a scriptural justification for black residency as slaves. He increased the number of the black children at his orphanage, using his preaching to raise money to house them. became "perhaps the most energetic, and conspicuous, evangelical defender and practitioner of the rights of black people.[4] By propagating such "a theological defense for" black residency Whitefield helped slaveholders prosper.[39] his death, Whitefield left everything in the orphanage to the Countess of Huntingdon. This included 4,000 acres of land and 50 black slaves.[4] against cruel treatment of slaves[edit] 1740, during his second visit to America, Whitefield published "an open letter to the planters of South Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland" chastising them for their cruelty to their slaves. wrote, "I think God has a Quarrel with you for your Abuse of and Cruelty to the poor Negroes."[41] Furthermore, Whitefield wrote: "Your dogs are caressed and fondled at your tables; but your slaves who are frequently styled dogs or beasts, have not an equal privilege."[31] Whitefield "stopped short of rendering a moral judgment on slavery itself as an institution."[39] have claimed that the Bethesda Orphanage "set an example of humane treatment" of black people.[42] Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784), who was a slave, wrote a poem On the Death of the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield in 1770. The first line calls Whitefield a "happy saint".[43] Franklin and Whitefield[edit] Franklin attended a revival meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and was greatly impressed with Whitefield's ability to deliver a message to such a large group. Franklin had previously dismissed as exaggeration reports of Whitefield preaching to crowds of the order of tens of thousands in England. listening to Whitefield preaching from the Philadelphia court house, Franklin walked away towards his shop in Market Street until he could no longer hear Whitefield distinctly—Whitefield could be heard over 500 feet. He then estimated his distance from Whitefield and calculated the area of a semicircle centred on Whitefield. Allowing two square feet per person he computed that Whitefield could be heard by over 30,000 people in the open air.[44][45] admired Whitefield as a fellow intellectual but thought Whitefield's plan to run an orphanage in Georgia would lose money. published several of Whitefield's tracts and was impressed by Whitefield's ability to preach and speak with clarity and enthusiasm to crowds. Franklin was an ecumenist and approved of Whitefield's appeal to members of many denominations, but, unlike Whitefield, was not an evangelical. After one of Whitefield's sermons, Franklin noted the: ... change soon made in the manners of our inhabitants. From being thoughtless or indifferent about religion, it seem'd as if all the world were growing religious, so that one could not walk thro' the town in an evening without hearing psalms sung in different families of every street. — Franklin 1888, p. 135 lifelong close friendship developed between the revivalist preacher and the worldly Franklin.[46] beyond their public images, one finds a common charity, humility, and ethical sense embedded in the character of each man. True loyalty based on genuine affection, coupled with a high value placed on friendship, helped their association grow stronger over time.[47] exchanged between Franklin and Whitefield can be found at the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.[48] These letters document the creation of an orphanage for boys named the Charity School. in 1749, Franklin chose the Whitefield meeting house, with its Charity School, to be purchased as the site of the newly-formed Academy of Philadelphia which opened in 1751, followed in 1755 with the College of Philadelphia, both the predecessors of the University of Pennsylvania. statue of George Whitefield is located in the Dormitory Quadrangle, standing in front of the Morris and Bodine sections of the present Ware College House on the University of Pennsylvania campus.[49] 2 July 2020, the University of Pennsylvania announced they would be removing the statue due to Whitefield's connection to slavery. [50] Timeline of Whitefield's travel to America[51] 1738 First voyage to America, Spent three months in Georgia. 1740–1741 Second voyage to America. Established Bethesda Orphan House. Preached in New England. 1745–1748 Third voyage to America. In poor health. 1751–1752 Fourth voyage to America. 1754 Fifth voyage to America. 1763–1765 Sixth voyage to America. Traveled east coast. 1770 Seventh voyage to America. Wintered in Georgia, then traveled to New England where he died. is remembered as one of the first to preach to slaves.[32] Phillis Wheatley wrote a poem in his memory after he died, while she was still a slave.[52] an age when crossing the Atlantic Ocean was a long and hazardous adventure, he visited America seven times, making 13 ocean crossings in total. is estimated that throughout his life, he preached more than 18,000 formal sermons, of which 78 have been published.[53] addition to his work in North America and England, he made 15 journeys to Scotland—most famously to the "Preaching Braes" of Cambuslang in 1742—two journeys to Ireland, and one each to Bermuda, Gibraltar, and the Netherlands.[54] In England and Wales, Whitefield's itinerary included every county.[55] went to the Georgia Colony in 1738 following John Wesley's departure, to serve as a colonial chaplain at Savannah.[56] While in Georgia, Whitefield served as minister for an orphanage and traveled extensively throughout both North America and Britain in an effort to raise money for the organization. He would often preach and attend public events during his travels, which served to further spread his message.[57] believe it is God's will that I should marry", George Whitefield wrote to a friend in 1740.[58] But he was concerned: "I pray God that I may not have a wife till I can live as though I had none." That ambivalence—believing God willed a wife, yet wanting to live as if without one—brought Whitefield a disappointing love life and a largely unhappy marriage.[58] wife Elizabeth, a widow previously Elizabeth James, née Gwynne, married Whitefield on 14 November 1741,[59] After their 1744–48 stay in America, she never accompanied him on his travels. Whitefield reflected that "none in America could bear her". His wife believed that she had been "but a load and burden" to him. Cornelius Winter, who for a time lived with the Whitefields, observed that Whitefield "was not happy in his wife". Thus, "her death set his mind much at liberty". died of a fever on 9 August 1768. She was buried in a vault at the Tottenham Court Road Chapel. At the end of the 19th century the Chapel needed restoration and all those interred there, except Augustus Toplady, were moved to Chingford Mount cemetery in north London.[4] [60] 1743 after four miscarriages, Elizabeth had bore the couple's only child, a son. The baby died at four months old.[58] 1770, the 55-year-old Whitefield continued preaching in spite of poor health. He said, "I would rather wear out than rust out." His last sermon was preached in a field "atop a large barrel".[61] The next morning Whitefield died in the parsonage of Old South Presbyterian Church,[62] Newburyport, Massachusetts, on 30 September 1770, and was buried, according to his wishes, in a crypt under the pulpit of this church.[4] A bust of Whitefield is in the collection of the Gloucester City Museum & Art Gallery. George Whitefield's grave in the crypt of Old South Presbyterian Church, Newburyport, Massachusetts between Jonathan Parsons and Joseph Prince It was John Wesley who preached his funeral sermon in London, at Whitefield's request.[63] left almost £1,500 (equivalent to £209,000 in 2019) to friends and family. Furthermore, he had deposited £1,000 (equivalent to £140,000 in 2019) for his wife if he predeceased her and had contributed £3,300 (equivalent to £461,000 in 2019) to the Bethesda Orphanage. "Questions concerning the source of his personal wealth dogged his memory. His will stated that all this money had lately been left him 'in a most unexpected way and unthought of means.'"[4] to other Methodist leaders[edit] terms of theology, Whitefield, unlike John Wesley, was a supporter of Calvinism.[64] The two differed on eternal election, final perseverance, and sanctification, but were reconciled as friends and co-workers, each going his own way. is a prevailing misconception that Whitefield was not primarily an organizer like Wesley. However, as Wesleyan historian Luke Tyerman states, "It is notable that the first Calvinistic Methodist Association was held eighteen months before Wesley held his first Methodist Conference."[65] He was a man of profound experience, which he communicated to audiences with clarity and passion. His patronization by the Countess of Huntingdon reflected this emphasis on practice. and controversy[edit] welcomed opposition because as he said, "the more I am opposed, the more joy I feel".[66] He proved himself adept at creating controversy. In his 1740 visit to Charles Town, it "took Whitefield only four days to plunge Charles Town into religious and social controversy."[67] thought he might be martyred for his views. After he attacked the established church he predicted that he would "be set at nought by the Rabbies of our Church, and perhaps at last be killed by them".[4] versus other clergy[edit] Whitefield had a strained relationship with John Wesley (depicted in an engraving). chastised other clergy for teaching only "the shell and shadow of religion" because they did not hold the necessity of a new birth, without which a person would be "thrust down into Hell".[4] his 1740–1741 visit to America (as he had done in England), he attacked other clergy (mostly Anglican) calling them "God's persecutors". He said that Edmund Gibson, Bishop of London with supervision over Anglican clergy in America,[68] knew no "more of Christianity, than Mahaomet, or an Infidel".[4] Whitefield preached at St. Philip's, Charleston, the Commissary, Alexander Garden, suspended him as a "vagabond clergyman." After being suspended, Whitefield attacked all South Carolina's Anglican clergy in print.[4] Furthermore, Whitefield issued a blanket indictment of New England's Congregational ministers for their "lack of zeal".[4] 1740, Whitefield published attacks on "the works of two of Anglicanism's revered seventeenth-century authors". Whitefield wrote that John Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury (1691–1694), had "no more been a true Christian than had Muhammad". He also attacked Richard Allestree's The Whole Duty of Man, one of Anglicanism's most popular spiritual tracts. At least once Whitefield had his followers burn the tract "with great Detestation".[4] England and Scotland (1741–1744), Whitefield bitterly accused John Wesley of undermining his work. He preached against Wesley, arguing that Wesley's attacks on predestination had alienated "very many of my spiritual children". Wesley replied that Whitefield's attacks were "treacherous" and that Whitefield had made himself "odious and contemptible".[4] However, the two reconciled in later life. with Wesley, Whitefield had been influenced by the Moravian Church, but in 1753 he condemned them and attacked their leader, Count Nicolaus Zinzendorf, and their practices.[4] Joseph Trapp criticized Whitefield's Journals, Whitefield retorted that Trapp was "no Christian but a servant of Satan".[4] versus Whitefield[edit] Mezzotint of Whitefield after James Moore, after 1751 Scottish, and American clergy attacked Whitefield, often in response to his attacks on them and Anglicanism, as documented in this section. Early in his career, Whitefield criticized the Church of England. In response, clergy called Whitefield one of "the young quacks in divinity" who are "breaking the peace and unity" of the church. 1738 to 1741, Whitefield issued seven Journals.[69] A sermon in St Paul's Cathedral depicted them as "a medley of vanity, and nonsense, and blasphemy jumbled together". Joseph Trapp called the Journals "blasphemous" and accused Whitefield of being "besotted either with pride or madness".[4] England, by 1738 when he was ordained priest, Whitefield wrote that "the spirit of the clergy began to be much embittered" and that "churches were gradually denied me".[70] In response to Whitefield's Journals, the bishop of London, Edmund Gibson, published a 1739 pastoral letter criticizing Whitefield.[71][72] Whitefield responded by labeling Anglican clerics as "lazy, non-spiritual, and pleasure seeking". He rejected ecclesiastical authority claiming that 'the whole world is now my parish'.[4] 1740, Whitefield had attacked John Tillotson and Richard Allestree's The Whole Duty of Man. These attacks resulted in hostile responses and reduced attendance at his London open-air preaching.[4] 1741, Whitefield made his first visit to Scotland at the invitation of "Ralph and Ebenezer Erskine, leaders of the breakaway Associate Presbytery. When they demanded and Whitefield refused that he preach only in their churches, they attacked him as a "sorcerer" and a "vain-glorious, self-seeking, puffed-up creature". In addition, Whitefield's collecting money for his Bethesda orphanage, combined with the hysteria evoked by his open-air sermons, resulted in bitter attacks in Edinburgh and Glasgow."[4] itinerant preaching throughout the colonies was opposed by Bishop Benson who had ordained him for a settled ministry in Georgia. Whitefield replied that if bishops did not authorize his itinerant preaching, God would give him the authority.[4] 1740, Jonathan Edwards invited Whitefield to preach in his church in Northampton. Edwards was "deeply disturbed by his unqualified appeals to emotion, his openly judging those he considered unconverted, and his demand for instant conversions". Whitefield refused to discuss Edwards' misgivings with him. Later, Edwards delivered a series of sermons containing but "thinly veiled critiques" of Whitefield's preaching, "warning against over-dependence upon a preacher's eloquence and fervency".[4] Whitefield's 1744–1748 visit to America, ten critical pamphlets were published, two by officials of Harvard and Yale. This criticism was in part evoked by Whitefield's criticism of "their education and Christian commitment" in his Journal of 1741. Whitefield saw this opposition as "a conspiracy" against him.[4] versus laity[edit] Whitefield preached in a dissenting church and "the congregation's response was dismal," he ascribed the response to "the people's being hardened" as were "Pharaoh and the Egyptians" in the Bible.[73] versus Whitefield[edit] New Englanders claimed that Whitefield destroyed "New England's orderly parish system, communities, and even families". The "Declaration of the Association of the County of New Haven, 1745" stated that after Whitefield's preaching "religion is now in a far worse state than it was".[4] After Whitefield preached in Charlestown, a local newspaper article attacked him as "blasphemous, uncharitable, and unreasonable."[74] Whitefield condemned Moravians and their practices, his former London printer (a Moravian), called Whitefield "a Mahomet, a Caesar, an imposter, a Don Quixote, a devil, the beast, the man of sin, the Antichrist".[4] the open air in Dublin, Ireland (1757), Whitefield condemned Roman Catholicism, inciting an attack by "hundreds and hundreds of papists" who cursed and wounded him severely and smashed his portable pulpit.[4] various occasions, a woman assaulted Whitefield with "scissors and a pistol, and her teeth". "Stones and dead cats" were thrown at him. A man almost killed him with a brass-headed cane. "Another climbed a tree to urinate on him."[75] In 1760, Whitefield was burlesqued by Samuel Foote in The Minor.[76] changes[edit] Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon made Whitefield her personal chaplain. In her chapel, it was noted that his preaching was "more Considered among persons of a Superior Rank" who attended the Countess's services. Whitefield was humble before the Countess saying that he cried when he was "thinking of your Ladyship's condescending to patronize such a dead dog as I am". He now said that he "highly esteemed bishops of the Church of England because of their sacred character". He confessed that in "many things" he had "judged and acted wrong" and had "been too bitter in my zeal". In 1763, in a defense of Methodism, Whitefield "repeated contrition for much contained in his Journals".[4] the nobility who heard Whitefield in the Countess of Huntingdon's home was Lady Townshend.[77] Regarding the changes in Whitefield, someone asked Lady Townshend, "Pray, madam, is it true that Whitefield has recanted?" She replied, "No, sir, he has only canted."[78] One meaning of cant is "to affect religious or pietistic phraseology, esp. as a matter of fashion or profession; to talk unreally or hypocritically with an affectation of goodness or piety.".[79] innovation[edit] the First Great Awakening, rather than listening demurely to preachers, people groaned and roared in enthusiastic emotion. Whitefield was a "passionate preacher" who often "shed tears". Underlying this was his conviction that genuine religion "engaged the heart, not just the head".[80] his preaching, Whitefield used a number of rhetorical ploys that were characteristic of theater, an artistic medium largely unknown in colonial America. Stout 1991 refers to him as a "divine dramatist" and ascribes his success to the theatrical sermons which laid foundations to a new form of pulpit oratory. Whitefield's "Abraham Offering His Son Isaac" is an example of a sermon whose whole structure resembles a theatrical play.[81] divinity schools opened to challenge the hegemony of Yale and Harvard; personal experience became more important than formal education for preachers. Such concepts and habits formed a necessary foundation for the American Revolution.[82] Whitefield's preaching bolstered "the evolving republican ideology that sought local democratic control of civil affairs and freedom from monarchial and parliamentary intrusion."[83] sermons were widely reputed to inspire his audience's enthusiasm. Many of them as well as his letters and journals were published during his lifetime. He was an excellent orator as well, strong in voice and adept at extemporaneity.[84] His voice was so expressive that people are said to have wept just hearing him allude to "Mesopotamia". His journals, originally intended only for private circulation, were first published by Thomas Cooper.[85][86] James Hutton then published a version with Whitefield's approval. His exuberant and "too apostolical" language were criticised; his journals were no longer published after 1741.[87] prepared a new installment in 1744–45, but it was not published until 1938. 19th-century biographies generally refer to his earlier work, A Short Account of God's Dealings with the Reverend George Whitefield (1740), which covered his life up to his ordination. In 1747 he published A Further Account of God's Dealings with the Reverend George Whitefield, covering the period from his ordination to his first voyage to Georgia. In 1756, a vigorously edited version of his journals and autobiographical accounts was published.[88][89] Whitefield was "profoundly image-conscious". His writings were "intended to convey Whitefield and his life as a model for biblical ethics ... , as humble and pious".[90] Whitefield's death, John Gillies, a Glasgow friend, published a memoir and six volumes of works, comprising three volumes of letters, a volume of tracts, and two volumes of sermons. Another collection of sermons was published just before he left London for the last time in 1769. These were disowned by Whitefield and Gillies, who tried to buy all copies and pulp them. They had been taken down in shorthand, but Whitefield said that they made him say nonsense on occasion. These sermons were included in a 19th-century volume, Sermons on Important Subjects, along with the "approved" sermons from the Works. An edition of the journals, in one volume, was edited by William Wale in 1905. This was reprinted with additional material in 1960 by the Banner of Truth Trust. It lacks the Bermuda journal entries found in Gillies' biography and the quotes from manuscript journals found in 19th-century biographies. A comparison of this edition with the original 18th-century publications shows numerous omissions—some minor and a few major.[91] also wrote several hymns. Charles Wesley composed a hymn in 1739, "Hark, how all the welkin rings". Whitefield revised the opening couplet in 1758 for "Hark, the Herald Angels Sing".[92]

England, 1755-1774, Major General William Johnson, Husband of Mohawk Molly Bryant
Major General William Johnson, Husband of Molly Bryant, served 1755-1774; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796, Commemorated April 16 ;

England, 1760-1820, George III, King of GB and UK, conflicts, his Kingdom, Europe, Colonies, Africa, Asia
England, 1760-1820, King of Great Britain, George III of the United Kingdom; WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30; Samuel Johnson of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; Timothy Cutler of SAMUEL JOHNSON, TIMOTHY CUTLER, & THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, PRIESTS, 1772, 1765, 1790, Commemorated August 17 ; HENRY MUHLENBERG, PATRIARCH OF AMERICAN LUTHERANS, 7 October 1787 ; HENRY MARTYN, MISSIONARY AND TRANSLATOR (19 OCT 1812); WILLIAM CAREY, MISSIONARY TO INDIA, 19 October 1834; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836); SAMUEL SEABURY, BISHOP (14 NOV 1784), (BESTOWAL OF THE AMERICAN EPISCOPATE); Francis Ashbury of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770; George Whitefield of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770; JOHN AND CHARLES WESLEY, RENEWERS OF THE CHURCH (3 MAR 1791); JOHN KEBLE, PRIEST, POET, RENEWER OF THE CHURCH (29 MAR 1866), Commemorated March 29; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796, Commemorated April 16;

England, 1765-1816, Francis Asbury, Hamstead Bridge, West Midlands, US Methodist Episcopal bishop
England, 1765-1816, Francis Asbury, Hamstead Bridge, West Midlands, US Methodist Episcopal bishop; Hamstead Bridge, West Midlands ; Francis Asbury of FRANCIS ASBURY & GEORGE WHITEFIELD, Evangelists, 1816, 1770, Commemorated November 15; Asbury (August 20, 1745 – March 31, 1816) was one of the first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. In 1784 John Wesley named Asbury and Thomas Coke as co-superintendents of the work in America. This marks the beginning of the "Methodist Episcopal Church of the USA". For the next thirty-two years, Asbury led all the Methodists in America. Wesley, Asbury preached in all sorts of places: courthouses, public houses, tobacco houses, fields, public squares, wherever a crowd assembled to hear him. For the remainder of his life he rode an average of 6000 miles each year, preaching virtually every day and conducting meetings and conferences. Under his direction, the church grew from 1,200 to 214,000 members and 700 ordained preachers. from Wikipedia Asbury (August 20 or 21, 1745 – March 31, 1816) was one of the first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. his 45 years in the colonies and the newly independent United States, he devoted his life to ministry, traveling on horseback and by carriage thousands of miles to those living on the frontier. spread Methodism in British colonial America as part of the Second Great Awakening. He also founded several schools during his lifetime, although his own formal education was limited. His journal is valuable to scholars for its account of frontier society, with references to many towns and villages in Colonial America.[1] and adolescence Bishop Asbury Cottage, Asbury's boyhood home at Great Barr Asbury was born at Hamstead Bridge, Staffordshire, England on August 20 or 21, 1745, to Elizabeth and Joseph Asbury. The family moved to a cottage at Great Barr, Sandwell, the next year.[2] His boyhood home still stands and is open as Bishop Asbury Cottage museum.[3] after the family moved to Great Barr, in May 1748, Asbury's older sister, Sarah, died; he was less than three years old. Asbury wrote later that his mother Eliza was "very much a woman of the world"; with his sister's death, she "sank into deep distress....from which she was not relieved for many years," and was living "in a very, dark, dark, dark, day and place".[4] A few years later she found a renewed Christian faith as itinerant preachers, either Baptist or Methodists, visited Barr on a revival circuit. From then on she began to read the Bible every day and encouraged her son to do so as well.[4] deep faith may not have been shared by her husband, who seemed to have problems, possibly drink or gambling. Francis Asbury described his father as "industrious." The husband supported his wife in her faith and witness: he allowed Methodist meetings to be held each Sunday in the cottage.[5] Asbury's childhood the West Midlands was undergoing massive changes as the industrial revolution swept through the area. Waves of workers migrated into the area, attracted by jobs in the growing factories and workshops in Birmingham and the Black Country of the mines. Asburys lived in a cottage tied to a public house, on a main route between the mines and the factories. They would have been aware of the drinking, gambling, poverty and poor behaviour prevalent in the area.[6] Asbury attended a local endowed school in Snail's Green, a nearby hamlet. He did not get on well with his fellow pupils who ridiculed him because of his mother's religious beliefs. the 1740s there had been widespread anti-Methodist rioting in Wednesbury and the surrounding area, and into the 1750s a great deal of persecution. Nor did he like his teacher and left school at the first opportunity.[7] took a keen interest in religion, having "felt something of God as early as the age of seven".[8] He lived not far from All Saint's Church, Bromwich, which under the patronage of the Methodist Earl of Dartmouth, provided a living for Evangelical minister Edward Stillinghurst. Well connected, Stillinghurst invited as visiting preachers some of the foremost preachers and theologians of the day. These included John Fletcher, John Ryland, Henry Venn, John Cennick and Benjamin Ingham. His mother encouraged Francis to meet with the Methodists in Wednesbury, eventually joining a "band" with four other young men who would meet and pray together. For them a typical Sunday would be a preaching meeting at 5.00 am, communion at the parish church mid morning, and attending a preaching meeting again at 5.00 pm.[9] had his first formal job at age thirteen; he went "into service" for local gentry, whom he later described as "one of the most unGodly families in the parish". But he soon left them and is believed to have eventually worked for Thomas Foxall, at the Old Forge Farm,[10] where he made metal goods. He became great friends with Foxall's son, Henry.[11] They developed a friendship, which continued after Henry Foxall's emigration to Colonial America. There he continued working with metal and established the Foundry Church in Georgetown, now part of Washington, D.C. began to preach locally, and eventually became an itinerant preacher on behalf of the Methodist cause.[12] Asbury's preaching ministry in England is detailed in the section below: "Asbury's circuits in England". work in America the age of 22, Asbury's selection by John Wesley as a traveling lay preacher became official. Typically such positions were held by young, unmarried men, known as exhorters. In 1771 Asbury volunteered to travel to British North America. His first sermon in the Colonies took place with the Methodist congregation in Woodrow, Staten Island.[13] Within the first 17 days of being in the colonies, Asbury preached in both Philadelphia and New York. During the first year, he served as Wesley's assistant and preached in 25 different settlements. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, he and James Dempster were the only British Methodist lay ministers to remain in America.[14] "During his early years in North America, Asbury devoted his attention mainly to followers living on the eastern shore between the Delaware River and the Chesapeake Bay. Bishop Asbury was a good friend of the Melsons and was their guest many times on his rounds. When the American revolution severed the traditional ties between the American Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain, Bishop Asbury, in the interest of his religious tenets and principles and in an attempt to remain aloof from the political and military fervor that swept the country, announced he would, to keep the embryonic Methodist congregations neutral, refrain from endorsing either Great Britain or the newly formed United States of America government and urged all his followers to do the same. This request placed almost all of his followers, especially those living in Maryland, in an untenable position. The State of Maryland had enacted a law requiring all citizens to take an Oath of Allegiance to the newly formed American Congress. In addition to this, it stipulated all non-residents within its boundaries also had to take and sign an Oath of Allegiance. Those refusing were summarily incarcerated for treason. Asbury, after proclaiming his neutrality, fled to Delaware, where taking an oath of allegiance was not a requirement. His adherents in Maryland suffered the rancor of the proponents of the Oath."[15] remained hidden during the war and ventured occasionally back into Maryland. Sometimes this had the effect of compromising his parishioners. Asbury did not become ordained or a bishop until December 1784. 1780, Asbury met the freedman Henry "Black Harry" Hosier, a meeting the minister believed "providentially arranged".[16] Hosier served as his driver and guide and, though illiterate, memorized long passages of the Bible as Asbury read them aloud during their travels. Hosier eventually became a famous preacher in his own right, the first African American to preach directly to a white congregation in the United States.[16] Camp Meeting the fall of 1800, Asbury attended one of the events of the Revival of 1800 as he travelled from Kentucky into Tennessee. The combined Presbyterian and Methodist communion observance made a deep impression on Asbury; it was as an early experience for him of multi-day meetings, which included attendees camping on the grounds or sleeping in their wagons around the meeting house. He recorded the events in his journal: it showed the relation between religious revivalism and camp meetings, later a staple of nineteenth-century frontier Methodism.[17] and Consecrated a bishop The Ordination of Bishop Asbury, an engraving of an 1882 painting of the scene 1784, John Wesley named Asbury and Thomas Coke as co-superintendents of the work in the United States. The Christmas Conference that year marked the beginning of the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States. It was during this Conference that Asbury was ordained by Coke.[18] the next 32 years, Asbury led all the Methodists in America. However, his leadership did not go unchallenged. His idea for a ruling council was opposed by such notables as William McKendree, Jesse Lee, and James O'Kelly. Eventually, based on advice by Coke, he established in 1792 a General Conference, to which delegates could be sent, as a way of building broader support. journeys Wesley, Asbury preached in myriad of places: courthouses, public houses, tobacco houses, fields, public squares, wherever a crowd assembled to hear him. For the remainder of his life, he rode an average of 6,000 miles each year, preaching virtually every day and conducting meetings and conferences. Under his direction, the church grew from 1,200 to 214,000 members and 700 ordained preachers. Among the men he ordained was Richard Allen in Philadelphia, the first black Methodist minister in the United States who later founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the first independent black denomination in the country. Another African American was Daniel Coker, who emigrated to Sierra Leone in 1820 and became the first Methodist minister there from the West. Bishop Asbury also ordained Peter Cartwright in the fall of 1806.[19] health and death 1813, Asbury wrote his will. This was a time when "the greatest membership gain in the history of the church" was achieved.[20] In 1814 his health started to fail and he became ill. In 1816 he started to regain strength and continued his preaching journey. He "preached his last Sermon in Richmond, Virginia" on March 24, "and died at the home of George Arnold near Fredericksburg" on March 31.[21] Asbury died in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. He was buried at Mount Olivet Cemetery, in Baltimore, near the graves of Bishops John Emory and Beverly Waugh. as a preacher an exciting time in American history, Asbury was reported to be an extraordinary preacher. Biographer Ezra Squier Tipple wrote: "If to speak with authority as the accredited messenger of God; to have credentials which bear the seal of heaven ... if when he lifted the trumpet to his lips the Almighty blew the blast; if to be conscious of an ever-present sense of God, God the Summoner, God the Anointing One, God the Judge, and to project it into speech which would make his hearers tremble, melt them with terror, and cause them to fall as dead men; if to be and do all this would entitle a man to be called a great preacher, then Asbury was a great preacher." habits Asbury had a great distrust of personal popularity, and equally marked distaste of personal publicity".[22] Not being a vain person, he did not care to have his image preserved. He had been in America for 23 years, and a bishop for 10 years before he had let a portrait be made of him. His friend James McCannon persuaded him to have it done. Asbury had had a portrait painted of him for his mother in 1797. His last portrait was made in 1813 by an unknown artist in Strasburgh, Pennsylvania. had times when he tended to have gloomy thoughts and opinions. He believed himself to be "a true prophet of evil tidings, as it suits my cast of mind".[23] Although he was pessimistic, those who knew him considered him an extremely sensitive person. In his journal he recorded more failures and misgivings than success in his ministry. He loved simplicity and had "frequent spells of morbid depression".[23] He tended to use cynical sarcasm in his preachings. One of the typical prayers he would say, even on his way to America, was "Lord, we are in thy hands and in thy work. Thou knowest what is best of us and for thy work; whether plenty or poverty. The hearts of all men are in thy hands. If it is best for us and for thy church that we should be cramped and straitened, let the people's hands and hearts be closed: If it is better for us; for the church,—and more to thy glory that we should abound in the comforts of life; do thou dispose the hearts of those we serve to give accordingly: and may we learn to be content whether we abound, or suffer need".[24] rose at 5 every morning to read the Bible. He was impatient with those who did not do the tasks assigned to them as soon as the task was assigned. He was "one of the wisest and most farseeing men of his day".[25] journal September 4, 1771, at the age of 26, Francis Asbury began his journey to Philadelphia from Pill near Bristol, England. "It cost him much to leave home and kindred, as is witnessed by his affectionate letters and sacrificial remittances home: but the call of God was not to be denied".[26] Before he left, he wrote a letter to his family. "I wonder sometimes how anyone will sit to hear me, but the Lord covers my weakness with his power…. I trust you will be easy and more quiet. As for me, I know what I am called to. It is to give up all, and to have my hands and heart in the work, yea, the nearest and dearest friends…. Let others condemn me as being without natural affection, disobedient to parents, or say what they please…. I love my parents and friends, but I love my God better and his service…. And tho' I have given up all, I do not repent, for I have found all".[27] On this voyage he began a journal. "In his journal he pours out the feelings and impulses of the moment, but often without giving a clue to either the offender or the offense".[28] He became seasick for the first week but had recovered. He was "poor in material things, but rich in the spiritual atmosphere created and maintained by his mother".[29] He also spent a lot of time studying and reading the Bible and books written by Wesley. On September 22, September 29, and October 6, he preached to the ship's company. Finally, on October 27, he landed at his destination in Philadelphia. His journal also contains some references to opinions of ministers who disagreed with the Methodist leadership, such as Rev. Charles Hopkins of Powhatan County, Virginia who had rejected the Methodist ideals several years before. journal also frequently mentioned Thomas S. Hinde who was the son of Dr. Thomas Hinde and founder of the city of Mount Carmel, Illinois.[30] circuits in England article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Francis Asbury" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) travels in America are amply noted in his three-volume journal, The Journal and Letters of Francis Asbury. However, his travels in England are much harder to piece together as very little information exists.[31] John Wigger provide some details in American Saint, his biography on Asbury.[32] 1763, Asbury began leading the class of about two dozen faithful at the West Bromwich Wesleyan society. In March 1765, his mentor, Wesleyan Alexander Mather asked Asbury to assist him. For the next 11 months, the twenty-year-old Asbury taught and preached around the Staffordshire circuit. The circuit consisted of small Wesleyan societies in West Bromwich, Wednesbury, Walsall, Wolverhampton, and Billbrook. These areas were the foundation of Methodism in the Black Country. During this initial phase of his circuits around England, two Wesleyan preachers offered the majority of the young preachers mentoring. The first was the already mentioned Scottish itinerant, Mather. The second was an English preacher from Bedfordshire, James Glasbrook. These two taught Asbury, John Wesley's basic requirements for a Wesleyan itinerant preacher. January 1766, Mather offered him the opportunity to quit the forge and join the Wesleyan movement as a full-time itinerant on a trial basis. The twenty-one-year-old Asbury accepted.[citation needed] Part of his training as a full-time traveling preacher required that he read extensively from books suggested by Wesley, who made them available in London, Bristol and Newcastle. The list included several Divinity Books: the Bible, Wesley's tracts, the works of Boehm and Francke. There were also books on Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, History, Poetry and Latin Prose. There were also books on Latin Verse, Greek Prose, including the Greek New Testament, Greek Verse - including Homer's Iliad, and the Hebrew Bible. the next five months, during his circuits in England Asbury teamed with William Orpe, a young preacher who was the Hebrew teacher at Wesley's Kingswood School in Bristol. They covered the large Staffordshire circuit that encompassed not only Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Willenhall, Walsall, Wednesbury, Darlaston and Billbrook, but also an extended portion to the south in Worcestershire, Tewkesbury and Gloucestershire. Despite his happiness with his new career, Asbury struggled with a sense that his efforts were somewhat limited. He was still living with his parents, he was preaching in places that had heard him preach for the last five years. He looked for more travel and more responsibility. pressed Mather to assign Asbury to the low round of the Staffordshire circuit, and found it more grueling than he had anticipated. After twelve months Mather sent him home for a short break. Asbury then received instructions to head for London. The London conference of 1767 assigned Asbury to the Bedfordshire circuit. London, it is likely that Asbury met George Whitefield when he attended worship at Whitefield's Tabernacle. At the time of Asbury's arrival in London, Benjamin Franklin was staying in London and a guest of his friend Whitefield, whom he had met years earlier during one of Whitefield's trips to America. Along with Franklin at Whitefield's home were Connecticut colonial leaders including a Mohegan Indian named Samson Occum and his traveling companion, Princeton College Presbyterian minister, Nathaniel Whitaker, Lord Dartmouth, and the merchant Dennis De Bert. Occum and Whitaker were in England to raise money for their Indian Charity School in Lebanon, Connecticut. Spending a couple months in London before the August conference, it is likely that Asbury not only heard Samson Occum speak at The Tabernacle, but also had opportunity to meet this unique group. 18, 1767 the conference in London began at John and Charles Wesley's Foundry Church. At this conference, Wesley assigned Asbury to the sprawling Bedfordshire circuit. In addition to Bedfordshire, Asbury was officially admitted on trial and teamed with Bedfordshire native, James Glasbrook. The main locations were Hertford, Luton, Sundon, Millbrook, Bedford, Clifton and Northampton. It was a rural circuit made up of small societies whose total membership was just 208 people.[33] lieu of attending the 1768 conference in Bristol, Asbury is given instructions to wait in London to await his next assignment. Asbury's short stopover in London occurs at the same time that Benjamin Rush is staying with George Whitefield, having completed his medical studies in Edinburgh. After the Bristol conference in August 1768, Wesley assigns Asbury to the only circuit more difficult than the Staffordshire low Round, Colchester. Asbury will preach along the southern coastline of the River Stour, from Manningtree to Harwich. As beautiful as the scenery is, the area sours with rampant smuggling. Asbury is to preach against smuggling. out of worry for the young itinerant and the dangerous territory he travels, after two months on the Colchester circuit, Asbury receives word to relocate to the Wiltshire circuit. The three main cities of the Wiltshire circuit are Salisbury, Winchester and Portsmouth. In Portsmouth, it is likely that Asbury began his study of Hebrew through the large Jewish settlement that coexisted with the Portsmouth Methodists. In Portsmouth, the majority of the Jewish settlers reside in Portsea, also known as Portsmouth Common, the same area as the Methodists. For the next ten months, he remains on the Wiltshire circuit. 10, 1769, word from the Leeds Conference arrives for Asbury in Salisbury. Word from Wesley is that the next circuit is Oxfordshire. There he teams up with his friend from Staffordshire, Richard Whatcoat. In Oxford, Asbury and Whatcoat occasionally preach from St Giles Church. Asbury and Whatcoat remain in Oxford until Christmas. They are both assigned to preach the Bedfordshire circuit in the new year. In addition to returning to Northampton, Asbury will travel to the smaller Wesleyan societies in Towcester and Whittlebury. He also spends time in Weedon. For the next eight months, Asbury will preach on the western portion of the Bedfordshire circuit. March 1770, Wesley preached at West Bromwich. The news of Wesley draws Asbury to return home after nearly three years away. After his visit home, Asbury returns to the western portion of the Bedfordshire circuit. After the 1770 conference Wesley once again assigns Asbury to Wiltshire. It is during this assignment Asbury is abandoned by his assigned helper, John Catermole, who leaves the Wiltshire circuit after his dealing with a disorderly lay leader who threatens violence to Catermole and Asbury. A visit by Wesley to the struggling Wiltshire circuit results in Wesley asking Asbury to visit the Isle of Wight. It is at the August 1771 conference in Bristol where Asbury volunteers for the circuit simply called, America.

England, 1776, Declaration of Independence, Independence Hall (Philidelphia's State House)
England, 1776, Declaration of Independence, Independence Hall (Philidelphia's State House); Independence Hall (Philidelphia's State House); Continental Congress; INDEPENDENCE DAY, (United States of America) (4 JULY 1776);

England, 1779-1836, CHARLES SIMEON, Teacher, missionary work promoter, inspired many incl Henry Martyn& William Wilberforce
CEngland, 1779-1836, CHARLES SIMEON, Teacher, missionary work promoter, inspired many incl Henry Martyn in India, William Wilberforce against slavery, bore zeal ridicule uncomplainingly ; England, 1779-1836, CHARLES SIMEON, Teacher; Holy Trinity Church, Cambridge; CHARLES SIMEON, TEACHER, PROMOTOR OF MISSIONARY WORK (12 NOV 1836) ; hundred years ago, students at the English Universities were required to attend church regularly, and to receive the Holy Communion at least once a year. latter requirement often had bad effects, in that it encouraged hypocrisy and an irreverent reception of the sacrament. however, it had a very good effect, as with the Cambridge student Charles Simeon. He wrote: "On 29 January 1779 I came to college. 2 February I understood that at division of term I must attend the Lord's Supper. The Provost absolutely required it. Conscience told me that, if I must go, I must repent and turn to God." this experience his life was transformed. finishing his college work he was ordained, and shortly appointed chaplain of Holy Trinity, Cambridge, where he remained for 55 years, until shortly before his death on 12 November 1836. ministry helped to transform the lives of many undergraduates, of whom we may mention two in particular. Henry Martyn (see 19 Oct), inspired by Simeon, abandoned his intention of going into law and instead devoted his life and his considerable talents to preaching the Gospel in India and Persia. William Wilberforce (20 July), also led in part by Simeon's ministry of teaching and example, devoted his life to the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire. enthusiasm and zeal brought him much ridicule and abuse, which he bore uncomplainingly. he himself remained in one place, his influence extended through the Anglican world. by James Kiefer

England, 1780, Bampton Lectures, Oxford, new Christian theology
Bampton Lectures; CHARLES GORE, BISHOP OF WORCESTER, BIRMINGHAM & OXFORD, 1932, Commemorated January 16 ;

England, 1780-1834, William Carey, Baptist Missionary to India
England, 1795, London Missionary Society, Baptist Missionary Society; WILLIAM CAREY, MISSIONARY TO INDIA, 19 October 1834;

England, 1780-1825, Parlimentarian, William Wilberforce, social reformer, abolition of slavery
England, 1780-1825, Parlimentarian, William Wilberforce ; WILLIAM WILBERFORCE [and ANTHONY ASHLEY-COOPER, 7th EARL OF SHAFTESBURY], PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1833, 1885, Commemorated July 30;

England, 1784, Samuel Seabury became Bishop of US Episcopal Church in Aberdeen, Scotland
Scotland, 1784, Samuel Seabury became Bishop of US Episcopal Church in Aberdeen, Scotland; Aberdeen, Scotland; SAMUEL SEABURY, BISHOP (14 NOV 1784), (BESTOWAL OF THE AMERICAN EPISCOPATE) ; crucial date for members of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America is the consecration of the first Bishop of the Anglican Communion in the United States. During the colonial era, there had been no Anglican bishops in the New World; and persons seeking to be ordained as clergy had had to travel to England for the purpose. After the achievement of American independence, it was important for the Church in the United States to have its own bishops, and an assembly of Connecticut clergy chose Samuel Seabury to go to England and there seek to be consecrated as a bishop. the English bishops were forbidden by law to consecrate anyone who would not take an oath of allegiance to the British Crown. He accordingly turned to the Episcopal Church of Scotland. When the Roman Catholic king James II was deposed in 1688, some of the Anglican clergy (including some who had been imprisoned by James for defying him on religious issues) said that, having sworn allegiance to James as King, they could not during his lifetime swear allegiance to the new monarchs William and Mary. Those who took this position were known as non-Jurors (non-swearers), and they included almost all the bishops and clergy of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. Accordingly, the monarchs and Parliament declared that thenceforth the official church in Scotland should be the Presbyterian Church. The Episcopal Church of Scotland thereafter had no recognition by the government, and for some time operated under serious legal disablities. However, since it had no connection with the government, it was free to consecrate Seabury without government permission, and it did. This is why you see a Cross of St. Andrew on the Episcopal Church flag. Aberdeen, 14 November 1784, Samuel Seabury was consecrated to the Episcopate by the Bishop and the Bishop Coadjutor of Aberdeen and the Bishop of Ross and Caithness. He thus became part of the unbroken chain of bishops that links the Church today with the Church of the Apostles. In return, he promised them that he would do his best to persuade the American Church to use as its Prayer of Consecration (blessing of the bread and wine at the Lord's Supper) the Scottish prayer, taken largely unchanged from the 1549 Prayer Book, rather than the much shorter one in use in England. The aforesaid prayer, adopted by the American Church with a few modifications, has been widely regarded as one of the greatest treasures of the Church in this country. by James Kiefer

England, 1795-1966, London Missionary Society, Baptist Missionary Society
England, 1795, London Missionary Society, Baptist Missionary Society; WILLIAM CAREY, MISSIONARY TO INDIA, 19 October 1834; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22;